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{{distinguish|Landed gentry in China}}▼
{{more citations needed|date=April 2020}}
{{Short description|Learned men in government in Imperial China}}
{{Short description|Learned men awarded government positions in Imperial China}}[[Image:Portrait of Jiang Shunfu.jpg|right|thumb|220px|A 15th-century portrait of the [[Ming dynasty|Ming]] official [[Jiang Shunfu]]. The decoration of two [[Egret|egrets]] on his chest are a "[[mandarin square]]", indicating that he was a civil official of the sixth rank.]]▼
{{Chinese
| pic = File:Ming Dynasty Activities of Minister of War Wang Qiong.jpg
| title = '''Scholar-official'''▼
|caption = Painting that depicts the career of a civil servant. The career path starts with passing the civil service examinations (left side) and progresses to a high position in the government (right side).
| t = 士大夫
| p = Shìdàfū
| kanji = 士大夫
| hiragana = したいふ
|
| revhep = Shitaifu
| hangul = 사대부
| hanja = 士大夫
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| chuhan = 士大夫
}}
▲
The '''scholar-officials''', also known as '''literati''', '''scholar-gentlemen''' or '''scholar-bureaucrats''' ({{zh|c=士大夫|p=shì dàfū}}), were government officials and prestigious scholars in Chinese society, forming a distinct social class.
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== Origins and formations ==
[[File:Xu Xianqing part17.jpg|thumb|Government officials in ''Changfu'' during the [[Wanli Emperor|Wanli era]], Ming dynasty]]
=== Origins of ''Shi'' (士) and ''Da fu'' (大夫) ===
{{See also|Chinese nobility#Pre-imperial aristocracy}}
{{em|Scholar-official}} as a concept and social class first appeared during the [[Warring States period]]; before that, the Shi and Da Fu were two different classes. During the [[Western Zhou]] dynasty, the Duke of Zhou divided the social classes into the king, feudal lords, Da Fu, Shi, ordinary people, and slaves. Da Fu were people from the aristocracy who served as officers and were a higher class than Shi, who were people from the social class between Da Fu and ordinary people and could only serve as low-level officials.
During the Warring States period, with the annexation wars between states and the rise of bureaucracy, many talented individuals from the Shi class provided valuable services to their lords. Shi became more influential and Da Fu gradually evolved into an official position in the bureaucracy, not a hereditary peerage. The Shi and Da Fu gradually merged and became the Scholar-officials (士大夫 Shi Da Fu).
=== Ancient
The feudal social structure came to divide ordinary people into four categories, with scholar-officials at its top level, this structure is another important institutional basis of the formation and prosperity of scholar-officials. The order of these [[Four occupations|Four Occupations]] were scholar-officials, farmers, artisans, and craftsmen/merchants.
[[File:Confucius and Laozi, fresco from a Western Han tomb of Dongping County, Shandong province, China.jpg|left|thumb|A [[Western Han]] [[fresco]] depicting Confucius (and [[Laozi]]), and his students.]]
=== Interaction with Confucianism ===
{{See|Junzi|Four arts}}
[[Confucianism]] is the core of traditional Chinese culture and the theoretical basis of the autocratic feudal monarchy.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=DiCICCO|first=JOEL M.|title=The Development of Leaders in Ancient China, Rome, and Persia|date=2003|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41288186|journal=Public Administration Quarterly|volume=27|issue=1/2|pages=6–40|doi=10.1177/073491490302700102 |jstor=41288186|issn=0734-9149}}</ref> The Confucian school of thought became the mainstream of traditional Chinese society, and Confucian education also became the mainstay of selecting officials at most levels of administration.
Despite the hierarchical tendencies of Confucianism, scholar-officials and ministers are not mere obedient subordinates of the ruler, but theoretically have equal roles in the maintenance of social order. This includes the possibility of running counter against or opposing the ruler, should he prove to be unfit to uphold righteous principles and fail to provide and promote well-being for the people. Thus, the balance of power is ideally split between the meritocratic Confucian scholars and the dynastic emperors, and a ruler should maintain power with the acceptance of their ministers, who have the ultimate right to sanction and forcibly depose a tyrannical or failing ruler.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Yü |first1=Ying-shih |title=Confucian Culture vs. Dynastic Power in Chinese History |journal=Asia Major |date=2021 |volume=34 |issue=1–2}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Gardner |first1=Daniel K. |title=Confucianism: A Very Short Introduction |date=26 June 2014 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780190236809 |pages=33-44,54-58,98-100}}</ref>
During the [[Song dynasty|Song]] and [[Ming dynasty|Ming]] dynasties, Confucian philosophers combined [[Taoism|Taoist]] and [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] thought to produce the [[Neo-Confucianism|Neo-Confucian school]], further enriching the Confucian ideological system. This directly increased the prosperity of the scholar-official class and also contributed to the unique moral code of the scholar-officials, which had a huge impact on the Chinese literati of later generations.
=== Talent
The traditional Chinese official selection systems are the institutional basis of the formation of scholar-officials.
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=== Han to Northern and Southern dynasties (202 BC—589 AD) ===
[[File:
Using the Recommendatory System and Nine-rank System to select governments officials and candidates were popular during the long period beginning with the [[Han dynasty]] and ending after the [[Northern and Southern dynasties]] period. Scholars-officials during this period usually from prominent clans,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wang|first=Yongping|date=2010-01-01|title=Rupture and Continuity: Scholar-Official Clan Culture in the Six Dynasties and the Legacy of Chinese Civilization|url=https://brill.com/view/journals/fhic/5/4/article-p549_4.xml|journal=Frontiers of History in China|language=en|volume=5|issue=4|pages=549–575|doi=10.1007/s11462-010-0111-y|s2cid=162213370|issn=1673-3401}}</ref> including the [[Zheng clan of Xingyang]], [[Xie clan of Chen|Xie clan of Chen Commandery]], [[Cui clan of Qinghe]], [[Cui clan of Boling]], [[Wang clan of Langya]], [[Wang clan of Taiyuan]], and the [[Lu clan of Fanyang]]. These clans were prominent in having Confucian scholars and high-ranking government officials, with male family members serving as official for generations and some clans or families serving several chancellors. They formed a huge network through political marriages with each other or the imperial family and also formed a monopoly on education and government officials.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Holcombe |first1=Charles |chapter=Eastern Jin |pages=96–118 |chapter-url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/cambridge-history-of-china/eastern-jin/26B36E30FF9DDF420EE4B53D3D3E1752 |editor-last1=Dien |editor-last2=Knapp |editor-first1=Albert E |editor-first2=Keith N |year=2019 |title=The Cambridge History of China |isbn=978-1-139-10733-4 |doi=10.1017/9781139107334 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Wang |first1=Rui |title=The Chinese Imperial Examination System: An Annotated Bibliography |date=2012 |publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=978-0-8108-8703-9 }}{{pn|date=January 2023}}</ref>
=== Sui and Tang Dynasties (581—907) ===
[[File:Tang dynasty poet Du Shenyan.jpg|thumb|[[Du Shenyan]], a politician and noted poet.]]
Officially established in 587, the Civil Service Examination allowed for selection of scholar-officials. Beginning with the [[Sui dynasty]], those with the right family background who passed this examination would become scholar-officials. In the early part of the [[Tang dynasty]], empress [[Wu Zetian]] reformed and improved the Imperial Examination system by establishing the [[Metropolitan exam|Metropolitan Exam]]; people who passed it were called ''[[Jinshi]]'' (metropolitan graduates, highest degree), and people passed the Provincial Exam were called ''[[Juren]]'' (provincial graduates).<ref>{{Cite book|last=Wang|first=Rui|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wEbcRUzJvLkC|title=The Chinese Imperial Examination System: An Annotated Bibliography|date=2012-11-08|publisher=Scarecrow Press|isbn=978-0-8108-8703-9|language=en}}</ref> Wu's reforms gradually led to today's concept of scholar-officials and the intellectual class.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Evolution of the Officials Selection System and Literary Creation--"Journal of Peking University(Philosophy and Social Sciences)" 2017年06期|url=http://en.cnki.com.cn/Article_en/CJFDTotal-BDZK201706008.htm|access-date=2020-12-18|website=en.cnki.com.cn}}</ref> The government would select scholar-officials by examining their poems and essays writings for knowledge of Confucian texts and some Buddhist texts.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sokolova|first=Anna|date=2020|title=Mid-Tang Scholar-Officials as Local Patrons of Buddhist Monasteries|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.13173/zeitdeutmorggese.170.2.0467|journal=Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft|volume=170|issue=2|pages=467–490|doi=10.13173/zeitdeutmorggese.170.2.0467|jstor=10.13173/zeitdeutmorggese.170.2.0467| s2cid=226765849 |issn=0341-0137}}</ref> Intellectuals who passed the exam served as officials. Many famous Tang poets were scholar-officials, such as [[Du Mu]]. However, because the Tang Dynasty was a rapidly changing period for the final formation of the structure and composition of scholar-officials, there is some ambiguity of the usage of the words "scholar-officials": according to the ''[[Old Book of Tang]]'', scholars/intellectuals who passed the imperial exam but took no official position could only be referred to ''Shi'' 士; according to the ''[[New Book of Tang]]'', as long as they were scholars, whether official or not, they could be called scholar-officials.<ref>{{Cite web|title=唐代"士大夫"的特色及其变化|url=https://www.1xuezhe.exuezhe.com/Qk/art/322359?dbcode=1&flag=2&logohome=1|access-date=2020-12-18|website=www.1xuezhe.exuezhe.com}}</ref>
=== Song Dynasty (960-1279) ===
[[File:Zhou Wenju's A Literary Garden.jpg|thumb|Zhou Wenju's ''Literary Garden'' (文苑图), depicting the gathering of poets.]]
The [[Song dynasty]] was the golden age for scholar-officials. By this time, passing the Imperial Examination had become the major path for people to hold an official position in the government. With the continuous improvements and reforms of Imperial Examination, the bureaucracy completely replaced the aristocracy, and the scholar-officer's polity was completely established.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Combination of scholars and bureaucracy: the establishment of the scholar-officer's civilian polity in the Song Dynasty--''Journal of Anhui Normal University(Philosophy & Social Sciences''2005年05期|url=http://en.cnki.com.cn/Article_en/CJFDTotal-AHSD200505015.htm|access-date=2020-12-18|website=en.cnki.com.cn}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Wang |first1=Rui |title=The Chinese Imperial Examination System: An Annotated Bibliography |date=2012 |publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=978-0-8108-8703-9 }}{{pn|date=January 2023}}</ref> Song was the only dynasty in Chinese history that provided scholar-officials judicial privilege. Due to the influence of the founding emperor of Song [[Emperor Taizu of Song|Zhao Kuangyin]], almost all Song emperors showed great respect to intellectuals. If a scholar-official from the Song dynasty committed a crime, he couldn't be held accountable directly. Instead, an internal impeachment replaced the formal judicial process. If his crime wasn't serious, he only needed to be punished with a reprimand instead of a criminal penalty.<ref>{{cite thesis |last1=Wu |first1=Chin-shan |date=2008 |title=Subordinates and evildoers: Song scholar-officials' perceptions of clerks |id={{ProQuest|304329586}} |oclc=312130272 }}</ref>
=== Yuan, Ming, and Qing Dynasties (1271—1912) ===
[[File:Ming-Beamtenprüfungen1.jpg|thumb|Candidates gathering around the wall where the results are posted. This announcement was known as "releasing the roll" ({{lang|zh|放榜}}). ({{circa}} 1540, by [[Qiu Ying]])]]
[[File:馮從吾.jpg|thumb|''[[Panling Lanshan|Lanshan]]'' (襴衫) worn by scholars and students.]]
During the [[Yuan dynasty|Yuan]], [[Ming dynasty|Ming]] and [[Qing dynasty|Qing]] dynasties, the stereotyped writing style of the [[eight-legged essay]] (八股文) format dominated the Imperial Examination,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Wang |first1=Rui |title=The Chinese Imperial Examination System: An Annotated Bibliography |date=2012 |publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=978-0-8108-8703-9 }}{{pn|date=January 2023}}</ref> and scholar-officials from this period were relatively unable to speak and create freely due to the harsh political environment. The strong relationship between Imperial Examination and the official position were still present, though the entire society formed a climate of "studying well so as to become an official" 学而优则仕.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Evolution of the Officials Selection System and Literary Creation--''Journal of Peking University (Philosophy and Social Sciences)''2017年06期|url=http://en.cnki.com.cn/Article_en/CJFDTotal-BDZK201706008.htm|access-date=2020-12-18|website=en.cnki.com.cn}}</ref>
In 1905, the Qing government abolished the imperial examination system, leading to the gradual disappearance of scholar-officials.
==Non-governmental functions==
Since only a select few could become court or local officials, the majority of the scholar-literati stayed in villages or cities as social leaders. The scholar-gentry carried out [[Welfare|social welfare]] measures, taught in private schools, helped negotiate minor legal disputes, supervised community projects, maintained local law and order, conducted Confucian ceremonies, assisted in the
==Evaluations==
{{See|Imperial examinations}}
Theoretically, this system would create a [[Meritocracy|meritocratic]] ruling class, with the best students running the country. The [[imperial examinations]] gave many people the opportunity to pursue political power and honor and thus encouraged serious pursuit of formal education. Since the system did not formally discriminate based on social status, it provided an avenue for upward social mobility. However, even though the examination-based bureaucracy's heavy emphasis on Confucian literature ensured that the most eloquent writers and erudite scholars achieved high positions, the system lacked formal safeguards against political corruption, only the Confucian moral<ref>{{Cite web|title=Remonstrance: The Moral Imperative of the Chinese Scholar-Official|url=https://www.asianstudies.org/publications/eaa/archives/remonstrance-the-moral-imperative-of-the-chinese-scholar-official/|access-date=2020-10-09|website=Association for Asian Studies|language=en-US}}</ref> teachings tested by the examinations. Once their political futures were secured by success in the examinations, officials were tempted by corruption and abuse of power.
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*[[Bildungsbürgertum]]
*[[Cabang Atas]], the Chinese gentry of colonial Indonesia
*[[County magistrate]], the official in charge of the county
*[[Four arts]]
*[[Junzi]]
*[[Kuge]]
*[[Mandarin (bureaucrat)
*[[Yangban]], the Korean form of the scholar-official
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{{reflist}}
==
* {{citation | first= Benjamin A. | last =Elman| chapter =Civil Service Examinations (Keju) | pages =405–410| title =Berkshire Encyclopedia of China | location = Great Barrington, MA| publisher =Berkshire | year =2009 |chapter-url= https://www.princeton.edu/~elman/documents/Civil%20Service%20Examinations.pdf}}
*Yongle, Zhang, and Daniel A. Bell, editors. "Scholar-Officials." The Constitution of Ancient China, by Su Li and Edmund Ryden, Princeton University Press, PRINCETON; OXFORD, 2018, pp. 98–138. JSTOR<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Li|first1=Su|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt20fw8c6|title=The Constitution of Ancient China|last2=Ryden|first2=Edmund|date=2018|publisher=Princeton University Press|jstor=j.ctt20fw8c6|isbn=978-0-691-17159-3}}</ref>
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