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{{Short description|Ancient Tamil dynasty of south India}}
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2013}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2020}}
{{other uses|Pandiyan (disambiguation)}}
{{Infobox Former Country
| conventional_long_name = Pandyan dynasty
| common_name = Pandya Nadu
| native_name = <!--Please do not complete this field using Indic
| image_flag = Twin fish flag of Pandyas.svg
| flag_caption = A close depiction of Tenkasi Pandiya flag as per archaeological findings and historians illustration.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Walter Codrington |first1=Hubert |title=Ceylon Coins and Currency |year=1975 |publisher=Asian Educational Services |isbn=9788120609136 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CJrKcKqJGuEC&q=Fish+flag+of+pandyan&pg=PA86}}</ref>
▲| flag_border = yes
| era = [[Medieval era]]
| year_start = 400 B.C.E.
| year_end = 1618
| flag_p1 =
| border_p1 = no
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| s5 = Jaffna kingdom
| image_s6 = Sambuvaraya
| image_map =
| map_width = 350
| image_map_caption = Pandyan Empire at greatest extent<ref>{{cite book |last1=Schwartzberg |first1=Joseph E. |title=A Historical
| official_languages = {{ubl|[[Tamil language|Tamil]]
| capital = *[[Korkai]] (port, early historic)<ref>{{Cite journal |date=2015-06-05 |title=Classical Indo-Roman Trade |url=https://www.epw.in/journal/2013/26-27/special-articles/classical-indo-roman-trade.html |journal=Economic and Political Weekly |language=en |volume=48 |issue=26–27}}</ref>
* [[Madurai]] (till 1335 CE)<ref name="Fall"/>
* [[Tenkasi]] (till 1618 CE)<ref name="Fall"/>
| religion = {{ublist
|[[Hinduism]] (main)<ref name="Thapar">{{Cite
|[[Jainism]]
|[[Buddhism]] }}
| government_type = Monarchy
| leader1 = [[
| year_leader1 =
| leader2 = [[
|
| leader3 = [[Tenkasi Pandyas|Varagunarama]]
| year_leader2 = 560–590 CE
| today = [[India]]<br>[[Sri Lanka]]
| demonym = Pandiyar
| flag_width = 160px
| map_caption =
}}
{{TNhistory}}
{{HistoryOfSouthAsia}}
The '''Pandyan dynasty'''
The rulers of the three Tamil dynasties were referred to as the "[[Three Crowned Kings|three crowned rulers]] (the mu-ventar)
From the 6th century to the 9th century CE, the [[Chalukyas of Badami]] or [[Rashtrakuta dynasty|Rashtrakutas]] of the Deccan, the [[Pallavas of Kanchi]], and Pandyas of Madurai dominated the politics of south India. The Pandyas often ruled or invaded the fertile estuary of [[Kaveri]] (the Chola country), the ancient [[Chera dynasty|Chera country]] (Kongu and central [[Kerala]]) and [[Venad]]u (southern Kerala), the [[Pallava dynasty|Pallava country]], and [[Sri Lanka]].{{sfn|Noboru Karashima|2014|
The Pandyas entered their golden age under [[Maravarman Sundara Pandyan|Maravarman I]] and [[Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan|Jatavarman Sundara Pandya I]] (13th century).<ref name=":302" /><ref name=":3" /> Some early efforts by [[Maravarman Sundara Pandyan|Maravarman I]] to expand into the [[Chola dynasty|Chola country]] were effectively checked by the [[Hoysalas]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Sastri|first=K. A. Nilakanta|title=A History of South India: From Prehistoric Times to the Fall of Vijayanagar|publisher=Oxford University Press|edition=1958|pages=
According to tradition, the legendary [[Tamil Sangams|Sangams]] ("the Academies")
==Etymology and origin legends==
The etymology of Pandya is still a matter of considerable speculation among scholars. One theory is that the word ''pandya'' is derived from the ancient Tamil word "pandu" meaning "old".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Avari |first=Burjor |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WTaTDAAAQBAJ |title=India: The Ancient Past: A History of the Indian Subcontinent from {{circa|7000 BCE}} to CE 1200 |date=2016-07-01 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9781317236733 |pages=249 |language=en}}</ref> The theory suggests that in [[Sangam period|early historic]] Tamil lexicon the word pandya means ''old country'' in contrast with [[Chola]] meaning ''new country'', [[Chera Dynasty|Chera]] meaning ''hill country'' and [[Pallava]] meaning ''branch'' in [[Sanskrit]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Madras |first=University of |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G-87AQAAIAAJ&q=pandyan+longest+rule |title=Journal: Humanities |date=1973 |language=en}}</ref> Another theory is that the word Pandya is derived from the [[Sanskrit]] word [[Pandu]] to mean white or pale, in reference to king [[Pandu]] and the [[Pandava]]s.<ref>MALONEY, Clarence Thomas, THE EFFECT OF EARLY COASTAL SEA TRAFFIC ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF CIVILIZATION IN SOUTH INDIA. University of Pennsylvania,
According to the ancient [[Tamil mythology|Tamil legends]], the three brothers ''Cheran'', ''Cholan'' and ''Pandyan'' ruled in common at the southern city of [[Korkai]]. While Pandya remained at home, his two brothers Cheran and Cholan after a separation founded their own kingdoms in north and west.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Caldwell |first=Bishop R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zjTneAGmatsC |title=History of Tinnevelly |date=1989 |publisher=Asian Educational Services |isbn=9788120601611 |pages=12 |language=en}}</ref> Epic poem ''[[Silappatikaram]]'' mentions that the emblem of the Pandyas was that of a ''fish''.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Nākacāmi |first=Irāmaccantiran̲ |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wtYBAAAAMAAJ |title=Studies in Ancient Tamil Law and Society |date=1978 |publisher=Institute of Epigraphy, State Department of Archaeology, Government of Tamilnadu |pages=52 |language=en}}</ref>
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[[File:Mangulam inscription (south India).jpg|thumb|Mangulam inscription (3rd and 2nd centuries BCE)|alt=]]
Pandyas are also mentioned in the inscriptions of [[Maurya dynasty|Maurya]] emperor [[Ashoka|Asoka]] (3rd century BCE). In his inscriptions (2nd and 13th Major Rock Edict<ref name=":21">Karashima, Noburu. 2014. 'Beginnings of South Indian History', in ''A Concise History of South India: Issues and Interpretations'', ed. Noburu Karashima, pp. 26–27. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.</ref>) [[Ashoka|Asoka]] refers to the peoples of south India – the
{{cquote|The conquest by [[dharma]] has been won here, on the borders, and even six hundred [[yojana]]s (5,400–9,600 km) away, where the Greek king [[Antiochus II Theos|Antiochos]] rules, beyond there where the four kings named [[Ptolemy II Philadelphus|Ptolemy]], [[Antigonus II Gonatas|Antigonos]], [[Magas of Cyrene|Magas]] and [[Alexander II of Epirus|Alexander]] rule, likewise in the south among the [[Cholas]], the Pandyas, and as far as [[Tamraparni]] river.<ref>[http://www.cs.colostate.edu/~malaiya/ashoka.html S. Dhammika, ''The Edicts of King Ashoka: An English Rendering''] Buddhist Publication Society, Kandy (1994) {{ISBN|955-24-0104-6}}</ref>
}}
The earliest Pandya to be found in [[Epigraphy|epigraph]] is [[Nedunjeliyan I|Nedunjeliyan]], figuring in the [[Tamil-Brahmi]] [[Mangulam]] inscription (near Madurai) assigned to 3rd and 2nd centuries BCE.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Umamaheshwari |first=R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TRxJDwAAQBAJ&q=Mangulam+inscription+jain&pg=PA43 |title=Reading History with the Tamil Jainas: A Study on Identity, Memory and Marginalisation |date=2018-01-25 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-81-322-3756-3 |language=en}}</ref> The record documents a gift of rock-cut beds, to a [[Jain]] ascetic. It is assumed that the people found in the Mangulam inscription, Nedunjeliyan, Kadalan, and Izhanchadikan predates rulers such as [[Nedunjeliyan II|Talaiyanganam Nedunjelyan]] and Palyaga-salai Mudukudimi Peruvaludi.<ref name=":18">Subbarayalu, Y. 2014. 'Early Tamil Polity', in ''A Concise History of South India: Issues and Interpretations'', ed. Noburu Karashima, pp. 48–49. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.</ref><ref name=":21" />
[[Kharavela]], the [[Kalinga (historical region)|Kalinga]] king who ruled during c. 1st century BCE, in his [[Hathigumpha inscription]], claims to have destroyed an old confederacy of Tamil countries ("the tamira–desa–sanghata") which had lasted 132 years, and to have acquired a large
Silver [[punch-marked coins]] with the fish symbol of the Pandyas dating from around the same time have also been found.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Champakalakshmi |first=Radha |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IGTaAAAAMAAJ&q=silver+pandya |title=Trade, ideology, and urbanization: South India 300 BC to AD 1300 |date=1996 |publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=123 |isbn=978-0-19-563870-7 |language=en}}</ref>
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The early historic Pandyas are celebrated in the earliest available [[Sangam literature|Tamil poetry]].<ref name=":3" /> The poems refers to about twelve Pandya rulers.<ref name=":17">Subbarayalu, Y. 2014. 'Early Tamil Polity', in ''A Concise History of South India: Issues and Interpretations'', ed. Noburu Karashima, pp. 47–48. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.</ref> According to tradition, the legendary [[Tamil Sangams|Sangams ("the Academies")]] were held in [[Madurai]] under the patronage of the Pandyas. Several Tamil literary works, such as Iraiyanar Agapporul, mention the legend of three separate Sangams and ascribe their patronage to the Pandyas.<ref name="husaini_agapporul">{{Cite book |last=Husaini |first=Abdul Qadir |title=The History of the Pandya Country |page=5}}</ref>
[[File:Andal Temple.jpg|thumb
Pandya rulers from early historic south India<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FjxuAAAAMAAJ&q=A+History+of+South+India+from+the+Early+Times+to+the+Fall+of+Vijayanagar+nilakanta+sastri|title=A history of South India from prehistoric times to the fall of Vijayanagar|last=Sastri|first=Kallidaikurichi Aiyah Nilakanta|date=1976|publisher=Oxford University Press|pages=22–25|isbn=978-0-19-560686-7|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":17" />
* Mudattirumaran
* [[Koon Pandya]]
* [[Nedunjeliyan I]] ("Aariyap Padai Kadantha")
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* Neenmugan
* [[Tammuzh]]
* Bootha Pāndiyan
* Arivudainampi
* Enāthi Nedunkannanār
* Pannādu Thanthān
Pandya rulers – such as [[Nedunjeliyan II|Nedunjeliyan]], the Victor of Talaiyalanganam, and Mudukudimi Peruvaludi, the Patron of Several Sacrificial Halls ("the Palyaga-salai") – find mention in
Besides the poems, king Peruvaludi is also mentioned in later copper-plate grant (8th–9th century CE).<ref name=":20" /> In the work ''[[Mathuraikkanci]]'', the author Mankudi Maruthanar, refers to his patron, [[Nedunjeliyan II|Talaihalanganum Nedunjeliyan]], as the Lord of [[Korkai]] and the Warlord of the Southern [[Parathavar|Parathavar People]].<ref name=":20" /> It contains a full-length description of [[Madurai]] and the Pandya country under the rule of Nedunjeliyan. In the famous battle of Talaiyalanganam (in east Tanjore), the Pandya is said to have defeated his enemies (which included the Chera and the Chola).<ref name=":20" /> He is also praised for his victory of Mizhalai and Mutturu, two "vel" centres along the ocean (in Pudukkottai).<ref name=":20" /> The ''[[Nedunalvadai|Netunalvatai]]'' (in the collection of ''[[Pattupattu]]'') by Nakkirar contains a description of king Nedunjeliyan's palace.<ref name=":8">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xx7ICQAAQBAJ&q=pandyan+purananuru+poem&pg=PA55|title=Warfare in Pre-British India – 1500BCE to 1740CE|last=Roy|first=Kaushik|date=2015-06-03|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781317586920|pages=55|language=en}}</ref>
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=== Foreign sources ===
{{South Asia in 150 BCE}}
The Buddhist text [[Mahāvaṃsa|Mahavamsa]] (composed in the 5th century CE) mentions a Pandya king in the context of [[Prince Vijaya]]'s (543–505 BCE) arrival in Sri Lanka with his 700 followers.
Greek and Latin sources (early centuries CE) refer to the ancient Tamil country, same as the Tamilakam, as "Lymyrike" or "Damirice" (or Dymirice/Dimirixe or Damirice) and its ruling families.<ref name=":17" />▼
* According to the Mahavamsa, emissaries laden with precious gifts were sent from Sri Lanka to the city of Madhura in southern India. Their mission was to secure a bride for Prince Vijaya. The Pandya King of Madurai agreed to the proposal. He not only sent his own daughter to marry Prince Vijaya but also requested other families to offer their daughters to marry the prince's ministers and retainers. So, along with the Princess and hundreds of [[Maiden|maidens]], craftsmen and a thousand families from the eighteen [[Guild|guilds]] were also sent to Sri Lanka.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Geiger |first=Wilhelm |url=http://archive.org/details/mahavamsagreatch00geigrich |title=Mahavamsa : the great chronicle of Ceylon |last2=Bode |first2=Mabel Haynes |date=1912 |location=London |publisher=Oxford University Press}}</ref>
* Pandyas are also mentioned by Greek author [[Megasthenes]] (4th century BCE) where he writes about south Indian kingdom being ruled by women.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zjTneAGmatsC&q=t&pg=PA12|title=History of Tinnevelly|last=Caldwell|first=Bishop R.|date=2004|publisher=Asian Educational Services|isbn=9788120601611|pages=16|language=en}}</ref> He described the Pandya country in ''[[Indica (Megasthenes)|Indika]]'' as "''occupying the portion of India which lies southward and extends to the sea"''. According to his account, the kingdom had 365 villages, each of which was expected to meet the needs of the royal household for one day in the year. He described the Pandya queen at the time, ''Pandaia'' as the daughter of [[Heracles|Herakles]].<ref name="India By John Keay">India By John Keay</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zjTneAGmatsC&q=megasthenes&pg=PA12|title=History of Tinnevelly|last=Caldwell|first=Bishop R.|date=2004|publisher=Asian Educational Services|isbn=9788120601611|pages=15|language=en}}</ref>▼
▲*Greek and Latin sources (early centuries CE) refer to the ancient Tamil country, same as the Tamilakam, as "Lymyrike" or "Damirice" (or Dymirice/Dimirixe or Damirice) and its ruling families.<ref name=":17" />
▲* Pandyas are also mentioned by Greek author [[Megasthenes]] (4th century BCE) where he writes about south Indian kingdom being ruled by women.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zjTneAGmatsC&q=t&pg=PA12|title=History of Tinnevelly|last=Caldwell|first=Bishop R.|date=2004|publisher=Asian Educational Services|isbn=9788120601611|pages=16|language=en}}</ref> He described the Pandya country in ''[[Indica (Megasthenes)|Indika]]'' as "
* [[Pliny the Elder]] refers to the Pandya ruler of Madurai in general terms (first century CE).<ref name=":17" />
* The author of the ''[[Periplus of the Erythraean Sea]]'' (first century CE) describes the riches of a "Pandian kingdom"<ref name=":17" /><ref name=":6" />{{
▲{{cquote|...Nelcynda is distant from Muziris by river and sea about five hundred stadia, and is of another kingdom, the Pandian. This place [Nelcynda] also is situated on a river, about one hundred and twenty stadia from the [Arabian] sea.... ''<ref>''Periplus'' 54. Original Greek: "Ἡ δὲ Νέλκυνδα σταδίους μὲν ἀπὸ Μουζιρέως ἀπέχει σχεδὸν πεντακοσίους, ὁμοίως διά τε ποταμοῦ (καὶ πεζῇ) καὶ διὰ θαλάσσης, βασιλείας δέ ἐστιν ἑτέρας, τῆς Πανδίονος· κεῖται δὲ καὶ αὐτὴ παρὰ ποταμὸν, ὡσεὶ ἀπὸ σταδίων ἑκατὸν εἴκοσι τῆς θαλάσσης."</ref>}}
* The country of the Pandyas was described as ''Pandya Mediterranea'' and ''Modura Regia Pandionis'' by [[Ptolemy]] ({{circa|140 CE}}<ref name=":17" />).<ref name=":5">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Rj5WAAAAYAAJ&q=Ptolemy+pandi+mandala|title=The Cyclopaedia of India and of Eastern and Southern Asia|last=Balfur|first=Edward|date=1968|publisher=Akademische Druck- u. Verlagsanstalt|pages=105|language=en}}</ref>
* [[Strabo]] states that an Indian king called Pandion sent [[Augustus Caesar]] "presents and gifts of honour".<ref name=":7">
* The [[Roman emperor]] [[Julian the Apostate|Julian]] received an embassy from a Pandya about 361 CE.<ref name=":3" />
* Chinese historian [[Yu Huan]] in his 3rd-century CE text, the ''Weilüe'', mentions the Panyue kingdom:{{quote|...the kingdom of Panyue is also called ''Hanyuewang''. It is several thousand li to the southeast of [[Tianzhu (India)|Tianzhu]] (northern India) ...The inhabitants are small; they are the same height as the Chinese ...}}
*Scholar John E. Hill identified Panyue as the Pandya kingdom.<ref name="weilue">Hill, John</ref>{{cn|date=July 2024}} However, others have identified it with an ancient state located in modern [[Burma]]<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CZQMAQAAMAAJ|title=Between winds and clouds: the making of Yunnan (second century BCE to twentieth century CE)|
* The Chinese traveler [[Xuanzang]] mentions a kingdom further south from [[Kanchipuram]], a kingdom named ''Malakutta'', identified with [[Madurai]] described by his Buddhist friends at [[Kanchipuram]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8XXGhAL1WKcC&q=Hiuen+Tsang+malakotta&pg=PA453|title=The Early History of India|last=Smith|first=Vincent A.|date=1999|publisher=Atlantic
* In the later part of the 13th century (in 1288 and 1293 CE) [[Venetian Republic|Venetian]] traveller [[Marco Polo]] visited the Pandya kingdom and left a vivid description of the land and its people.<ref>Rubiés, Joan-Pau. [https://books.google.com/books?id=adpkHQ9SCq0C&pg=PA5 ''Travel and ethnology in the Renaissance: South India through European eyes'']</ref><ref>More, J. B. Prashant. [https://books.google.com/books?id=11FYACaVySoC&pg=PA9 ''Muslim identity, print culture, and the Dravidian factor in Tamil Nadu''].</ref>{{
▲Scholar John E. Hill identified Panyue as Pandya kingdom.<ref name="weilue">Hill, John</ref> However, others have identified it with an ancient state located in modern [[Burma]]<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CZQMAQAAMAAJ|title=Between winds and clouds: the making of Yunnan (second century BCE to twentieth century CE)|author=Bin Yang|publisher=Columbia University Press|year=2009|isbn=978-0-231-14254-0}}</ref> or [[Assam]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dbjLO5l1PCkC&pg=PA12|title=A History of Sino-Indian Relations|author=Yukteshwar Kumar|publisher=APH Publishing|year=2005|isbn=978-81-7648-798-6|page=12}}</ref>
▲* The Chinese traveler [[Xuanzang]] mentions a kingdom further south from [[Kanchipuram]], a kingdom named ''Malakutta'', identified with [[Madurai]] described by his Buddhist friends at [[Kanchipuram]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8XXGhAL1WKcC&q=Hiuen+Tsang+malakotta&pg=PA453|title=The Early History of India|last=Smith|first=Vincent A.|date=1999|publisher=Atlantic Publishers & Dist|isbn=9788171566181|pages=453|language=en}}</ref>
▲{{cquote|The darkest man is here the most highly esteemed and<ref>considered</ref> better than the others who are not so dark. Let me add that in very truth these people portray and depict their gods and their idols black and their devils white as snow. For they say that god and all the saints are black and the devils are all white. That is why they portray them as I have described.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=O8jnnQEACAAJ The Pāṇḍyan Kingdom From the Earliest Times to the Sixteenth Century, Kallidaikurichi Aiyah Nilakanta Sastri, 1972]</ref>
== History ==
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[[Maurya Empire|Maurya]]n emperor [[Ashoka|Asoka]] (3rd century BCE) seems to have been on friendly terms with the people of south India and Sri Lanka (the [[Chola dynasty|Cholas]], the Pandyas, the [[Satiyaputras|Satiya Putras]], the [[Chera dynasty|Kerala Putras]] and the [[Tamraparni]]s). There are no indications that Asoka tried to conquer the extreme south India (the Tamilakam – the Abode of the Tamils).{{sfn|Romila Thapar|2003|p=184}}
The three chiefly lines of
The Pandya seems to be the most prominent of the three "ventar" rulers. There are even references to a Pandya queen from 3rd century BCE representing a confederacy of the Tamil countries.<ref name=":162" /> [[Madurai]], in south Tamil Nadu, was the most important cultural centre in south India as the core of the Tamil speakers.<ref name=":19" /> Megalithic relics such as menhirs, dolmens, urn burials, stone circles and rock-cut chambers/passages can be found in south India. Burial goods include iron objects, ivory ornaments, Black-and-Red Ware and even some [[Roman Empire|Roman Imperial]] coins.{{sfn|Romila Thapar|2003|p=230}} The so-called "velir" hill chieftains are assumed to be associated with these megalithic burials.{{sfn|Romila Thapar|2003|p=231}}
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[[File:FourArmedVishnuPandyaDynasty8-9thCentury.jpg|thumb|Enthroned god [[Vishnu]], Pandya dynasty, second half of the 8th–early 9th century CE ([[Metropolitan Museum of Art]], New York City)|298x298px]]
[[File:The Hindu Saint Manikkavacakar LACMA AC1997.16.1 (1 of 12).jpg|thumb|[[Manikkavacakar|Manikkavachakar]], Shaiva poet-saint and minister of Pandya king [[Varagunavarman II|Varaguna II]] (dated to early 12th century) Los Angeles County Museum of Art|374x374px]]
The Pandya kingdom was revived by king Kadungon (r. 590–620 CE{{sfn|Noboru Karashima|2014|p=85-87}}) towards the end of the 6th
From the 6th century to the 9th century CE, the [[Chalukyas of Badami]], the [[Pallavas of Kanchi]], and the Pandyas of Madurai dominated the politics of south India. The Badami Chalukyas were eventually replaced by the [[Rashtrakuta dynasty|Rashtrakutas]] in the Deccan.{{sfn|Noboru Karashima|2014|p=84-85}} The Pandyas took on the growing Pallava ambitions in south India, and from time to time they also joined in alliances with the kingdoms of the Deccan Plateau (such as with the [[Western Ganga dynasty|Gangas of Talakad]] in late 8th century CE).<ref name=":19" /> In the middle of the 9th century, the Pandyas had managed to advance as far as [[Kumbakonam]] (north-east of Tanjore on the Kollidam river).<ref name=":19" />
Sendan (r. 654–70 CE), the third king of the Pandyas of Madurai, is known for expanding his kingdom to the [[Chera dynasty|Chera country]] (western Tamil Nadu and central [[Kerala]]). Arikesari Maravarman (r. 670–700 CE), the fourth Pandya ruler, is known for his battles against the [[Pallava dynasty|Pallavas of Kanchi]]. Pallava king Narasimhavarman I (r. 630–668 CE), the famous conqueror of [[Badami]], claimed to have defeated the Pandyas. [[Chalukya dynasty|Chalukya]]
Kirtivarman II (r. 744/5–55 CE), the last Chalukya king, managed to lose to his southern countries as a result of his battles with the Pandyas. Pandya kings Maravarman Rajasimha I (r. 730–65 CE) and Nedunjadaiyan/Varagunavarman I (r. 765–815 CE) threatened Pallava king Nandivarman II Pallavamalla (r. 731–96 CE) who had managed to defeat the Gangas in {{circa|760 CE}}. Varagunavarman I invaded the Pallava country
During the rule of Dantivarman (r. 796–847 CE), the Pallava territory was reduced by the encroachment from the Pandyas from the south (and Rashtrakutas and the [[Telugu Cholas|Telugu-Cholas]] from
{| class="wikitable"
|+'''Pandya kings (6th–10th century CE)'''
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By {{circa|897 CE}}, Chola king [[Aditya I]] was the master of the old Pallava, Ganga and Kongu countries. It is a possibility that Aditya I conquered the Kongu country from the Pandya king Parantaka Viranarayana (r. 880–900 CE).<ref name=":24" /> [[Parantaka I]], successor to Aditya, invaded the Pandya territories in 910 CE and captured Madurai from king Maravarman Rajasimha II (hence the title "Madurai Konda").<ref name=":24" /> Rajasimha II received help from the Sri Lankan king Kassapa V, still got defeated by [[Parantaka I]] in the battle of Vellur, and fled to Sri Lanka. Rajasimha then found refuge in the Chera country, leaving even his royal insignia in Sri Lanka, the home of his mother.<ref name=":24" /><ref>{{Cite book|last=Wijetunga Mudalige Karunaratna Wijetunga|title=Sri Lanka and the Choḷas|publisher=Sarvodaya Vishva Lekha Publishers, 2003|page=82}}</ref>
The Cholas were defeated by a Rashtrakuta-lead confederacy in the [[battle of Takkolam]] in 949 CE.<ref name=":252" /> By mid-950s, the Chola kingdom had shrunk to the size of a small principality (its vassals in the extreme south had proclaimed their independence).<ref name=":252" /> It is a possibility that Pandya ruler Vira Pandya defeated Chola king Gandaraditya and claimed independence.<ref name=":252" /> Chola ruler [[Parantaka Chola II|Sundara Parantaka II]] (r. 957–73) responded by defeating Vira Pandya I in two battles (and Chola prince [[Aditya II]] killed Vira Pandya on the second occasion). The Pandyas were assisted by the Sri Lanka forces of
Chola emperor [[Rajaraja I]] (r. 985–1014 CE) is known to have attacked the Pandyas.<ref name=":19" /> He fought against an alliance of the Pandya, [[Chera dynasty|Chera]] and Sri Lankan kings, and defeated the Cheras and "deprived" the Pandyas of their ancient capital Madurai.{{sfn|Noboru Karashima|2014|p=122-124}} Emperor [[Rajendra Chola I|Rajendra I]] continued to occupy the Pandya kingdom, and even appointed a series of Chola viceroys with the title "Chola Pandya" to rule from Madurai (over Pandya and Western Chera/Kerala countries). The very
The second half of the 12th century witnessed a major internal crisis in the Pandya country (between princes Parakrama Pandya and Kulasekhara Pandya). The neighbouring kingdoms of Sri Lanka, under [[Parakramabahu I]], [[Venad|Venadu Chera/Kerala]], under the Kulasekharas,{{sfn|Noboru Karashima|2014|p=122-124}} and the Cholas, under [[Rajadhiraja Chola II|Rajadhiraja II]] and [[Kulothunga Chola III|Kulottunga III]],
Pandya kings (10th century–first half of 11th century CE):
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|[[Sadayavarman Kulasekaran II]]
|1238–1240 CE
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==== Jatavarman Sundara I ====
[[File:Double fish Pandyan relief, Koneswaram.jpg|thumb|221x221px|[[Jatavarman Vira Pandyan II|Jatavarman Vira II]]'s fish insignia at [[Koneswaram temple]] in [[Trincomalee]] (Eastern Province)<ref name="Indrapala 2007 324">{{cite book|last=Indrapala|first=Karthigesu|title=The evolution of an ethnic identity: The Tamils in Sri Lanka C. 300 BCE to C. 1200 CE|publisher=Vijitha Yapa|year=2007|isbn=978-955-1266-72-1|location=Colombo|page=324}}</ref> ]] [[Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan I|Jatavarman Sundara I]] ascended the Pandya throne in 1251 CE.<ref name=":302" /> He led his army to the Chola country (even as far as [[Nellore]]), to [[Sri Lanka]] and to south [[Kerala]].<ref name=":302" /> He was also successful in confining the Hoysala control to the Mysore Plateau (the ancient Chola country was now overrun by the Pandyas<ref name=":302" />).<ref name=":9" /> [[Kanchipuram|Kanchi]] functioned as the second major city in the kingdom.<ref name=":9" /> In his conquests, Jatavarman Sundara I
Jatavarman Sundara I subdued Rajendra II around 1258–1260 CE and made him pay tribute.<ref name=":0" /> The rule of the Cholas ended {{circa|1279}} with Rajendra III.<ref name=":302" /> The Pandya attacked the Hoysalas in the Kaveri and captured the fort of Kannanur Koppam.<ref name=":9" /> Hoysala king [[Vira Someshwara|Somesvara]] was forced to fall back into the Mysore Plateau.<ref name=":9" /> The Hoysala king, pressed by enemies from north and south, "assigned" the southern half of his kingdom to his younger son Ramanatha (r. 1254–1292<ref name=":302" />). [[Vira Someshwara|Somesvara]] was eventually killed by the Pandya in 1262 CE.<ref name=":9" /> Ramanatha managed to recover Kannanur and hold against the Pandya power.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":1">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wk4_ICH_g1EC&q=maravarman&pg=PA459|title=Ancient Indian History and Civilization|last=Sen|first=Sailendra Nath|date=1999|publisher=New Age International|isbn=9788122411980|pages=439|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rB7jAAAAMAAJ&q=Jatavarman+sundara+pandyan+%22rajendra+III%22|title=Proceedings – Indian History Congress|last=Congress|first=Indian History|date=1957|pages=186|language=en}}</ref> Jatavarman Sundara I also came into conflict with the [[Kadava dynasty|Kadava]] ruler [[Kopperunchinga II|Kopperunjinga II]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/delhisultanate00bhar|quote=jatavarman kadava.|title=The History and Culture of the Indian People: The struggle for empire|last1=Majumdar|first1=Ramesh Chandra|last2=Bhavan|first2=Bharatiya Vidya|date=1966|publisher=Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan|pages=[https://archive.org/details/delhisultanate00bhar/page/257 257]|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":9" /> It seems that Bana (Magadai) and Kongu countries came under the Pandya rule during the wars against the Hoysalas and the Kadavas.<ref name=":9" /> Jatavarman Sundara I also fought the Kakatiya ruler Ganapati (1199–1262<ref name=":302" />).<ref name=":2" /> [[Sri Lanka]] was invaded by Jatavarman Sundara I in 1258<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HBQ1AQAAIAAJ&q=Jatavarman+sundara+pandyan+|title=The collapse of the Rajarata civilization in Ceylon and the drift to the south-west: a symposium|last=Intirapālā|first=Kārttikēcu|date=1971|publisher=Ceylon Studies Seminar, University of Ceylon|pages=96|language=en}}</ref> and on his behalf by his younger brother [[Jatavarman Vira Pandyan II|Jatavarman Vira II]] between 1262 and 1264 CE.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7yULAQAAIAAJ&q=pandya+power+telugu|title=Andhra Pradesh District Gazetteers: Prakasam|last=(India)|first=Andhra Pradesh|date=2000|publisher=Director of Print. and Stationery at the Government Secretariat Press; [copies can be from: Government Publication Bureau, Andhra Pradesh]|language=en}}</ref> The island was again invaded and defeated by Jatavarman Vira II in 1270 CE.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aLYoDAAAQBAJ&q=chandrabhanu|title=The Hutchinson Dictionary of Ancient and Medieval Warfare|last1=Connolly|first1=Peter|last2=Gillingham|first2=John|last3=Lazenby|first3=John|date=2016-05-13|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781135936747|pages=100|language=en}}</ref>
==== Maravarman Kulasekara I ====
Sundara Pandya I (died in 1268) was succeeded by [[Maravarman Kulasekara Pandyan I|Maravarman Kulasekara I]].<ref name=":2" /> Around 1279 the combined force of Hoysala king Ramanatha and [[Rajendra Chola III|Rajendra III]] was defeated by Maravarman Kulasekara I.<ref name=":2" /> Maravarman Kulasekara I, now virtually unchallenged, ruled over the Chola country and southern Tamil speaking portions of Hoysala kingdom. He also invaded Sri Lanka, ruled by Bhuvanaikabahu I, who "carried away to the Pandya country the venerable Tooth Relic", and the wealth of the island.<ref name=":2" /> Sri Lanka remained under Pandya control until c. 1308–1309 CE.<ref name=":2" />
====Decline of Pandyas====
After the death of [[Maravarman Kulasekara Pandyan I|Maravarman Kulasekhara I]] (1310), his sons Vira Pandya IV and Sundara Pandya IV fought a war of succession for control of the empire. It seems that Maravarman Kulasekhara wanted Vira Pandya to succeed him (who in turn was defeated by Sundara Pandya after a short period
After the departure of the Khaljis, Vira and Sundara Pandya resumed their conflict. Sundara Pandya was defeated
The family quarrels and the sultanate invasions shattered the Pandya empire beyond revival<ref name=":3" /> and coinage discoveries made imply that the Pandyas were left with the old South Arcot region.<ref name=":12" /> In 1323, the [[Jaffna Kingdom|Jaffna kingdom]] declared its independence from the crumbling Pandya influence.<ref name=":10" /><ref name=":11" />
=== Tenkasi Pandyas (14th–16th centuries) ===
The Pandya kings from Sadaavarman Parakrama Pandya to his successors who ruled with [[Tenkasi]] as their [[Capital city|capital]].<ref name="tamilvu2">{{cite web|title=4.5 பிற்காலப் பாண்டியர் (கி.பி. 1371 - 1650.)|url=http://www.tamilvu.org/courses/diploma/a031/a0314/html/a0314445.htm|access-date=27 November 2012|publisher=தமிழ் இணையப் பல்கலைக்கழகம்}}</ref> With the invasion of the [[Sultan]]ates, [[Vijayanagara]]s, and [[Madurai Nayak dynasty|Nayakars]] from the fourteenth century onwards, the Pandyas lost their traditional capital of [[Madurai]] and shifted to cities like Tenkasi and [[Tirunelveli]].<ref name="Fall"/> Tenkasi was the last capital of the Pandyas.<ref name="tamilvu.org2">{{Cite web|title=:: TVU ::|url=http://www.tamilvu.org/slet/lA100/lA100pd1.jsp?bookid=222&pno=323|access-date=2020-04-09|website=www.tamilvu.org}}</ref> All the Pandyas from Sadaavarman Parakrama Pandya and his next generations were crowned in the Adheenam Mutt<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Vanamamalai|first1=N.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sDnaAAAAMAAJ&q=tenkasi+capital|title=Interpretation of Tamil Folk Creations|last2=Vān̲amāmalai|first2=Nā|date=1981|publisher=Dravidian Linguistics Association|language=en|access-date=2020-04-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160310194052/https://books.google.co.in/books?id=sDnaAAAAMAAJ&q=tenkasi+capital&dq=tenkasi+capital&hl=en&ei=Ph68TtCqNoLZrQfHo-zUAQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result|archive-date=2016-03-10|url-status=live}}</ref> in [[Kasi Viswanathar temple, Tenkasi|Kasi Viswanathar temple]].<ref>{{citation|year=1964|title=தென்காசி காசிவிசுவநாதசுவாமி கோயில் வரலாறு கோயில் வெளியீடு}}</ref> During the same period, some Pandyas ruled with Tirunelveli as their capital. [[Kayatharu]], [[Vadakkuvalliyur]], and Ukkirankottai are some of their major cities. Inscriptions on them are found in Tenkasi's Kasi Viswanathar temple, [[Brahmadesam,
Although the [[Vijayanagara Empire]] and the [[Madurai Nayak dynasty|Nayaks]] ruled Madurai after the 14th century, they were occasionally opposed by the Pandyas. Sometimes they have ruled Madurai. Prominent among them were Saadavarman Vikrama Pandya (1401–1422 AD) and his son, Arikesari Parakrama Pandya.<ref name="சநா ஐயர்4">{{cite book|author=Sathayanatha Iyer|title=History of the Nayaks of Madura|year=1924|pages=58}}</ref> They had built 32 forts around Madurai. Later, when Vishwanatha Nayakkar became the Madurai Mandalasuvaran, he feared
{| class="wikitable"
!King
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While the previous sultanate raids were content with plunder, the [[Tughlaq dynasty|Tughluqs]] under Ulugh Khan (later [[Muhammad bin Tughluq]]<ref name="Fall"/>) annexed the former Pandya dominions to the sultanate as the province of Ma'bar. Most of south India came under the sultanate rule and was divided into five provinces – Devagiri, Tiling, [[Kampili]], [[Halebidu|Dorasamudra]] and Ma'bar.<ref name=":12">Nilakanta Sastri, p. 213</ref> [[Jalaluddin Ahsan Khan|Jalal ud-Din Hasan Khan]] was appointed governor of the newly created southernmost Ma'bar province.<ref name=":13">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uCYdAAAAMAAJ&q=Vira+Someshwara+pandya|title=Karnataka, History, Administration & Culture|last=Muthanna|first=I. M.|date=1962|pages=89|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":14">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w6zkx_Ck3FwC&pg=PA171|title=South India and Her Muhammadan Invaders|last=Aiyangar|first=Krishnaswami S.|publisher=Asian Educational Services, 1991 – India, South|year=1991|isbn=9788120605367|pages=67–68,110–111,167,171–174}}</ref> In {{circa|1334}}, Jalal ud-Din Hasan Khan declared his independence and created [[Madurai Sultanate|Madurai sultanate]].<ref name="Fall"/> The Pandyas shifted their capital to Tenkasi and continued to rule a small area until the end of the 16th century as [[Tenkasi Pandyas]].<ref name="Fall"/>
[[Bukka Raya I]] of [[Vijayanagara Empire|Vijayanagara empire]] conquered the city of Madurai in {{circa|1370}},<ref name="Fall"/> imprisoned the sultan, released and restored Arcot's prince Sambuva Raya to the throne. Bukka Raya I appointed his son Veera Kumara Kampana as the viceroy of the Tamil region. Meanwhile, the Madurai sultanate was replaced by the Nayak governors of [[Vijayanagara]] in 1378.<ref>{{Cite book|title=A Comprehensive History of India: Comprehensive history of medieval India|last1=Puri|first1=B. N.|last2=Das|first2=M. N.|date=2003-12-01|publisher=Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd|isbn=9788120725089|pages=90–91|language=en}}</ref> In 1529 the Nayak governors declared independence and established [[Madurai Nayak dynasty]].<ref name=":3" />
==Economy==
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[[File:Silk route.jpg|thumb|221x221px|Ancient [[Silk Road]] trade routes]]
[[File:Tirunelveli Nellaiappar Temple 1.jpg|221x221px|thumb| The [[Gopuram|gopura]] of [[Nellaiappar Temple]] ]]
The Pandya country, located at the extreme
The early historic Pandya country was famous for its supply of pearls. The ancient port of [[Korkai]], in present-day [[Thoothukudi district|Thoothukudi]], was the
=== Pandya coinage ===
{{See also|Pandya coinage}}
[[File:Coin Pandya Bull Obv 2.jpg|thumb|upright|left|One of the early coins of the Pandyas showing their emblem of the Two Fishes]]
The early coins of [[Tamilakam]] bore the symbols of the [[Three Crowned Kings]], the tiger, the fish and the bow, representing the symbols of the Cholas, Pandyas and Cheras.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PMVWAAAAMAAJ&q=pandya+fish+coin|title=Early Indian indigenous coins|last=Sircar|first=Dineshchandra|date=1970|publisher=University of Calcutta|pages=98|language=en}}</ref> Coins of Pandyas bear the legend of different Pandya ruler in different times. The Pandyas had issued silver [[Punch-marked coins|punch-marked]] and die
Some of the coins had the names Sundara, Sundara Pandya or merely the letter 'Su' were etched. Some of the coins bore a boar with the legend of 'Vira-Pandya.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yyix9TSozmAC&q=pandya+coin+sundara&pg=PA49|title=Dravidian kingdoms and list of Pandiyan coins|last=Savariroyan|first=Pandit D.|date=2004|publisher=Asian Educational Services|isbn=9788120617520|pages=48–49|language=en}}</ref> It had been said that those coins were issued by the Pandyas and the feudatories of the Cholas but could not be attributed to any particular king. The coins of Pandyas were
== Religion ==
[[File:Mariage_of_Shiva_and_Parvati_(Meenakshi)_witnessed_by_Vishnu,_Meenakshi_Temple,_Madurai_(2)_(36857653813).jpg|alt=Vishnu gives away his sister, the bride Parvati during her wedding to Shiva|right|thumb|226x226px|God [[Vishnu]], goddess [[Meenakshi]] and god [[Shiva]] ([[Meenakshi Amman Temple|Meenakshi Temple]], Madurai)]]
The Pandya period (c. 13th century CE) was characterised by
The Pandya country was home to
It is known that the early Pandya rulers followed [[Jainism]] while at some point they converted to Hinduism. They supported the Bhakti movement from both [[Vaishnavism]] and [[Shaivism]] of [[Hinduism]].<ref name=":32">{{Cite news|title=Pandya dynasty|language=en|work=Encyclopedia Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Pandya-dynasty|access-date=2017-09-21}}</ref>
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==Architecture==
{{further|Pandyan art and architecture}}{{Wide image|File:Kallazhagar (23).jpg|340px|[[Alagar Koyil]], [[Tamil Nadu]]|5=right|dir=right}}[[File:Meenakshi_Amman_West_Tower.jpg|thumb|335x335px|[[Meenakshi Amman Temple|Meenakshi Temple]], Madurai]]
The early temple architecture phase in Tamil Nadu opens with the rock-cut cave temples.<ref name=":16">{{Cite web|title=South Asian arts|url=https://www.britannica.com/art/South-Asian-arts|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Desai|first=Pandurang Bhimarao|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H821AAAAIAAJ&q=vimana|title=Studies in Indian history and culture: volume presented to Dr
▲The early temple architecture phase in Tamil Nadu opens with the rock-cut cave temples.<ref name=":16">{{Cite web|title=South Asian arts|url=https://www.britannica.com/art/South-Asian-arts|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Desai|first=Pandurang Bhimarao|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H821AAAAIAAJ&q=vimana|title=Studies in Indian history and culture: volume presented to Dr. P. B. Desai ... on the occasion of his completing sixty years|date=1971|publisher=Prof. P. B. Desai Felicitation Committee, Karnatak University; [for copies write to the printer: K. E. B's Print. Press]|pages=125|language=en}}</ref>
The Tamil country is home to the 'South Indian' or 'Dravidian' style of medieval temple architecture.<ref name=":16" />
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* [[gopuram|Gopura]]: the great entrance buildings<ref>{{Cite book|last=Allen|first=Margaret Prosser|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vyXxEX5PQH8C&q=gopuram+pandya+temple&pg=PA337|title=Ornament in Indian Architecture|date=1991|publisher=University of Delaware Press|isbn=9780874133998|pages=350|language=en}}</ref>
The major Pandya contributions to
* Gopuras are extremely large and elaborately decorated (capped by a barrel vault).<ref name=":16" />
* Successively built walls and gopuras.<ref name=":16" />
Finest Pandyan architectures:
=== Finest Pandya architecture ===* [[Jambukeswarar Temple, Thiruvanaikaval|Jambukeswarar Temple]], [[Tiruchirapalli]]<ref name=":16" />▼
▲
* [[Kallalagar temple]], [[Alagar Koyil]]<ref name=":16" />
* [[Meenakshi Amman Temple|Meenakshi Temple]], [[Madurai]]<ref name=":16" />
*
* [[Nataraja Temple, Chidambaram]]<ref name=":16" />
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* {{cite book|author=N. Subrahmanian|title=History of Tamilnad (To A. D. 1336)|url=http://www.dli.ernet.in/handle/2015/462306|year=1962|publisher=Koodal|location=Madurai|oclc=43502446|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://archive.today/20161123181101/http://www.dli.ernet.in/handle/2015/462306|archive-date=23 November 2016}}
* {{cite book|last=Venkata Subramanian|first=T. K.|title=Environment and Urbanisation in Early Tamilakam|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NN4fAAAAIAAJ|page=55|date=1988|publisher=Tamil University|isbn=978-81-7090-110-5|work=Issue 92 of Tamil_p Palkalaik Kal_aka ve?iyi?u}}
* {{cite book|author=Banarsi Prasad Saksena|author-link=Banarsi Prasad Saksena|chapter=The Khaljis: Alauddin Khalji|editor=Mohammad Habib and Khaliq Ahmad Nizami|title=A Comprehensive History of India: The Delhi
* {{cite journal|author=K.K.R. Nair|title=Venad: Its Early History|journal=Journal of Kerala Studies|volume=14|issue=1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EgSSAAAAIAAJ|year=1987|publisher=University of Kerala|issn=0377-0443|pages=1–34}}
* {{cite book|author=Kishori Saran Lal|author-link=K. S. Lal|title=History of the Khaljis (1290–1320)|year=1950|publisher=The Indian Press|location=Allahabad|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2XXqAQAACAAJ|oclc=685167335}}
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