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{{short description|Wood used as fuel for combustion}}
{{More citations needed|date=December 2021}}
[[File:Campfire at Bramble Bield.jpg|thumb|Wood burning]]
'''Wood fuel''' (or '''fuelwood''') is a fuel such as [[firewood]], [[charcoal]], [[Woodchips|chip]]s, sheets, [[wood pellets|pellets]], and [[sawdust]]. The particular form used depends upon factors such as source, quantity, quality and application.
▲'''Wood fuel''' (or '''fuelwood''') is a fuel such as [[firewood]], [[charcoal]], [[Woodchips|chip]]s, sheets, [[wood pellets|pellets]], and [[sawdust]]. The particular form used depends upon factors such as source, quantity, quality and application. In many areas, wood is the most easily available form of fuel, requiring no [[tool]]s in the case of picking up dead wood, or few tools, although as in any industry, specialized tools, such as [[skidder]]s and hydraulic wood splitters, have been developed to mechanize production. [[Sawmill]] waste and construction industry [[by-product]]s also include various forms of lumber tailings.
The discovery of how to make [[fire]] for the purpose of burning wood is regarded as one of humanity's most important advances. The use of wood as a fuel source for heating is much older than civilization and is assumed to have been used by [[Neanderthal]]s. Today, [[combustion|burning]] of wood is the largest use of [[energy]] derived from a [[solid fuel]] [[biomass]]. Wood fuel can be used for [[cooking]] and [[heating]], and occasionally for fueling [[steam engine]]s and steam [[turbines]] that [[electricity generation|generate electricity]]. Wood may be used indoors in a furnace, [[Wood-burning stove|stove]], or [[fireplace]], or outdoors in furnace, [[campfire]], or [[bonfire]].
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In permanent structures and in caves, [[hearth]]s were constructed or established—surfaces of stone or another noncombustible material upon which a fire could be built. Smoke escaped through a smoke hole in the roof.
In contrast to civilizations in relatively arid regions (such as Mesopotamia and Egypt), the Greeks, Romans, Celts, Britons, and Gauls all had access to forests suitable for using as fuel. Over the centuries there was a partial deforestation of climax forests and the evolution of the remainder to [[coppice with standards]] woodland as the primary source of wood fuel. These woodlands involved a continuous cycle of new stems harvested from old stumps, on rotations between seven and thirty years.
One of the earliest printed books on woodland management, in English, was [[John Evelyn]]'s "Sylva, or a discourse on forest trees" (1664) advising landowners on the proper management of forest estates. H. L. Edlin, in "Woodland Crafts in Britain", 1949 outlines the extraordinary techniques employed, and range of wood products that have been produced from these managed forests since pre-Roman times. And throughout this time the preferred form of wood fuel was the branches of cut coppice stems bundled into [[faggot (unit)|faggots]]. Larger, bent or deformed stems that were of no other use to the woodland craftsmen were converted to [[charcoal]]. As with most of Europe, these managed woodlands continued to supply their markets right up to the end of World War Two. Since then much of these woodlands have been converted to broadscale agriculture. Total demand for fuel increased considerably with the [[industrial revolution]] but most of this increased demand was met by the new fuel source [[coal]], which was more compact and more suited to the larger scale of the new industries.
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The [[Franklin stove]] was developed in the United States by [[Benjamin Franklin]]. More a manufactured fireplace than a stove, it had an open front and a [[heat exchanger]] in the back that was designed to draw air from the [[Basement|cellar]] and heat it before releasing it out the sides. The heat exchanger was never a popular feature and was omitted in later versions. So-called "Franklin" stoves today are made in a great variety of styles, though none resembles the original design.
[[Image:PotbellyStove.jpg|thumb
The 1800s became the high point of the cast iron stove. Each local foundry would make their own design, and stoves were built for myriads of purposes—parlour stoves, box stoves, camp stoves, railroad stoves, portable stoves, cooking stoves and so on. Elaborate nickel and
chrome edged models took designs to the edge, with cast ornaments, feet and doors. Wood or coal could be burnt in the stoves and
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==1980s==
The growth in popularity of wood heat also led to the development and marketing of a greater variety of equipment for cutting, splitting and processing firewood. Consumer grade hydraulic [[log splitter]]s were developed to be powered by electricity, gasoline, or [[Power take-off|PTO]] of farm tractors. In 1987 the US Department of Agriculture published a method for producing kiln dried firewood, on the basis that better heat output and increased combustion efficiency can be achieved with logs containing lower moisture content.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fpl.fs.fed.us/documnts/fplrn/fplrn254.pdf |title=
The magazine "Wood Burning Quarterly" was published for several years before changing its name to "Home Energy Digest" and, subsequently, disappearing.
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== Today ==
{{More citations needed
|section
|date=November 2023|find=sustainble forestry
|talk=Talk:Wood_fuel#Today_sounds_like_yesterday's_tomorrow
}}
[[Image:Pellet stove.jpg|thumb|left|upright|A [[wood pellet]] stove]]
A [[pellet stove]] is an appliance that burns compressed [[wood pellets|wood or biomass pellets]].
Wood heat continues to be used in areas where firewood is abundant.
The mess of wood, bark, smoke, and ashes is kept outside and the risk of fire is reduced. The boilers are large enough to hold a fire all night and can burn larger pieces of wood, thus less cutting and splitting is required. There is no need to retrofit a chimney in the house. However, outdoor wood boilers emit more wood smoke and associated pollutants than other wood-burning appliances. This is due to design characteristics such as the water-filled jacket surrounding the firebox, which acts to cool the fire and leads to incomplete combustion. Outdoor wood boilers also typically have short stack heights in comparison to other wood-burning appliances, contributing to ambient levels of particulates at ground level. An increasingly popular alternative is the wood gasification boiler, which burns wood at very high efficiencies (85-91%) and can be placed indoors or in an outbuilding.
There are numerous ways to process wood fuel, and wood is still used today for cooking in many places, either in a stove or an open fire. It is also used as a fuel in many industrial processes, including smoking meat and making [[maple syrup]]. As a sustainable energy source, wood fuel also remains viable for generating electricity in areas with easy access to forest products and by-products.
==Measurement of firewood==
[[Image:stapled birch wood.jpg|thumb|Stapled [[birch]] wood]]
In the [[metric system]], firewood is normally sold by the cubic metre or [[stere]] (1 m³
In the [[United States]] and Canada, firewood is usually sold by the [[cord (unit of volume)|cord]], 128 ft³ (3.62 m³), corresponding to a woodpile 8 ft wide × 4 ft high of 4 ft-long logs. The cord is legally defined by statute in most U.S. states. A "thrown cord" is firewood that has not been stacked and is defined as 4 ft wide x 4 ft tall x 10 ft long. The additional volume is to make it equivalent to a standard stacked cord, where there is less void space. It is also common to see wood sold by the "face cord", which is usually ''not'' legally defined, and varies from one area to another. For example, in one state a pile of wood 8 feet wide × 4 feet high of 16"-long logs will often be sold as a "face cord", though its volume is only one-third of a cord. In another state, or even another area of the same state, the volume of a face cord may be considerably different. Hence, it is risky to buy wood sold in this manner, as the transaction is not based on a legally enforceable unit of measure.
In
==Energy content==
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==Environmental impacts==
===Combustion by-products===
[[Image:Firehome3.jpg|thumb|right|[[Fireplace]] and [[chimney]] after a wildfire, [[October 2007 California wildfires|Witch Fire]], [[California]]]]As with any [[fire]], burning wood fuel creates numerous by-products, some of which may be useful (heat and steam), and others that are undesirable, irritating or dangerous.
One by-product of wood burning is [[wood ash]], which in moderate amounts is a [[fertilizer]] (mainly [[potash]]), contributing minerals, but is strongly [[alkaline]] as it contains [[potassium hydroxide]]<ref>{{cite web
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}}</ref> (lye). Wood ash can also be used to manufacture [[soap]].
[[Smoke]], containing [[water vapor]], [[carbon dioxide]] and other chemicals and [[aerosol]] particulates, including caustic alkali [[fly ash]], which can be an irritating (and potentially dangerous) by-product of partially burnt wood fuel. A major component of wood smoke is fine particles that may account for a large portion of particulate air pollution in some regions. During cooler months, wood heating accounts for as much as 60% of fine particles in [[Melbourne]], [[Australia]].<ref name="epa2002"
[[File:Wood Volatility Basis Dataset.jpg|thumb|The burning of [[Firewood|fuel wood]] releases organic components over a wide volatility range. Here the organic components emitted from the [[combustion]] of [[Firewood|fuel wood]] are measured with a range of state-of-the art analytical techniques including [[Proton-transfer-reaction mass spectrometry|proton-transfer-reaction time-of-flight mass spectrometry]], [[Two-dimensional chromatography|two-dimensional gas chromatography]] and [[Two-dimensional chromatography|two-dimensional gas chromatography]] coupled to [[time-of-flight mass spectrometry]].
Significant quantities of [[
Slow combustion stoves increase efficiency of wood heaters burning logs, but also increase particulate production. Low pollution/slow combustion stoves are a current area of research.{{Citation needed|date=April 2007}} An alternative approach is to use [[pyrolysis]] to produce several useful biochemical byproducts, and clean burning charcoal, or to burn fuel extremely quickly inside a large thermal mass, such as a masonry heater. This has the effect of allowing the fuel to burn completely without producing particulates while maintaining the efficiency of the system.{{Citation needed|date=April 2007}}
In some of the most efficient burners, the temperature of the smoke is
|url = http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/fuels-ignition-temperatures-d_171.html
|title = Fuel Ignition Temperatures
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|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150504022056/http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/fuels-ignition-temperatures-d_171.html
|archive-date = 2015-05-04
}}</ref> for igniting carbon monoxide gas). This may
==== Combustion by-product effects on human health ====
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Depending on population density, topography, climatic conditions and combustion equipment used, wood heating may substantially contribute to [[air pollution]], particularly [[particulate]]s. The conditions in which wood is burnt will greatly influence the content of the emission.{{Citation needed|date=April 2007}} Particulate air pollution can contribute to human health problems and increased hospital admissions for asthma & heart diseases.<ref name="epa2002" />
The technique of compressing wood pulp into pellets or artificial logs can reduce emissions. The combustion is cleaner, and the increased wood density and reduced water content can eliminate some of the transport bulk. The fossil energy consumed in transport is reduced and represents a small fraction of the fossil fuel consumed in producing and distributing heating oil or gas.<ref>Manomet Center for Conservation Science. 2010. Biomass sustainability and Carbon Policy Study: Report to the Commonwealth of Massachusetts Department of Energy Resources.[http://www.manomet.org/sites/manomet.org/files/Manomet_Biomass_Report_Full_LoRez.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180108120416/http://www.manomet.org/sites/manomet.org/files/Manomet_Biomass_Report_Full_LoRez.pdf |date=2018-01-08 }}</ref>
=== Harvesting operations ===
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===Greenhouse gases===
Wood burning creates more atmospheric CO<sub>2</sub> than biodegradation of wood in a forest (in a given period
In an attempt to provide quantitative information about the relative output of CO<sub>2</sub> to produce electricity The intentional and controlled charring of wood and its incorporation into the soil is an effective method for [[carbon sequestration]] as well as an important technique to improve soil conditions for agriculture, particularly in heavily forested regions. It forms the basis of the rich soils known as [[Terra preta]].
=== Regulation and Legislation ===
The environmental impact of burning wood fuel is debatable. Several cities have moved towards setting standards of use and/or bans of wood burning fireplaces. For example, the city of Montréal, Québec passed a resolution to ban wood fireplace installation in new construction.
implementation of more stringent emission standards for new residential wood heaters.<ref>{{cite book |last1=McCarthy |first1=James E. |last2=Shouse |first2=Kate C. |title=EPA's Wood Stove / Wood Heater Regulations: Frequently Asked Questions |date=December 18, 2018 |publisher=Congressional Research Service |location=Washington, DC |url=https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R43489.pdf |access-date=6 January 2019}}</ref>
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==Usage==
[[File:World Production Of Roundwood By Type.svg|thumb|World production of roundwood by type, comparison of wood fuel to other types]]
Some European countries produce a significant fraction of their electricity needs from wood or wood wastes. In Scandinavian countries the costs of manual labor to process firewood is very high. Therefore, it is common to import firewood from countries with cheap labor and natural resources.{{Citation needed|date=September 2012}} The main exporters to Scandinavia are the [[Baltic countries]] (Estonia, Lithuania, and Latvia). In [[Finland]], there is a growing interest in using wood waste as fuel for home and industrial heating, in the form of compacted [[Wood pellets|pellets]].
Many lower- and middle-income countries rely on wood for energy purposes (notably cooking). The largest producers are all in these income groups and have large populations with a high reliance on wood for energy: in 2021, India ranked first with 300 million m''³'' (15 percent of total production), followed by China with 156 million m3 and Brazil with 129 million m''³'' (8 percent and 7 percent of global production).<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |url=http://www.fao.org/documents/card/en/c/cc8166en |title=World Food and Agriculture – Statistical Yearbook 2023 |date=2023-11-29 |publisher=FAO |isbn=978-92-5-138262-2 |language=en |doi=10.4060/cc8166en}}</ref>
In the United States, wood fuel is the second-leading form of renewable energy (behind [[hydro-electric]]).<ref>{{cite web|title=Renewables and CO2 Emissions|url=http://www.eia.gov/forecasts/steo/report/renew_co2.cfm|work=Short-Term Energy Outlook|publisher=US Dept of Energy|access-date=24 December 2011|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120108022132/http://www.eia.gov/forecasts/steo/report/renew_co2.cfm|archive-date=8 January 2012}}</ref>▼
▲In the United States, wood fuel is the second-leading form of [[renewable energy]] (behind [[hydro-electric]]).<ref>{{cite web|title=Renewables and CO2 Emissions|url=http://www.eia.gov/forecasts/steo/report/renew_co2.cfm|work=Short-Term Energy Outlook|publisher=US Dept of Energy|access-date=24 December 2011|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120108022132/http://www.eia.gov/forecasts/steo/report/renew_co2.cfm|archive-date=8 January 2012}}</ref>
===Australia===
[[Image:redgumfirewood.jpg|thumb|right|upright|A pile of firewood logged from the [[Barmah|Barmah Forest]] in Victoria]]
About 1.5 million households in Australia use firewood as the main form of domestic heating.<ref name="AHHA1">{{cite web |url=http://cleanairkapiti.wordpress.com/2009/12/26/the-truth-about-the-australian-home-heating-association/ |title=The Truth about the Australian Home Heating Association |author=Matthew |date=26 December 2009 |publisher=Clean Air Society of Kapiti Coast |access-date=26 November 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20110701090914/http://cleanairkapiti.wordpress.com/2009/12/26/the-truth-about-the-australian-home-heating-association/ |archive-date=1 July 2011 }}</ref> As of 1995, approximately 1.85 million cubic metres of firewood (1m³ equals approximately one car [[trailer (vehicle)|trailer]] load) was used in [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]] annually, with half being consumed in [[Melbourne]].<ref name="birds">{{cite web |url=http://www.birdsaustralia.com.au/rtbced/firewood.htm |title=Firewood |publisher=birdsaustralia.com |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.
Species used as sources of firewood include:
*[[Eucalyptus camaldulensis|Red Gum]], from [[forest]]s along the [[Murray River]] (the Mid-Murray Forest Management Area, including the Barmah and Gunbower forests, provides about 80% of
*Box and [[Eucalyptus obliqua|Messmate Stringybark]], in southern Australia.
*[[Eucalyptus cladocalyx|Sugar gum]], a wood with high [[thermal efficiency]] that usually comes from small plantations.<ref>{{
*[[Eucalyptus marginata|Jarrah]], in the Southwest of Western Australia. It generates a greater heat than most other available woods and is usually sold by the tonne.
===Europe===
In 2014, the construction of the biggest pellet plant in the Baltic region was started in [[Võrumaa]], [[Sõmerpalu]], Estonia, with an expected output of 110,000 tons of pellet / year. Different types of wood will be used in the process of pellet making (firewood, woodchips, shavings). The Warmeston OÜ plant started its activity by the end of 2014.<ref name="Fordaq">
{{Cite news
|work = IHB
|publisher = Fordaq S.A.
|title = Largest pellet plant in the Baltic region to be {{
|url = http://www.fordaq.com/fordaq/news/Pellet_plant_Estonia_35907.html
|date = 13 February 2014
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=== North America ===
Demand for wood fuel in the [[United States]] is principally driven by residential and commercial heating customers. [[Canada]] was not a major consumer of industrial wood pellets as of 2017, but has relatively aggressive de-carbonization policies and may become a significant consumer of industrial wood pellets by the 2020s.<ref name=":0" />
== Sources ==
{{Free-content attribution
| title = World Food and Agriculture – Statistical Yearbook 2023
| author = FAO
| publisher = FAO
| documentURL = https://www.fao.org/documents/card/en?details=cc8166en
| license statement URL = https://commons.wikimedia.org/whttps://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:World_Food_and_Agriculture_-_Statistical_Yearbook_2023.pdf
| license = CC BY-SA IGO 3.0
}}
== See also ==
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* [[Biomass]]
* [[Forestry]]
* [[Outdoor wood-fired boiler|Outdoor wood furnace]]
* [[Renewable heat]]
* [[Wood gas]]▼
* [[Woodchips]]
* [[
▲* [[Wood gas]]
==References==
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==External links==
{{Commonscat}}
*[http://cahe.nmsu.edu/pubs/_g/g-102.pdf Firewood Facts]
*[http://himalaya-foto.ru/himalayas-village-firewood.htm Himalayas. Unique way to store firewood]
*[http://www.degutopia.co.uk/degutoxic.htm Toxic Woods List] A comprehensive and fully referenced list of potentially toxic woods.
*[http://burningissues.org/car-www/index.html BurningIssues] All about the health effects of biomass burning
*Mike Chen
{{Home heating fuels}}
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