Gallipoli campaign: Difference between revisions

| place = [[Gallipoli|Gallipoli Peninsula]], [[Sanjak of Gelibolu]], [[Adrianople Vilayet]], [[Ottoman Empire]]

| territory = [[Triple Entente|Entente]] failure to invade the [[Ottoman empire]] from Gallipoli

|{{flagicon|United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland}} [[Herbert Kitchener, 1st Earl Kitchener|Herbert Kitchener]]

|{{flagicon|United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland}} [[William Birdwood, 1st Baron Birdwood|William Birdwood]]

|{{flagicon|French Third Republic}} [[Henri Gouraud (French Army officer)|Henri Gouraud]]

|{{flagicon|Ottoman Empire}} [[Cevat Çobanlı|Cevat Pasha]]

|{{flagicon|German Empire}} [[Erich Weber (general)|Erich Weber]]

|{{flagicon|Ottoman Empire}} [[Fevzi Çakmak|Fevzi Pasha]]{{sfn|Kurtuluş Savaşı Komutanları}}

|{{flagicon|Ottoman Empire}} [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk|Mustafa Kemal Bey]]

'''Total''': 489,000–550,000{{sfnsfnm|1a1=Erickson|1y=2001a|p1p=94|2a1=Kernosovsky|2y=1938|2p=547}}

'''Total''': 315250,000{{sfn|Kernosovsky|1938|p=547}}–315,500{{sfn|Erickson|2001a|pp=94–95}}{{sfn|Erickson|2015|p=178}}

On 29 October 1914, two former German warships, the Ottoman {{ship|Ottoman battlecruiser|Yavûz Sultân Selîm||2}} and {{ship|Ottoman cruiser|Midilli||2}}, conducted the [[Black Sea raid]], in which they bombarded the Russian port of [[Odessa]] and sank several ships.{{sfn|Fewster|Basarin|Basarin|2003|p=44}} On 31 October, the Ottomans entered the war and began the [[Caucasus campaign]] against Russia. The British briefly bombarded forts in Gallipoli, invaded [[Mesopotamian campaign|Mesopotamia]] and studied the possibility of forcing the Dardanelles.{{sfn|Broadbent|2005|pp=19–23}}{{sfn|Baldwin|1962|p=40}}

Before the Dardanelles operation was conceived, the British had planned to conduct an amphibious invasion near [[Alexandretta]] on the Mediterranean, an idea originally presented by [[Boghos Nubar]] in 1914.{{sfn|Erickson|2013|p=159}} This plan was made by the [[Secretary of State for War]], [[Field Marshal]] [[Herbert Kitchener, 1st Earl Kitchener|Earl Kitchener]], to sever the Ottoman capital from Syria, Palestine and Egypt. Alexandretta was an area with a Christian population and was the strategic centre of the Ottoman railway network;, its capture would cut the empire in two. Vice Admiral Sir [[Richard Peirse (Royal Navy officer)|Richard Peirse]], [[Commander-in-Chief, East Indies]], ordered Captain Frank Larkin of {{HMS|Doris|1896|6}} to Alexandretta on 13 December 1914. The {{ship|Russian cruiser|Askold|1900|6}} and the French [[cruiser]] {{ship|French ironclad|Requin||2}} were also present. Kitchener was working on the plan in March 1915, the beginning of the British attempt to incite an [[Arab Revolt]]. The Alexandretta landing was abandoned because militarily it would have required more resources than France could allocate and politically France did not want the British operating in their sphere of influence, a position to which Britain had agreed in 1912.{{sfn|Tauber|1993|pp=22–25}}

By late 1914, on the [[Western Front (World War I)|Western Front]], the Franco–British counter-offensive of the [[First Battle of the Marne]] had ended and the Belgians, British and French had suffered many casualties in the [[First Battle of Ypres]] in Flanders. The [[Maneuver warfare|war of manoeuvre]] had evolved into [[trench warfare]].{{sfn|Dennis|2008|p=224}} The [[German Empire]] and [[Austria-Hungary]] closed the overland trade routes between Britain and France in the west and Russia in the east. The [[White Sea]] in the Arctic and the [[Sea of Okhotsk]] in the Far East were icebound in winter and distant from the [[Eastern Front (World War I)|Eastern Front]]; the [[Baltic Sea]] was blockaded by the ''{{lang|de|[[Kaiserliche Marine]]''}} (Imperial German Navy) and the entrance to the [[Black Sea]] through the Dardanelles was controlled by the Ottoman Empire.{{sfn|Corbett|2009a|pp=158, 166}} While the Ottomans remained neutral, supplies could still be sent to Russia through the Dardanelles but prior to the Ottoman entry into the war, the straits had been closed; in November the Ottomans began to [[Naval mine|mine]] the waterway.{{sfn|Haythornthwaite|2004|p=6}}{{sfn|Carlyon|2001|p=34}}

The French Minister of Justicepolitician, [[Aristide Briand]], proposed in November to attack the Ottoman Empire but this was rejected and an attempt by the British to bribe the Ottomans to join the Entente side also failed.{{sfn|Strachan|2001|p=115}} Later that month, [[Winston Churchill]], [[First Lord of the Admiralty]], proposed a naval attack on the Dardanelles, based in part on erroneous reports of Ottoman troop strength. Churchill wanted to use a large number of obsolete battleships, which could not operate against the German [[High Seas Fleet]], in a Dardanelles operation, with a small occupation force provided by the army. It was hoped that an attack on the Ottomans would also draw [[History of Independent Bulgaria#World War I|Bulgaria]] and [[Kingdom of Greece (Glücksburg)|Greece]] (formerly Ottoman possessions) into the war on the Entente side.{{sfn|Broadbent|2005|pp=27–28}} On 2 January 1915, [[Grand Duke Nicholas Nikolaevich of Russia (1856–1929)|Grand Duke Nicholas]] of Russia appealed to Britain for assistance against the Ottomans, who were campaigning in the Caucasus.{{sfn|Tamworth Daily Observer|1915|p=2}} Planning began for a naval [[Demonstration (military)|demonstration]] in the Dardanelles, to divert Ottoman troops from Caucasia.{{sfn|Travers|2001|p=20}}

===AttemptNaval to force the Straitsoperations===

After the failure of the naval attacks, troops were assembled to eliminate the Ottoman mobile artillery, which was preventing the Entente minesweepers from clearing the way for the larger vessels. Kitchener appointed General [[Ian Hamilton (British Army officer)|Sir Ian Hamilton]] to command the {{nowrap|78,000 men}} of the [[Mediterranean Expeditionary Force]] (MEF).{{sfn|Baldwin|1962|p=60}} Soldiers from the [[First Australian Imperial Force|Australian Imperial Force]] (AIF) and [[New Zealand Expeditionary Force]] (NZEF) were encamped in [[Egypt]], undergoing training prior to being sent to France.{{sfn|Grey|2008|p=92}} The Australian and New Zealand troops were formed into the [[Australian and New Zealand Army Corps]] (ANZAC), commanded by [[Lieutenant General]] [[William Birdwood, 1st Baron Birdwood|Sir William Birdwood]], comprising the volunteer [[1st Division (Australia)|1st Australian Division]] and the [[New Zealand and Australian Division]]. The ANZAC troops were joined by the [[Standing army|regular]] [[29th Division (United Kingdom)|29th Division]] and the [[Royal Naval Division]].{{sfn|Broadbent|2005|p=40}} The French ''[[Corps expéditionnaire d'Orient]]'' (Orient Expeditionary Corps), initially consisting of two brigades within one division, was subsequently placed under Hamilton's command.{{sfn|Haythornthwaite|2004|p=25}}{{sfn|Wahlert|2008|p=16}}{{sfn|Doyle|Bennett|1999|p=14}}{{efn|The operation would be complicated by having only five divisions, the rugged terrain of the peninsula, the small number of landing beaches and great difficulty in providing supplies.{{sfn|Holmes|2001|p=343}} Later on, the MEF was supported by about 2,000 civilian labourers from the Egyptian and Maltese Labour Corps.{{sfn|Aspinall-Oglander|1929|p=395}}}}

The Ottoman force prepared to repel a landing on either side of the Straits was the [[Fifth Army (Ottoman Empire)|5th Army]].{{sfn|Travers|2001|p=38}} This force, which initially consisted of five divisions with another en route, was a conscript force, commanded by [[Otto Liman von Sanders]].{{sfn|Broadbent|2005|p=40}}{{sfn|Carlyon|2001|p=83}}{{sfn|Haythornthwaite|2004|p=16}} Many of the senior officers in the 5th Army were also German.{{sfn|Travers|2001|p=13}} Ottoman commanders and senior German officers debated the best means of defending the peninsula. All agreed that the best defence was to hold the high ground on the ridges of the peninsula. There was disagreement as to where the enemy would land and hence where to concentrate forces. [[Lieutenant Colonel]] Mustafa Kemal was familiar with the Gallipoli peninsula from his operations against Bulgaria in the Balkan Wars and forecast that Cape Helles (the southern tip of the peninsula) and [[Kabatepe|Gaba Tepe]] were the likely areas for landing.{{sfn|Carlyon|2001|p=31}}{{sfn|Butler|2011|p=121}}

Mustafa Kemal believed that the British would use their naval power to command the land from every side at the tip of the peninsula. At Gaba Tepe, the short distance to the eastern coast meant that the Entente could easily reach the Narrows, the right-angled bend in the middle of the Dardanelles.{{sfn|Kinross|1995|pp=73–74}}{{sfn|Bean|1941a|p=179}} Sanders considered [[Beşik Bay, Çanakkale|Besika Bay]] on the Asiatic coast to be the most vulnerable to invasion, since the terrain was easier to cross and was convenient to attack the most important Ottoman batteries guarding the straits and a third of the 5th Army was assembled there.{{sfn|James|1995|p=74}} Two divisions were concentrated at [[Bolayır|Bulair]] at the north end of the Gallipoli peninsula, to protect supply and communication lines to the defences further down the peninsula.{{sfn|James|1995|p=75}} The [[19th Infantry Division (Ottoman Empire)|19th Division]] (Kemal) and the 9th Division were placed along the Aegean coast and at Cape Helles on the tip of the peninsula. Sanders kept the bulk of the Ottoman forces inland in reserve, leaving a minimum of troops guarding the coast.{{sfn|Aspinall-Oglander|1929|p=154}} The 3rd Division and a cavalry brigade arrived from Istanbul in early April, bringing the front line strength of the Ottomans to {{nowrap|60,000–62,077 men,}} which Sanders concentrated in three groups. A maximum effort to improve land and sea communications was ordered, to move reinforcements swiftly to danger points; troops moved at night to avoid Entente air reconnaissance. Sanders' strategy was opposed by Ottoman commanders, including Kemal, who believed that the defenders were too widely dispersed to defeat the invasion on the beaches.{{sfn|James|1995|p=76}} Kemal thought Sander's classic strategy was suitable when there was strategic depth to the front, but Gallipoli did not offer that. His commander Esat Passa was not forceful enough in making the objection.<ref>ATASE, Canakkale 2, p. 46, 56–57.</ref><ref>Sevki Yazman, "Turk Canakkale", p. 100.</ref> Sanders was certain that a rigid system of defence would fail and that the only hope of success lay in the mobility of the three groups, particularly the 19th Division near Boghali, in general reserve, ready to move to Bulair, Gaba Tepe or the Asiatic shore.{{sfn|Aspinall-Oglander|1929|pp=154–57}}

The time needed by the British to organise the landings meant that Sanders, Colonel [[Hans Kannengiesser]] and other German officers, supported by [[Mehmet Esat Bülkat|Esat Pasha]] ([[III Corps (Ottoman Empire)|III Corps]]) had more time to prepare their defences.{{sfn|Broadbent|2005|p=40}} Sanders later noted, "the British allowed us four good weeks of respite for all this work before their great disembarkation ... This respite just sufficed for the most indispensable measures to be taken".{{sfn|James|1995|p=77}} Roads were constructed, small boats built to carry troops and equipment across the Narrows, beaches were [[barbed wire|wired]] and improvised mines were constructed from [[torpedo]] warheads. Trenches and gun emplacements were dug along the beaches and troops went on route marches to avoid lethargy.{{sfn|James|1995|p=77}} Kemal, whose 19th Division was vital to the defensive scheme, observed the beaches and awaited signs of an invasion from his post at Boghali, near [[Eceabat|Maidos]].{{sfn|Broadbent|2005|p=42}} The Ottomans created [[Ottoman Aviation Squadrons]] with German assistance and had four aircraft operating around Çanakkale in February, conducting [[reconnaissance]] and army co-operation sorties. From 11 April, an Ottoman aircraft made frequent flights over Mudros, keeping watch on the assembly of the British naval force and an airfield was established near Gallipoli.{{sfn|Aspinall-Oglander|1929|p=139}}{{sfn|Gilbert|2013|p=46}}{{sfn|Broadbent|2005|p=40}}

The Entente planned to land and secure the northern shore, capture the Ottoman forts and artillery batteries for a naval force to advance through the Narrows and the [[Sea of Marmara]] towards Istanbul.{{sfn|Broadbent|2005|p=43}} Scheduled for 23 April but postponed until 25 April due to bad weather, landings were to be made at five beaches on the peninsula.{{sfn|Broadbent|2005|p=47}} The 29th Division was to land at Helles on the tip of the peninsula and then advance upon the forts at [[Kilitbahir]]. The ANZACs, with the [[3rd Brigade (Australia)|3rd Australian Infantry Brigade]] spearheading the assault, were to land north of Gaba Tepe on the [[Aegean Sea|Aegean]] coast, from where they could advance across the peninsula, cut off the Ottoman troops in Kilitbahir and stop reinforcements from reaching Cape Helles.{{sfn|Stevenson|2007|p=189}}{{sfn|Broadbent|2005|p=45}} This sector of the Gallipoli Peninsula became known as ANZAC; the area held by the British and French became known as the Helles sector or Helles. The French made a diversionary landing at Kum Kale on the Asian shore before re-embarking to hold the eastern area of the Helles sector. The Royal Naval Division simulated landing preparations at Bulair and a New Zealand officer, [[Bernard Freyberg]], swam ashore under fire to light flares to distract the defenders from the real landings; Freyberg was later awarded the [[Distinguished Service Order]].{{sfn|Broadbent|2005|p=108}}{{sfn|Life|1942|p=28}}{{sfn|McGibbon|2000|p=195}}

Arrangements for naval gunfire support to the landings had originally included bombarding the beaches and approaches but was changed to engagement of the ridges during the landings, with the beaches only to be shelled prior to the landings. No decision was ultimately made on the issue of close support and it was left to the initiative of ships' captains. A reluctance to approach the shore later affected the landings at "V" and "W" beach where some of the worst losses among the infantry occurred, while naval gunfire was of some assistance at "S", "X" and ANZAC.{{sfn|Travers|2001|pp=50–53}} Even then its effectiveness was limited by the initial confusion ashore, the broken terrain, thick vegetation and the lack of observation.{{sfn|Travers|2001|p=72}} Kitchener had ruled that air requirements must be met by the [[Royal Naval Air Service]] (RNAS) and the Entente employed a small force of seaplanes and other aircraft from [[No. 203 Squadron RAF|3 Squadron]], RNAS (Commander [[Charles Rumney Samson|Charles Samson]]) which arrived at [[Bozcaada|Tenedos]] at the end of March.{{sfn|Aspinall-Oglander|1929|p=139}} The aircraft were unopposed by the small Ottoman air force at first and during the planning, the force had been used to provide aerial reconnaissance, although this ultimately proved inadequate to meet the Entente' intelligence needs and make up for the lack of adequate maps.{{sfn|Gilbert|2013|p=43}}{{sfn|Doyle|Bennett|1999|p=12}} After the landings, Entente aircraft conducted photographic reconnaissance, observed naval gunfire, reported on Ottoman troop movements and conducted a small number of bombing raids.{{sfn|Gilbert|2013|p=43}}

The Australian submarine {{HMAS|AE2||6}} (Lieutenant Commander [[Henry Hugh Gordon Stoker|Henry Stoker]]) penetrated the Straits on the night of 24/25 April. As landings began at Cape Helles and ANZAC Cove at dawn on 25 April, ''AE2'' reached [[Chanak]] by 6:00&nbsp;a.m. and torpedoed an Ottoman gunboat believed to be a [[Peyk-i Şevket-class cruiser]] then evaded a destroyer.{{sfn|Stevens|2001|p=45}}{{sfn|Jose|1941|p=242}} The submarine ran aground beneath a Ottoman fort but the Ottoman gunners could not bring their guns to bear and ''AE2'' was manoeuvred free.{{sfn|Stevens|2001|p=45}} Shortly after refloating, the periscope was sighted by a Ottoman battleship firing over the peninsula at Entente landing sites and the ship ceased fire and withdrew.{{sfn|Stevens|2001|p=45}} ''AE2'' advanced toward the Sea of Marmara and, at {{nowrap|08:30}}, Stoker decided to rest the boat on the seabed until nightfall.{{sfn|Stevens|2001|p=45}} At around {{nowrap|9:00 p.m.}}, ''AE2'' surfaced to recharge batteries and sent a wireless report to the fleet.{{sfn|Stevens|2001|p=45}}{{sfn|Frame|2004|p=119}} The [[landing at Cape Helles]] was going well but the [[landing at Anzac Cove]] was not as successful and the Anzac commander, Lieutenant General Sir William Birdwood, contemplated the re-embarkation of his troops.{{sfn|Stevens|2001|p=45}} The success of ''AE2'' was a consideration in Birdwood deciding to persist and reports about ''AE2'' were relayed to the soldiers ashore to improve morale.{{sfn|Stevens|2001|p=45}} Stoker was ordered to "generally run amok" and, with no enemies in sight, he sailed into the Sea of Marmara, where ''AE2'' cruised for five days to give the impression of greater numbers and made several attacks against Ottoman ships, which failed because of mechanical problems with the torpedoes.{{sfn|Stevens|2001|p=46}}

The Helles landing was made by the 29th Division ([[Major General]] [[Aylmer Hunter-Weston]]). The division landed on five beaches in an arc about the tip of the peninsula, named "S", "V", "W"', "X" and "Y" Beaches from east to west.{{sfn|Broadbent|2005|p=44}} On 1 May, the [[29th Indian Brigade]] (including [[6th Queen Elizabeth's Own Gurkha Rifles|1/6th Gurkha Rifles]]) landed, took and secured Sari Bair above the landing beaches and was joined by [[5 Gorkha Rifles (Frontier Force)|1/5th Gurkha Rifles]] and [[10th Princess Mary's Own Gurkha Rifles|2/10th Gurkha Rifles]]; the [[Jewish Legion|Zion Mule Corps]] landed at Helles on 27 April.{{sfn|Aspinall-Oglander|1929|pp=315–16}} At "Y" Beach, during the first engagement, the [[First Battle of Krithia]], the Entente landed unopposed and advanced inland.{{sfn|Wahlert|2008|p=19}} There were only a small number of defenders in the village but, lacking orders to exploit the position, the "Y" Beach commander withdrew his force to the beach. It was as close as the Entente ever came to capturing the village as the Ottomans brought up a battalion of the 25th Regiment, checking any further movement.{{sfn|Broadbent|2005|p=102}}

A brief period of consolidation followed; the Entente had almost run out of ammunition, particularly for the artillery and both sides consolidated their defences.{{sfn|Broadbent|2005|p=143}} The Ottomans relieved troops opposite the Australian line, which was reinforced by the [[Australian Light Horse]] operating as infantry.{{sfn|Grey|2008|p=96}} Sporadic fighting continued, with sniping, grenade attacks and raids, the opposing trenches separated in places by only a few metres.{{sfn|Broadbent|2005|p=148}}{{sfn|Grey|2008|p=96}} The Australians lost a number of officers to sniping, including the commander of the 1st Division, Major General William Bridges, who was wounded while inspecting a [[1st Light Horse Regiment (Australia)|1st Light Horse Regiment]] position near "Steele's Post" and died of his injuries on the hospital ship {{HMHS|Gascon|1897|6}} on 18 May.{{sfn|Broadbent|2005|p=149}}

The British advantage in naval artillery diminished after the battleship {{HMS|Goliath|1898|6}} was torpedoed and sunk on 13 May by the {{ship|Ottoman destroyer|Muâvenet-i Millîye||2|up=y}}, killing 570 men out of a crew of 750, including the ship's commander, Captain Thomas Shelford.{{sfn|Burt|1988|pp=158–59}} A German submarine, {{SMU|U-21|Germany|2}}, sank {{HMS|Triumph|1903|6}} on 25 May and {{HMS|Majestic|1895|6}} on 27 May.{{sfn|Burt|1988|pp=131, 276}} More British reconnaissance patrols were flown around Gallipoli and ''U-21'' was forced to leave the area but ignorant of this, the Entente withdrew most of their warships to Imbros, where they were "protectively tethered" between sorties, which greatly reduced Entente naval firepower, particularly in the Helles sector.{{sfn|Broadbent|2005|p=165}} The submarine {{HMS|E11||6}} (Lieutenant Commander [[Martin Eric Nasmith|Martin Nasmith]], later awarded a Victoria Cross) passed through the Dardanelles on 18 May and sank or disabled eleven ships, including three on 23 May, before entering Constantinople Harbour, firing on a transport alongside the arsenal, sinking a gunboat and damaging the wharf.{{sfn|Brenchley|Brenchley|2001|p=113}}{{sfn|O'Connell|2010|p=74}}{{sfn|Pitt|Young|1970|p=918}}

In June, the seaplane carrier {{HMS|Ben-my-Chree}} arrived and the Entente air effort increased from a squadron to [[Wing (military aviation unit)|No. 3 Wing]] RNAS.{{sfn|Gilbert|2013|p=44}} The [[52nd (Lowland) Division]] also landed at Helles in preparation for the [[Battle of Gully Ravine]], which began on 28 June and achieved a local success, which advanced the British line along the left (Aegean) flank of the battlefield. Sanders credited the defence to two Ottoman officers, Faik Pasa and Albay Refet.{{sfn|Erickson|2001a|p=89}} On 30 June, the French commander, [[Henri Gouraud (French Army officer)|Henri Gouraud]] who had earlier replaced [[Albert d'Amade]], was wounded and replaced by his divisional commander, Maurice Bailloud.{{sfn|Haythornthwaite|2004|p=15}} Between 1 and 5 July, the Ottomans counter-attacked the new British line several times but failed to regain the lost ground. Ottoman casualties for the period were estimated at {{nowrap|14,000 men.}}{{sfn|Aspinall-Oglander|1992|p=95}} On 12 July, two fresh brigades from the 52nd Division attacked at the centre of the line along Achi Baba Nullah (Bloody Valley), gained very little ground and lost {{nowrap|2,500 casualties}} out of {{nowrap|7,500 men;}} the Royal Naval Division had {{nowrap|600 casualties}} and French losses were {{nowrap|800 men.}} Ottoman losses were about {{nowrap|9,000 casualties}} and {{nowrap|600 prisoners}}.{{sfn|Aspinall-Oglander|1992|p=111}}

The failure of the Entente to capture Krithia or make any progress on the Helles front led Hamilton to form a new plan to secure the Sari Bair Range of hills at the [[Battle of Sari Bair]] and capture high ground on {{nowrap|Hill 971}} in the [[Battle of Chunuk Bair]].{{sfn|Broadbent|2005|p=190}} Both sides had been reinforced, the original five Entente divisions having been increased to fifteen and first six Ottoman divisions to sixteen.{{sfn|Carlyon|2001|p=344}}{{sfn|Travers|2001|pp=271–73}} The Entente planned to land two fresh infantry divisions from [[IX Corps (United Kingdom)|IX Corps]] at [[Suvla]], {{cvt|5|mi|km}} north of Anzac, followed by an advance on Sari Bair from the north-west.{{sfn|Grey|2008|p=95}}{{sfn|Broadbent|2005|p=191}} At Anzac, an offensive would be made against the Sari Bair range by advancing through rough and thinly defended terrain, north of the Anzac perimeter. This would be achieved by an attack on {{nowrap|Baby 700}} from [[Battle of the Nek|the Nek]] by dismounted Australian light horsemen from the [[3rd Light Horse Brigade]], in concert with an attack on Chunuk Bair summit by New Zealanders from the New Zealand Infantry Brigade, who would traverse Rhododendron Ridge, the Apex and the Farm. {{nowrap|Hill 971}} would be attacked by Gurkhas of the 29th Indian Brigade and the Australians of the 4th Infantry Brigade.{{sfn|Broadbent|2005|p=191}} The Entente had {{nowrap|40 aircraft}}, mainly from 3 Wing RNAS at [[Imbros]], which had replaced its [[Voisin (aircraft)|Voisins]] with Farmans and [[Nieuport 10|Nieuport Xs]]; ''Escadrille'' MF98T had also been established at Tenedos.<ref name=MF_98_T>{{cite web |url=http://dardanelles.1915-2015.sam2g.fr/2015/05/11/11-mai-lescadrille-mf-98-t-est-operationnelle// |title=11 mai, l'escadrille MF 98 T est opérationnelle |last=Ferreira |first=Sylvain |date=11 November 2015 |website=Dardanelles 1915–2015 LE CORPS EXPÉDITIONNAIRE D'ORIENT |language=fr |access-date=31 August 2020 |quote=As indicated by the initials of the squadron (MF), they were equipped with eight [[Farman MF.9|MF.9]] aircraft. |archive-date=20 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200520040208/http://dardanelles.1915-2015.sam2g.fr/2015/05/11/11-mai-lescadrille-mf-98-t-est-operationnelle/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The Ottomans had {{nowrap|20 aircraft}}, of which eight were stationed at Çanakkale. Entente aircraft made reconnaissance flights, spotted for naval guns and conducted low-level bombing of Ottoman reserves as they were brought up to the battlefield.{{sfn|Gilbert|2013|p=44}} Entente aircraft also undertook anti-shipping operations in the Gulf of Saros, where a seaplane from HMS ''Ben-my-Chree'' sank an Ottoman tug with an air-launched torpedo.{{sfn|Haythornthwaite|2004|p=83}}

Elements of the new [[2nd Division (Australia)|Australian 2nd Division]] began arriving at Anzac from Egypt with the [[5th Brigade (Australia)|5th Infantry Brigade]] landing from {{nowrap|19–20 August}} and the [[6th Brigade (Australia)|6th Brigade]] and [[7th Brigade (Australia)|7th Brigade]] arriving in early September.{{sfn|Cameron|2011|p=17}}{{sfn|Cameron|2011|p=147}} The 29th Division was also shifted from Helles to Suvla. The final British attempt to resuscitate the offensive came on 21 August, in the [[Scimitar Hill (battle)|Battle of Scimitar Hill]] and the [[Battle of Hill 60 (Gallipoli)|Battle of Hill 60]]. Control of the hills would have united the Anzac and Suvla fronts but the attacks failed. On 17 August, Hamilton had requested another {{nowrap|95,000 troops}} but a day earlier, the French had announced plans to Kitchener for an autumn offensive in France. A meeting of the Dardanelles Committee on 20 August determined that the French offensive would be supported by a maximum effort, which left only about {{nowrap|25,000 reinforcements}} for the Dardanelles. On 23 August, after news of the failure at Scimitar Hill, Hamilton went onto the defensive, as the Bulgarian entry into the war, which would allow the Germans to rearm the Ottoman army, was imminent and left little opportunity for the resumption of offensive operations. On 20 September 1915, the [[Newfoundland Regiment]] was deployed at Suvla Bay with the 29th Division.{{sfn|Nicholson|2007|pp=155–92}} On 25 September, Kitchener proposed detaching two British and one French division for service in [[Salonika]] in Greece, which was the beginning of the end of the Entente campaign at Gallipoli. Instead, a counter proposal from Sir Ian Hamilton was agreed to; only the 10th (Irish) Division and the [[156th Infantry Division (France)]] were withdrawn from the peninsula. By the end of September these troops were concentrating at Mudros for conveyance to the new front.{{sfn|Aspinall-Oglander|1992|p=376}}

After the failure of the August Offensive, the Gallipoli campaign drifted. Ottoman success began to affect public opinion in Britain, with criticism of Hamilton's performance being smuggled out by [[Keith Murdoch]], [[Ellis Ashmead-Bartlett]] and other reporters.{{sfn|Wahlert|2008|p=26}} Stopford and other dissident officers also contributed to the air of gloom and the possibility of evacuation was raised on 11 October 1915. Hamilton resisted the suggestion, fearing the damage to British prestige but was sacked shortly afterwards and replaced by Lieutenant General Sir [[Charles Carmichael Monro|Charles Monro]].{{sfn|Broadbent|2005|pp=244–45}} Autumn and winter brought relief from the heat but also led to gales, blizzards and flooding, resulting in men drowning and freezing to death, while thousands suffered [[frostbite]].{{sfn|Carlyon|2001|p=515}} The Serbian defeat in the [[Serbian campaign of World War I#Course of the campaign|Serbian campaign]] in autumn 1915 prompted France and Britain to transfer troops from the Gallipoli campaign to [[Macedonia (Greece)|Greek Macedonia]]; the [[Macedonian front]] was established to support the remnants of the Serbian army to conquer [[Vardar Macedonia]].{{sfn|Hall |2010 |pp=48–50}}

The lessons of the campaign were studied by military planners prior to amphibious operations such as the [[Normandy Landings]] in 1944 and during the [[Falklands War]] in 1982.{{sfn|Wahlert|2008|p=29}}{{sfn|Holmes|2001|p=343}} The lessons of the campaign influenced US Marine Corps amphibious operations during the [[Pacific War]] and continue to influence US amphibious doctrine.{{sfn|Wahlert|2008|p=29}}{{sfn|Gatchel|1996|p=10}} In 1996, Theodore Gatchel wrote that [[interwar period|between the wars]], the campaign "became a focal point for the study of amphibious warfare" in Britain and United States.{{sfn|Gatchel|1996|p=10}} In 2008, Glenn Wahlert wrote that Gallipoli involved "all four types of amphibious operations: the raid, demonstration, assault and withdrawal".{{sfn|Wahlert|2008|p=29}}

Asquith was partly blamed for Gallipoli and other disasters and was overthrownousted in December 1916, when [[David Lloyd George]] proposed a war council under his authority, with the Conservatives in the coalition threatening to resign unless the plan was implemented. After failure to reach agreement, Lloyd George and then Asquith resigned, followed by Lloyd George becoming Prime Minister.{{sfn|Taylor|1965|pp=103–06}} Lloyd George formed a new government, from which Churchill, active again in the House of Commons from June 1916, was excluded because of Conservative opposition. In the summer of 1917, Churchill was eventually appointed to the cabinet-level post of [[Minister of Munitions]] but not to the [[War cabinet#First World War|War Cabinet]].{{sfn|Holmes|2001|p=203}} The final report of the Commission was issued in 1919, concluding that with the forces available, success was dependent on the government giving priority to the expedition and leaving the British Expeditionary Force in France to make do. The Commissioners found that Hamilton had been over-optimistic from the beginning and had added to Stopford's difficulties on 8 August 1915. Hamilton emerged from the investigation more favourably than perhaps was justified, partly because he made devious attempts to gain collusion from witnesses and obtain leaks from the deliberations of the Commission; Hamilton was never given another army appointment.{{sfn|Travers|2001|pp=297–98}}{{efn|The enormous casualties at Gallipoli among Irish soldiers who had volunteered to fight in the British Army was a causal factor in the [[Irish War of Independence]]; as balladeers sang, ''"Twas better to die 'neath an Irish sky than in [[Suvla]] or [[Sedd el Bahr]]"''.{{sfn|West|2016|p=97}}}}

Many soldiers became sick due to [[wikt:insanitary|insanitary]] conditions, especially from [[typhoid]], dysentery and [[diarrhea|diarrhoea]]. Cecil Aspinall-Oglander, the British official historian, reported that {{nowrap|90,000 British}} Empire soldiers were evacuated for illness during the campaign.{{sfn|Aspinall-Oglander|1992|p=484}}{{sfn|Erickson|2001a|p=94}} A total of {{nowrap|145,154 British}} troops fell sick, not counting Dominion or Indian troops; of these, {{nowrap|3,778 died,}} exclusive of those evacuated. The sick were transported from Gallipoli to hospitals in Egypt and Malta as quickly as possible as bases in the area of operations were insufficient. Approximately {{nowrap|2.84 percent}} of men removed as non-battle casualties died, against {{nowrap|0.91 percent}} in France and Flanders. The proportion of disease casualties to battle casualties was considerably higher in the Gallipoli campaign than it was on the campaigns of the Western Front.{{sfn|Harrison|2010|p=296}} Aspinall-Oglander gave the number of Ottoman troops evacuated sick {{nowrap|as 64,440.}}{{sfn|Erickson|2001a|p=94}} The largest cause of non-battle admissions to hospital for British troops was dysentery, with {{nowrap|29,728 men}} infected and another {{nowrap|10,383 men}} having diarrhoea. Other notable conditions were frostbite with {{nowrap|6,602 hospitalisations,}} [[gonorrhea]] {{nowrap|1,774 cases,}} and [[rheumatic fever]] {{nowrap|6,556 cases.}}{{sfn|Mitchell|Smith|1931|p=206}} French casualties during the campaign amounted to around 47,000.{{sfn|Hughes|2005|p=64}}{{sfn|Erickson|2001b|p=1009}}{{sfn|Aspinall-Oglander|1992|p=484}} Of the French casualties, 27,169 were killed, wounded or missing with an implied 20,000 who fell sick.{{sfn|Lepetit|Tournyol du Clos|Rinieri|1923|p=549}}{{efn|Appendix 5 of the French official history (AFGG 8,1) has a one page table that not only splits these into subcategory columns but also breaks out the casualties into nine time period rows.{{sfn|Lepetit|Tournyol du Clos|Rinieri|1923|p=549}} For comparative purposes, out of 205,000 British casualties, 115,000 were killed, missing and wounded, 90,000 were evacuated sick.{{sfn|Aspinall-Oglander|1992|p=484}}}}

Allegations were made that Entente forces had attacked or bombarded Ottoman hospitals and hospital ships on several occasions between the start of the campaign and September 1915. By July 1915, {{nowrap|25 Ottoman}} hospitals had been built with {{nowrap|10,700 beds,}} and three hospital ships were in the area. The French Government disputed these complaints through the [[Red Cross]] and the British responded that if it happened then it was accidental. Russia, in turn, claimed that the Ottomans had attacked two of their hospital ships, {{ship|Russian hospital ship|Portugal||2}} and ''Vperiod'', but the Ottoman Government replied that the vessels had been the victims of mines.{{sfn|Taskiran|2005}} No chemical weapons were used at Gallipoli, although the Entente debated their use throughout the campaign and transported to the theatre quantities of gas, which was used against Ottoman troops in the [[Middle Eastern theatre of World War I|Middle Eastern theatre]] two years later, during the [[Second Battle of Gaza|Second]] and [[Third Battle of Gaza|Third]] Battles of Gaza.{{sfn|Sheffy|2005|p=278}}{{sfn|Falls|MacMunn|1996|pp=336–37, 341, 349}}{{efn|In November 1918, the [[Canterbury Mounted Rifles Regiment|Canterbury Mounted Rifles]] and the [[7th Light Horse Regiment (Australia)|7th Light Horse]] from the [[Anzac Mounted Division]], were sent to Gallipoli to "monitor Turkish compliance with the terms of the Armistice".{{sfn|Kinloch|2007|p=327}} The {{nowrap|900 troopers}} camped at Camburnu near Kilid Bahr for three winter months and reconnoitred the Peninsula, identifying graves and inspecting Ottoman positions.{{sfn|2nd Light Horse Brigade|1918|p=4}} The troopers returned to Egypt on 19 January 1919, less {{nowrap|11 who}} had died and {{nowrap|110 who were sick}} in hospital.{{sfn|Powles|Wilkie|1922|pp=263–65}}}}

The [[Commonwealth War Graves Commission]] (CWGC) is responsible for permanent cemeteries for all [[Commonwealth of Nations]] forces. There are 31 CWGC cemeteries on the Gallipoli peninsula: six at Helles (plus the only solitary grave, that of Lieutenant Colonel [[Charles Doughty-Wylie]] VC, Royal Welch Fusiliers), four at Suvla and {{nowrap|21 at Anzac.}}{{sfn|Wahlert|2008|p=9}} For many of those killed or died on hospital ships and were buried at sea, there is no known grave; their names are recorded on one of five "memorials to the missing". The [[Lone Pine Commonwealth War Graves Commission Cemetery|Lone Pine Memorial]] commemorates Australians killed in the Anzac sector, as well as New Zealanders with no known grave or who were buried at sea, while the Lone Pine, [[Hill 60 Commonwealth War Graves Commission Cemetery|Hill 60]] and [[Chunuk Bair]] memorials commemorate New Zealanders killed at Anzac. The [[Twelve Tree Copse Commonwealth War Graves Commission Cemetery|Twelve Tree Copse Memorial]] commemorates the New Zealanders killed in the Helles sector, while British, Indian and Australian troops who died there are commemorated on the [[Helles Memorial]] at Cape Helles. British naval casualties who were lost or buried at sea are listed on memorials in the United Kingdom.{{sfn|Cape Helles Memorial}}{{sfn|Wahlert|2008|pp=9–10}}

The [[British yeomanry during the First World War|British yeomanry]] units that had fought dismounted at Gallipoli were reinforced and reorganised,{{sfn|Perry|1988|p=23}}{{sfn|Griffith|1998|pp=168–69}} forming the [[74th (Yeomanry) Division]] and a portion of the [[75th Division (United Kingdom)|75th Division]].{{sfn|Keogh|Graham|1955|pp=122, 124}}{{sfn|Becke|1937|p=121}} Along with the Australian Light Horsemen and [[New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade|New Zealand Mounted Rifles]] remounted and reorganised into the Anzac Mounted Division, infantry from the 52nd (Lowland) Division, 42nd (East Lancashire) Division,{{sfn|Falls|MacMunn|1996|pp=160–271}} 53rd (Welsh) Division and 54th (East Anglian) Division,{{sfn|Grey|2008|pp=99–100, 117}}{{sfn|Dennis|2008|pp=405–07}} later joined by additional remounted Australian Light Horsemen and British yeomanry from the [[Imperial Mounted Division|Australian Mounted Division]],{{sfn|Falls|1930|p=274}} participated in the [[Sinai and Palestine campaign]]. The Egyptian [[Sinai Peninsula|Sinai]] was reoccupied in 1916, while [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]] and the northern [[Levant]] were captured from the Ottoman Empire during 1917 and 1918, before the [[Armistice of Mudros]] ended hostilities in the Middle Eastern theatre on 31 October. The Entente subsequently [[occupation of Constantinople|occupied Gallipoli and Istanbul]] and [[partitioning of the Ottoman Empire|partitioned the Ottoman Empire]].{{sfn|Holmes|2001|p=345}} The occupation ended in 1923 following the [[Turkish War of Independence]], the [[Armistice of Mudanya]] and the [[Treaty of Lausanne]].{{sfn|Simkins|Jukes|Hickey|2003|p=17}}

Along with memorials and monuments established in towns and cities, many streets, public places and buildings were named after aspects of the campaign, especially in Australia and New Zealand.{{sfn|Wilson}} Some examples include [[Gallipoli Barracks]] at [[Enoggera, Queensland|Enoggera]] in Queensland,{{sfn|Jobson|2009|p=103}} and the [[Canadian Armed Forces]] Armouryarmoury in [[Corner Brook]], Newfoundland which is named the Gallipoli ArmouriesArmoury.{{sfn|CBC News|2012}} Gallipoli also had a significant impact on popular culture, including film, television and song.{{sfn|Dennis|2008|pp=203–07, 424–26}} In 1971, Scottish-born Australian folk singer-songwriter [[Eric Bogle]] wrote a song called "[[And the Band Played Waltzing Matilda]]" which consisted of an account from a young Australian soldier who was maimed during the Gallipoli campaign. The song has been praised for its imagery, evoking the devastation at the Gallipoli landings. It remains widely popular and is considered by some to be an iconic anti-war song.{{sfn|Dennis|2008|p=426}}{{sfn|Keane|2015}}

* {{cite book |title=Shadow of the Sultan's Realm: The Destruction of the Ottoman Empire and the Creation of the Modern Middle East |last=Butler |first=Daniel Allen | author-link = Daniel Allen Butler |publisher=Potomac Books |location=Washington, D.C. |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-59797-496-7}}