Content deleted Content added
m link benzodiazepine |
Anthonyhcole (talk | contribs) →Life events: Drug and alcohol use is covered under the "Substance-induced" subsection. Tags: Mobile edit Mobile web edit Advanced mobile edit |
||
| (8 intermediate revisions by 6 users not shown) | |||
Line 38:
=== Life events ===
[[Adverse childhood experiences|Adversity in childhood]], such as bereavement, neglect, mental abuse, physical abuse, sexual abuse, or unequal parental treatment of siblings can contribute to depression in adulthood.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Heim C, Newport DJ, Mletzko T, Miller AH, Nemeroff CB | title = The link between childhood trauma and depression: insights from HPA axis studies in humans | journal = Psychoneuroendocrinology | volume = 33 | issue = 6 | pages = 693–710 | date = July 2008 | pmid = 18602762 | doi = 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2008.03.008 | s2cid = 2629673 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Pillemer K, Suitor JJ, Pardo S, Henderson C | title = Mothers' Differentiation and Depressive Symptoms among Adult Children | journal = Journal of Marriage and the Family | volume = 72 | issue = 2 | pages = 333–345 | date = April 2010 | pmid = 20607119 | pmc = 2894713 | doi = 10.1111/j.1741-3737.2010.00703.x }}</ref> Childhood physical or sexual abuse in particular significantly correlates with the likelihood of experiencing depression over the survivor's lifetime.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Lindert J, von Ehrenstein OS, Grashow R, Gal G, Braehler E, Weisskopf MG | title = Sexual and physical abuse in childhood is associated with depression and anxiety over the life course: systematic review and meta-analysis | journal = International Journal of Public Health | volume = 59 | issue = 2 | pages = 359–72 | date = April 2014 | pmid = 24122075 | doi = 10.1007/s00038-013-0519-5 | s2cid = 24138761 }}</ref> People who have experienced four or more [[adverse childhood experiences]] are 3.2 to 4.0 times more likely to suffer from depression.<ref name="Anda2006">{{cite journal |display-authors=6 |vauthors=Anda RF, Felitti VJ, Bremner JD, Walker JD, Whitfield C, Perry BD, Dube SR, Giles WH |date=April 2006 |title=The enduring effects of abuse and related adverse experiences in childhood. A convergence of evidence from neurobiology and epidemiology |journal=European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience |volume=256 |issue=3 |pages=174–186 |doi=10.1007/s00406-005-0624-4 |pmc=3232061 |pmid=16311898}}</ref> Poor housing quality, non-functionality, lack of [[Urban green space|green spaces]], and exposure to noise and air pollution are linked to depressive moods, emphasizing the need for consideration in planning to prevent such outcomes.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Rautio |first1=Nina |last2=Filatova |first2=Svetlana |last3=Lehtiniemi |first3=Heli |last4=Miettunen |first4=Jouko |date=February 2018 |title=Living environment and its relationship to depressive mood: A systematic review |journal=International Journal of Social Psychiatry |language=en |volume=64 |issue=1 |pages=92–103 |doi=10.1177/0020764017744582 |issn=0020-7640|doi-access=free |pmid=29212385 }}</ref> Locality has also been linked to depression and other negative moods. The rate of depression among those who reside in large urban areas is shown to be lower than those who do not.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Stier |first1=Andrew J. |last2=Schertz |first2=Kathryn E. |last3=Rim |first3=Nak Won |last4=Berman |first4=Mark G. |title=Evidence and theory for lower rates of depression in larger US urban areas |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=118 |issue=31 |date=August 2021 |pmid=34315817 |doi=10.1073/pnas.2022472118|pmc=8346882 }}</ref> Likewise, those from smaller towns and rural areas tend to have higher rates of depression, anxiety, and psychological unwellness.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Willroth |first1=Emily C. |last2=Graham |first2=Elieen K. |last3=Luo |first3=Jing |last4=Mrocezk |first4=Daniel K. |last5=Lewis-Thames |first5=Marquita W. |title=Rural–urban differences in personality traits and well-being in adulthood |journal=Journal of Personality |volume=92 |issue=1 |pages=73-87 |date=February 2023 |pmc=10390645 |pmid=36725776 |doi=10.1111/jopy.12818}}</ref>
Studies have consistently shown that physicians have had the highest depression and suicide rates compared to people in many other lines of work—for suicide, 40% higher for male physicians and 130% higher for female physicians.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Rotenstein |first1=Lisa S. |last2=Ramos |first2=Marco A. |last3=Torre |first3=Matthew |last4=Segal |first4=J. Bradley |last5=Peluso |first5=Michael J. |last6=Guille |first6=Constance |last7=Sen |first7=Srijan |last8=Mata |first8=Douglas A. |date=6 December 2016 |title=Prevalence of Depression, Depressive Symptoms, and Suicidal Ideation Among Medical Students: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis |journal=JAMA |volume=316 |issue=21 |pages=2214–2236 |doi=10.1001/jama.2016.17324 |pmc=5613659 |pmid=27923088}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mata |first1=Douglas A. |last2=Ramos |first2=Marco A. |last3=Bansal |first3=Narinder |last4=Khan |first4=Rida |last5=Guille |first5=Constance |last6=Di Angelantonio |first6=Emanuele |last7=Sen |first7=Srijan |date=8 December 2015 |title=Prevalence of Depression and Depressive Symptoms Among Resident Physicians |journal=JAMA |volume=314 |issue=22 |pages=2373–83 |doi=10.1001/jama.2015.15845 |pmc=4866499 |pmid=26647259}}</ref><ref name="nytimes2">{{cite news |last1=Chen |first1=Pauline W. |date=7 October 2010 |title=Medical Student Distress and the Risk of Doctor Suicide |newspaper=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/10/07/health/views/07chen.html |access-date=9 February 2015}}</ref>
Life events and changes that may cause depressed mood include (but are not limited to): childbirth, menopause, financial difficulties, unemployment, stress (such as from work, education, military service, family, living conditions, marriage, etc.), a medical diagnosis (cancer, HIV, diabetes, etc.), bullying, loss of a loved one, natural disasters, social isolation, rape, relationship troubles, jealousy, separation
==== Childhood and adolescence ====
Line 65:
=== Psychiatric syndromes ===
{{Main|Mood disorder#Depressive disorders|l1=Depressive mood disorders}}
A number of psychiatric syndromes feature depressed mood as a main symptom. The [[mood disorder]]s are a group of disorders considered to be primary disturbances of mood. These include [[major depressive disorder]] (commonly called major depression or clinical depression) where a person has at least two weeks of depressed mood or a loss of interest or pleasure in nearly all activities; and [[dysthymia]], a state of chronic depressed mood, the symptoms of which do not meet the severity of a [[major depressive episode]]. Another mood disorder, [[bipolar disorder]], features one or more episodes of abnormally elevated mood, [[cognition]], and energy levels, but may also involve one or more episodes of depression.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Gabbard G |title=Treatment of Psychiatric Disorders |edition=3rd |volume=2 |publisher=American Psychiatric Publishing |location=Washington, DC |page=1296}}</ref> Individuals with bipolar depression are often misdiagnosed with unipolar depression.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Jackel |first=Donna |date=2024-01-24 |title=Bipolar Depression vs. Unipolar Depression |url=https://www.bphope.com/everything-you-ever-wanted-to-know-about-bipolar-depression/ |access-date=2024-07-20 |website=bpHope.com |language=en-US}}</ref> When the course of depressive episodes follows a seasonal pattern, the disorder (major depressive disorder, bipolar disorder, etc.) may be described as a [[seasonal affective disorder]].
Outside the mood disorders: [[borderline personality disorder]] often features an extremely intense depressive mood; [[Adjustment disorder|adjustment disorder with depressed mood]] is a psychological response to an identifiable event or stressor, in which the resulting emotional or behavioral symptoms are significant but do not meet the criteria for a major depressive episode;<ref>{{cite book |title=Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition, Text Revision: DSM-IV-TR |author=American Psychiatric Association |publisher=American Psychiatric Publishing, Inc. |location=Washington, DC |year=2000 |isbn=978-0890420256 |page=355}}</ref> and [[posttraumatic stress disorder]], a mental disorder that sometimes follows [[Major trauma|trauma]], is commonly accompanied by depressed mood.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Vieweg WV, Julius DA, Fernandez A, Beatty-Brooks M, Hettema JM, Pandurangi AK | title = Posttraumatic stress disorder: clinical features, pathophysiology, and treatment | journal = The American Journal of Medicine | volume = 119 | issue = 5 | pages = 383–90 | date = May 2006 | pmid = 16651048 | doi = 10.1016/j.amjmed.2005.09.027 | doi-access = free }}</ref>
Line 95:
== Management ==
{{main|Management of depression}}
Depressed mood may not require professional treatment, and may be a normal temporary reaction to life events, a symptom of some medical condition, or a [[side effect]] of some drugs or medical treatments. A prolonged depressed mood, especially in combination with other symptoms, may lead to a diagnosis of a psychiatric or medical condition which may benefit from treatment.
The UK [[National Institute for Health and Care Excellence]] (NICE) 2009 guidelines indicate that [[antidepressant]]s should not be routinely used for the initial treatment of mild depression, because the risk-benefit ratio is poor.<ref>[https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg90/chapter/key-priorities-for-implementation NICE guidelines, published October 2009] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210121135808/https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg90/chapter/Key-priorities-for-implementation |date=21 January 2021 }}. Nice.org.uk. Retrieved on 24 November 2015.</ref>
Line 103:
There is limited evidence suggesting yoga may help some people with depressive disorders or elevated levels of depression, but more research is needed.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Cramer H, Lauche R, Langhorst J, Dobos G | title = Yoga for depression: a systematic review and meta-analysis | journal = Depression and Anxiety | volume = 30 | issue = 11 | pages = 1068–83 | date = November 2013 | pmid = 23922209 | doi = 10.1002/da.22166 | s2cid = 8892132 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Grensman A, Acharya BD, Wändell P, Nilsson GH, Falkenberg T, Sundin Ö, Werner S | title = Effect of traditional yoga, mindfulness-based cognitive therapy, and cognitive behavioral therapy, on health related quality of life: a randomized controlled trial on patients on sick leave because of burnout | journal = BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine | volume = 18 | issue = 1 | pages = 80 | date = March 2018 | pmid = 29510704 | pmc = 5839058 | doi = 10.1186/s12906-018-2141-9 | doi-access = free }}</ref>
[[Reminiscence]] of old and fond memories is another alternative form of treatment, especially for the elderly who have lived longer and have more experiences in life.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wu |first=Yuejin |last2=Xu |first2=Haiyan |last3=Sui |first3=Xin |last4=Zeng |first4=Ting |last5=Leng |first5=Xin |last6=Li |first6=Yuewei |last7=Li |first7=Feng |date=2023-11-01 |title=Effects of group reminiscence interventions on depressive symptoms and life satisfaction in older adults with intact cognition and mild cognitive impairment: A systematic review |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0167494323001814 |journal=Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics |volume=114 |pages=105103 |doi=10.1016/j.archger.2023.105103 |issn=0167-4943|doi-access=free }}</ref> It is a method that causes a person to recollect memories of their own life, leading to a process of self-recognition and identifying familiar stimuli. By maintaining one's personal past and identity, it is a technique that stimulates people to view their lives in a more objective and balanced way, causing them to pay attention to positive information in their life stories, which would successfully reduce depressive mood levels.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Viguer P, Satorres E, Fortuna FB, Meléndez JC | title = A Follow-Up Study of a Reminiscence Intervention and Its Effects on Depressed Mood, Life Satisfaction, and Well-Being in the Elderly | journal = The Journal of Psychology | volume = 151 | issue = 8 | pages = 789–803 | date = November 2017 | pmid = 29166223 | doi = 10.1080/00223980.2017.1393379 | s2cid = 21839684 }}</ref>
There is limited evidence that continuing antidepressant medication for one year reduces the risk of depression recurrence with no additional harm.<ref name=":4">{{cite journal | vauthors = Wilkinson P, Izmeth Z | title = Continuation and maintenance treatments for depression in older people | journal = The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews | volume = 2016 | pages = CD006727 | date = September 2016 | issue = 9 | pmid = 27609183 | pmc = 6457610 | doi = 10.1002/14651858.cd006727.pub3 }}</ref> Recommendations for psychological treatments or combination treatments in preventing recurrence are not clear.<ref name=":4" />
| |||