Content deleted Content added
Kingdom of Castile -> Crown of Castile |
m →Moriscos and population genetics: MOS:COMPASS |
||
| (16 intermediate revisions by 14 users not shown) | |||
Line 1:
{{short description|Muslim-descended community in Spain}}
{{
{{italic title}}
{{History of al-Andalus}}
Line 6:
{{History of Portugal}}
'''''Moriscos''''' ({{IPA-es|moˈɾiskos|lang}}, {{IPA-ca|muˈɾiskus|lang}}; {{lang-pt|mouriscos}} {{IPA-pt|moˈɾiʃkuʃ|}}; Spanish for "[[Moors|Moorish]]") were former [[Muslim]]s and their descendants whom the [[
The [[
[[crypto-Islam]]ic practices occurred in [[Granada]] in 1727, with most of those convicted receiving relatively light sentences.<ref>Már Jónsson, "The expulsion of the Moriscos from Spain in 1609–1614: the destruction of an Islamic periphery." ''Journal of Global History'' 2.2 (2007): 195–212.</ref>
Line 14:
==Name and etymology==
The label ''morisco'' for Muslims who converted to Christianity began to appear in texts in the first half of the sixteenth century, though the use of the term at this time was limited.{{sfn|Harvey|2005|p=5}} Usage became widespread in Christian sources during the second half of the century, but it was unclear whether Moriscos adopted the term.{{sfn|Harvey|2005|p=5}} In their texts, it was more common for them to speak of themselves simply as ''muslimes'' (Muslims); in later periods, they may have begun to accept the label.{{sfn|Harvey|2005|p=5}} In modern times, the label is in widespread use in Spanish literature and adopted by other languages, including
The word ''morisco'' appears in twelfth-century Castilian texts as an adjective for the noun ''moro''.{{sfn|Harvey|2005|p=2}} These two words are comparable to the English adjective "Moorish" and noun "
According to [[L. P. Harvey]], the two different meanings of the word ''morisco'' have resulted in mistakes when modern scholars misread historical text containing ''morisco'' in the older meaning
In 1517, the word ''morisco'' became a "category" added to the array of cultural and religious identities that existed at the time, used to identify Muslim converts to Christianity in Granada and Castille. The term was a pejorative adaptation of the adjective ''morisco'' ("Moorish"). It soon became the standard term
In Spanish America, ''morisco'' (or ''morisca'', in feminine form) was used to identify a racial category: a mixed-race ''[[casta]]'', the child of a Spaniard (''español'') and a [[mulatto]] (offspring of a Spaniard and a ''negro'', generally a lighter-complexioned person with some African ancestry). This was probably due to a perception that such individuals looked similar to North Africans, appearing mostly white but with a somewhat visible sub-Saharan African admixture. The term appears in colonial-era marriage registers identifying individuals and in eighteenth-century ''casta'' paintings.<ref>Vinson, Ben III. ''Before Mestizaje: The Frontiers of Race and Caste in Colonial Mexico''. New York: Cambridge University Press 2018, 133–137.</ref> The term [[quadroon]] was a similar term for quarter-black people in English colonies.
Line 43:
===Aragon and Catalonia===
Moriscos accounted for 20% of the population of the [[kingdom of Aragon]], residing principally on the banks of the [[Ebro]] river and its tributaries. Unlike Granadan and Valencian Moriscos, they did not speak Arabic but, as vassals of the nobility, were granted the privilege to practice their faith relatively openly.
Places like [[Muel, Zaragoza]], were inhabited fully by Moriscos, the only [[Old Christians]] were the priest, the notary and the owner of the tavern-inn. "The rest would rather go on a pilgrimage to [[Mecca]] than [[Santiago de Compostela]]."<ref name="Morisco">{{harvnb|Lapeyre|2011|p=106}} quoting [[Enrique Cock]], ''Relación del viaje hecho por Felipe III en 1585 a Zaragoza, Barcelona y Valencia'', Madrid, 1876, p. 314</ref>
Line 75:
}}
Because conversions to Christianity were decreed by law rather than by their own will, most Moriscos still genuinely believed in Islam.<ref name="Keegan2000" />{{sfn|Harvey|2005|p=270}} Because of the danger associated with practicing Islam, however, the religion was largely practiced clandestinely.{{sfn|Harvey|2005|p=49}} A legal opinion, called "the [[Oran fatwa]]" by modern scholars, circulated in Spain and provided religious justification for outwardly conforming to Christianity while maintaining an internal conviction of faith in Islam, when necessary for survival.{{sfn|Harvey|2005|pp=60–64}} The fatwa affirmed the regular obligations of a Muslim, including
The writing of a Morisco crypto-Muslim author known as the "[[Young Man of Arévalo]]" included accounts of his travel around Spain, his meetings with other clandestine Muslims and descriptions of their religious practices and discussions.{{sfn|Harvey|2005|p=179}} The writing referred to the practice of secret [[congregational
Extant copies of the [[Qur'an]] have also been found from the Morisco period, although many are not complete copies but selections of
The Moriscos also likely wrote the [[Lead Books of Sacromonte]], texts written in [[Arabic]] claiming to be Christian sacred books from the first century AD.{{sfn|Harvey|2005|p=264}} Upon their discovery in the mid-1590s, the books were initially greeted enthusiastically by the Christians of Granada and treated by the Christian authorities as genuine, causing a sensation throughout Europe due to their (ostensibly) ancient origin.{{sfn|Harvey|2005|p=267}}{{sfn|Harvey|2005|p=271}} Hispano-Arabic historian [[Leonard Patrick Harvey]] proposed that the Moriscos wrote these texts in order to infiltrate Christianity from within, by emphasizing aspects of Christianity which were acceptable to Muslims.{{sfn|Harvey|2005|p=265}}{{sfn|Harvey|2005|p=270}} The content of the text was superficially Christian and did not refer to Islam at all, but contained many "Islamizing" features. The text never featured the [[Trinity]] doctrine or referred to Jesus as Son of God, concepts which are blasphemous and offensive in Islam.{{sfn|Harvey|2005|p=270}} Instead, it repeatedly stated "There is no god but God and Jesus is the Spirit of God (''ruh Allah'')", which is unambiguously close to the Islamic [[shahada]]{{sfn|Harvey|2005|p=265}} and referred to the Qur'anic epithet for Jesus, "the Spirit
In many ways, their situation was comparable to that of the [[Marrano]]s, secret [[Jew]]s who lived in Spain at the same time.
Line 121:
Although many Moriscos were sincere Christians,<ref name="Vassberg2002">{{cite book|last=Vassberg|first=David E.|title=The Village and the Outside World in Golden Age Castile: Mobility and Migration in Everyday Rural Life|date=2002|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=978-0521527132|page=142|quote=We know that many of the Moriscos were well acculturated to Christian ways, and that many had even become sincere Roman Catholics.}}</ref> adult Moriscos were often assumed to be covert Muslims (i.e. [[crypto-Muslims]]),<ref>{{cite journal|last=Boase|first=Roger|date=4 April 2002|title=The Muslim Expulsion from Spain|journal=[[History Today]]|volume=52|issue=4|quote=Moriscos who were sincere Christians were also bound to remain second-class citizens, and might be exposed to criticism from Muslims and Christians alike.}}</ref> but expelling their children presented the government with a dilemma. As the children had all been baptized, the government could not legally or morally transport them to Muslim lands. Some authorities proposed that children should be forcibly separated from their parents, but sheer numbers showed this to be impractical. Consequently, the official destination of the expellees was generally stated to be France (more specifically [[Marseille]]). After the assassination of [[Henry IV of France|Henry IV]] in 1610, about 150,000 Moriscos were sent there.<ref>[[:fr:Bruno Etienne|Bruno Etienne]], "Nos ancêtres les Sarrasins", in « Les nouveaux penseurs de l'Islam », ''Nouvel Observateur'', hors série n° 54 du April/May 2004, pp. 22–23</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=bXMRAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA1-PA71][[Francisque Michel]]<span>, </span>''Histoire des races maudites de la France et de l'Espagne'', Hachette, 1847, p. 71</ref> Many of the Moriscos migrated from Marseille to other lands in [[Christendom]], including Italy and Sicily, or [[Constantinople]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Boase|first=Roger|date=4 April 2002|title=The Muslim Expulsion from Spain|journal=[[History Today]]|volume=52|issue=4|quote=The majority of the forced emigrants settled in the Maghrib or Barbary Coast, especially in Oran, Tunis, Tlemcen, Tetuán, Rabat and Salé. Many travelled overland to France, but after the assassination of Henry of Navarre by Ravaillac in May 1610, they were forced to emigrate to Italy, Sicily or Constantinople.}}</ref> Estimates of returnee numbers vary, with historian Earl Hamilton believing that as many as a quarter of those expelled may have returned to Spain.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RtDCAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA161|title=Tolerance and Coexistence in Early Modern Spain: Old Christians and Moriscos in the Campo de Calatrava|first=Trevor J.|last=Dadson|date=2018|publisher=Boydell & Brewer Ltd|isbn=978-1855662735|access-date=3 April 2018|via=Google Books}}</ref>
The overwhelming majority of the refugees settled in Muslim-held lands, mostly in the [[Ottoman Empire]], in (Algeria, Tunisia) or Morocco, or in [[Galata]]
[[File:Moriscos Port d'Orán. Vicente Mestre.jpg |thumb|upright=1.5|''Disembarking of the Moriscos at Oran port'' (1613, {{ILL|Vicente Mostre|es}}), Fundación Bancaja de Valencia]]
Line 151:
===Moriscos in Spain after the expulsion===
It is impossible to know how many Moriscos remained after the expulsion, with traditional Spanish [[historiography]] considering that none remained and initial academic estimates such as those of Lapeyre offering figures as low as ten or fifteen thousand remaining. However, recent studies have been challenging the traditional discourse on the supposed success of the expulsion in purging Spain of its Morisco population. Indeed, it seems that expulsion met widely differing levels of success, particularly between the two major Spanish crowns of [[Crown of Castile|Castile]] and [[Crown of Aragon|Aragón]] and recent historical studies also agree that both the original Morisco population and the number of them who avoided expulsion is higher than was previously thought.<ref name=Levantine2011>{{cite journal|author1=Trevor J. Dadson|title=The Assimilation of Spain's Moriscos: Fiction or Reality?|journal=[[Journal of Levantine Studies]]|publisher=Bibliotecas Públicas. Ministerio de Educación, Cultura y Deporte|date=Winter 2011|volume=1|issue=2|pages=23–24|url=http://www.bibliotecaspublicas.es/villarrubiadelosojos/imagenes/Dadson_Assimilation_Reality_or_Fiction.pdf|access-date=2015-02-26|archive-date=2013-06-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130612121737/http://www.bibliotecaspublicas.es/villarrubiadelosojos/imagenes/Dadson_Assimilation_Reality_or_Fiction.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>
[[File:Monuments de Salé.png|thumb|314x314px|Monuments in Sale where many Moriscos sought refuge and founded the [[Republic of Salé]].]]
One of the earliest re-examinations of Morisco expulsion was carried out by [[Trevor J. Dadson]] in 2007, devoting a significant section to the expulsion in [[Villarrubia de los Ojos]] in southern Castille. Villarubia's entire Morisco population were the target of three expulsions which they managed to avoid or from which they succeeded in returning from to their town of origin, being protected and hidden by their non-Morisco neighbours. Dadson provides numerous examples, of similar incidents throughout Spain whereby Moriscos were protected and supported by non-Moriscos<ref name=Levantine2011 /> and returned en masse from North Africa, Portugal or France to their towns of origin.
Line 179:
A wide number of recent genetic studies of modern-day Spanish and Portuguese populations have ascertained significantly higher levels of North African admixture in the Iberian peninsula than in the rest of the European continent.<ref name="PNAS2013" /> which is generally attributed to Islamic rule and settlement of the Iberian peninsula.<ref name=PNAS2013>{{cite journal|last1=Botigue|first1=L. R.|last2=Henn|first2=B. M.|last3=Gravel|first3=S.|last4=Maples|first4=B. K.|last5=Gignoux|first5=C. R.|last6=Corona|first6=E.|last7=Atzmon|first7=G.|last8=Burns|first8=E.|last9=Ostrer|first9=H.|last10=Flores|first10=C.|last11=Bertranpetit|first11=J.|last12=Comas|first12=D.|last13=Bustamante|first13=C. D.|title=Gene flow from North Africa contributes to differential human genetic diversity in southern Europe|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|date=16 July 2013|volume=110|issue=29|pages=11791–11796|doi=10.1073/pnas.1306223110|pmid=23733930|pmc=3718088|bibcode=2013PNAS..11011791B|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Cerezo M |title=Reconstructing ancient mitochondrial DNA links between Africa and Europe |journal=Genome Res. |volume=22 |issue=5 |pages=821–826 |date=May 2012 |pmid=22454235 |doi=10.1101/gr.134452.111 |name-list-style=vanc|author2=Achilli A |author3=Olivieri A |display-authors=3 |last4=Perego |first4=U. A. |last5=Gomez-Carballa |first5=A. |last6=Brisighelli |first6=F. |last7=Lancioni |first7=H. |last8=Woodward |first8=S. R. |last9=Lopez-Soto |first9=M. |pmc=3337428}}</ref> Common North African genetic markers which are relatively high frequencies in the Iberian peninsula as compared to the rest of the European continent are Y-chromosome E1b1b1b1(E-M81)<ref name="capelli2009"/><ref name=adams2008>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.ajhg.2008.11.007 |doi-access=free |title=The Genetic Legacy of Religious Diversity and Intolerance: Paternal Lineages of Christians, Jews, and Muslims in the Iberian Peninsula |year=2008 |last1=Adams |first1=Susan M. |first2=Elena |first3=Patricia L. |first4=Stéphane J. |first5=Andrew C. |first6=Eduardo |first7=Ana M. |first8=Mercedes |first9=Marina S. Gisbert |journal=The American Journal of Human Genetics |volume=83 |pmid=19061982 |last2=Bosch |last3=Balaresque |last4=Ballereau |last5=Lee |last6=Arroyo |last7=López-Parra |last8=Aler |last9=Grifo |issue=6 |pmc=2668061 |last10=Brion |first10=Maria |last11=Carracedo |first11=Angel |last12=Lavinha |first12=João |last13=Martínez-Jarreta |first13=Begoña |last14=Quintana-Murci |first14=Lluis |last15=Picornell |first15=Antònia |last16=Ramon |first16=Misericordia |last17=Skorecki |first17=Karl |last18=Behar |first18=Doron M. |last19=Calafell |first19=Francesc |last20=Jobling |first20=Mark A. |pages=725–736}}
*{{cite magazine |date=3 January 2009 |title=Spanish Inquisition couldn't quash Moorish, Jewish genes |magazine=[[Science News]] |volume= |issue=1 |url=http://www.sciencenews.org/view/generic/id/39056/title/Spanish_Inquisition_couldn%E2%80%99t_quash_Moorish,_Jewish_genes |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629172709/http://www.sciencenews.org/view/generic/id/39056/title/Spanish_Inquisition_couldn%E2%80%99t_quash_Moorish,_Jewish_genes |archive-date=29 June 2011}}</ref> and [[Macro-haplogroup L (mtDNA)]] and U6. Studies coincide that North African admixture tends to increase in the
As for tracing Morisco descendants in North Africa, to date there have been few genetic studies of populations of Morisco origin in the Maghreb region, although studies of the Moroccan population have not detected significant recent genetic inflow from the Iberian peninsula.{{Citation needed|date=March 2015}} A recent study of various Tunisian ethnic groups has found that all were indigenous North African, including those who self-identified as Andalusians.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>
Line 274:
==External links==
{{NIE Poster|Moors|Morisco|year=1905}}
*[
*{{Cite EB1911 |wstitle=Moriscos |volume=18 |pages=837–838 |short=1}}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20040909050807/http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1373/is_4_52/ai_84804714/pg_2 The expulsion of Muslims from Spain by Professor Roger Boase]
| |||