Kerala: Difference between revisions

| largestcity = capital

| metro = Kochi

| GDP_total = {{increase}}{{INRConvert|11.3260|lc|lk=r}}

| GDP_year = 2022–20232023–2024

| GDP_per_capita = {{IncreaseNeutral}}{{INRConvert|327890352151|lk=r}}

| literacy_rank = [[List of Indian states and union territories by literacy rate|1st]]

| sexratio_rank = [[List of states and union territories of India by sex ratio|17th]]

'''Kerala''' ({{IPAc-en|lang|ˈ|k|ɛr|ə|l|ə|audio=Kerala (English Pronunciation).ogg}}/ {{respell|KERR|ə|lə}}), called '''Keralam''' in [[Malayalam]] ({{IPA-ml|keːɾɐɭɐm|lang|Ml-Keralam.ogg}}), is a [[States and union territories of India|state]] on the [[Malabar Coast]] of [[India]].<ref name="mlb">{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Malabar Coast |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopedia Britannica]] |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Malabar-Coast |access-date=26 May 2021 |archive-date=2 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202002140/https://www.britannica.com/place/Malabar-Coast |url-status=live }}</ref> It was formed on 1 November 1956, following the passage of the [[States Reorganisation Act]], by combining [[Malayalam]]-speaking regions of the erstwhile regions of [[Kingdom of Cochin|Cochin]], [[Malabar District|Malabar]], [[South Canara]], and [[Travancore]].<ref name="Malabar" /><ref name="Kerala" /> Spread over {{cvt|38863|km2|sqmi|0}}, Kerala is the 21st [[List of states and union territories of India by area|largest Indian state by area]]. It is bordered by [[Karnataka]] to the north and northeast, [[Tamil Nadu]] to the east and south, and the [[Laccadive Sea|Lakshadweep Sea]]<ref>{{Cite web |year=1953 |title=Limits of Oceans and Seas, 3rd edition |url=https://iho.int/uploads/user/pubs/standards/s-23/S-23_Ed3_1953_EN.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181005131902/https://www.iho.int/iho_pubs/standard/S-23/S-23_Ed3_1953_EN.pdf |archive-date=5 October 2018 |access-date=28 December 2020 |publisher=International Hydrographic Organization}}</ref> to the west. With 33 million inhabitants as per the [[2011 Census of India|2011 census]], Kerala is the [[List of states of India by population|13th-largest Indian state by population]]. It is divided into 14 [[List of districts of Kerala|districts]] with the capital being [[Thiruvananthapuram]]. [[Malayalam]] is the most widely spoken language and is also the official language of the state.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Kerala – Principal Language |url=https://archive.india.gov.in/knowindia/state_uts.php?id=73 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200610111356/https://archive.india.gov.in/knowindia/state_uts.php?id=73 |archive-date=10 June 2020 |access-date=27 November 2018 |website=Government of India}}</ref>

TheIn 2019–20, the [[economy of Kerala]] iswas the [[List of Indian states and union territories by GDP|8th-largest]] in India with {{INRConvert|8.55|t}} in gross state domestic product (GSDP) and a per capita net state domestic product of {{INRConvert|222|k}}.<ref name="MOSPI">{{Cite web |date=15 March 2021 |title=MOSPI State Domestic Product, Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, Government of India |url=https://mospi.nic.in/sites/default/files/press_releases_statements/State_wise_SDP_15_03_2021.xls |access-date=23 June 2021 |archive-date=17 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210617193238/http://mospi.nic.in/sites/default/files/press_releases_statements/State_wise_SDP_15_03_2021.xls |url-status=live }}</ref> The
In 2019–20, the [[Tertiary sector of the economy|tertiary sector]] contributescontributed around 65% to state's [[Gross value added|GSVA]], while the [[Primary sector of the economy|primary sector]] contributescontributed only 8%.<ref name="eco">{{Cite book |last=Government of Kerala |url=https://spb.kerala.gov.in/sites/default/files/2021-01/English-Vol-1_0.pdf |title=Economic Review 2020 – Volume I |publisher=Kerala State Planning Board |year=2021 |location=Thiruvananthapuram |access-date=18 June 2021 |archive-date=2 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210502171017/https://spb.kerala.gov.in/sites/default/files/2021-01/English-Vol-1_0.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> The state has witnessed significant emigration, especially to the [[Arab states of the Persian Gulf]] during the [[Kerala Gulf diaspora#The Gulf Boom|Gulf Boom]] of the 1970s and early 1980s, and its economy depends significantly on [[remittances]] from a large [[Malayali]] expatriate community. The production of [[Black pepper|pepper]] and [[natural rubber]] contributes significantly to the total national output. In the agricultural sector, [[coconut]], [[tea]], [[coffee]], [[cashew]] and spices are important. The state is situated between [[Arabian Sea]] to the west and [[Western Ghats]] mountain ranges to the east. The state's coastline extends for {{convert|595|km|mi}}, and around 1.1&nbsp;million people in the state are dependent on the fishery industry, which contributes 3% to the state's income. Named as one of the ten paradises of the world by [[National Geographic Traveler]],<ref>{{Cite news |date=7 February 2014 |title=Kerala: A vacation in paradise |work=[[The Times of India]] |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/kerala-a-vacation-in-paradise/articleshow/26251595.cms |access-date=17 January 2023 |archive-date=25 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231125190237/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/kerala-a-vacation-in-paradise/articleshow/26251595.cms |url-status=live }}</ref> Kerala is one of the prominent [[Tourism in Kerala|tourist destinations]] of India, with [[Beaches in Kerala|coconut-lined sandy beaches]], [[Kerala Backwaters|backwaters]], [[hill station]]s, [[Ayurveda|Ayurvedic tourism]] and [[tropical]] greenery as its major attractions.

According to the Sangam classic ''[[Purananuru]]'', the [[Chera dynasty|Chera]] king [[Senguttuvan|Senkuttuvan]] conquered the lands between [[Kanyakumari]] and the [[Himalayas]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Menon |first=A. Sreedhara |title=Kerala History and its Makers |publisher=D C Books |year=1987 |isbn=978-8126421992 |page=24}}</ref> Lacking worthy enemies, he besieged the sea by throwing his spear into it.<ref name=":0" /><ref>''Ancient Indian History'' By Madhavan Arjunan Pillai, p. 204 {{ISBN?}}</ref> According to the 17th-century Hindu mythology work ''[[Keralolpathi]]'', the lands of Kerala were recovered from the sea by the axe-wielding warrior sage [[ParasuramaParashurama]], the sixth [[Daśāvatāra|avatar]] of [[Vishnu]] (hence, Kerala is also called ''ParasuramaParashurama Kshetram'' 'The Land of ParasuramaParashurama' in Hindu mythology).<ref>S.C. Bhatt, Gopal K. Bhargava (2006) "Land and People of Indian States and Union Territories: Volume 14.", p. 18</ref> ParasuramaParashurama threw his axe across the sea, and the water receded as far as it reached. According to the legendary account, this new area of land extended from [[Gokarna, India|Gokarna]] to [[Kanyakumari]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Aiya VN |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RdzaPW-kEvQC |title=The Travancore State Manual |publisher=Travancore Government Press |year=1906 |pages=210–12 |access-date=12 November 2007 |archive-date=25 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231125190257/https://books.google.com/books?id=RdzaPW-kEvQC |url-status=live }}</ref> The land which rose from sea was filled with salt and unsuitable for habitation; so ParasuramaParashurama invoked the Snake King [[Vasuki (snake)|Vasuki]], who spat holy poison and converted the soil into fertile lush green land. Out of respect, Vasuki and all snakes were appointed as protectors and guardians of the land. [[P. T. Srinivasa Iyengar]] theorised, that [[Senguttuvan]] may have been inspired by the [[Parasurama]]Parashurama legendary account, which was brought by early Aryan settlers.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Srinivisa Iyengar |first=P. T. |title=History of the Tamils: From the Earliest Times to 600 A.D. |publisher=Asian Educational Services |year=1929 |isbn=978-8120601451 |location=Madras |page=515}}</ref>

Another much earlier [[Puranic]] character associated with Kerala is [[Mahabali]], an [[Asura]] and a prototypical just king, who ruled the earth from Kerala. He won the war against the [[Deva (Hinduism)|Devas]], driving them into exile. The Devas pleaded before Lord ''Vishnu'', who took his fifth incarnation as ''[[Vamana]]'' and pushed Mahabali down to [[Patala|netherworld]] to placate the Devas. There is a belief that, once a year during the [[Onam]] festival, Mahabali returns to Kerala.<ref name="Rinehart2004">{{Cite book |last=Robin Rinehart |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hMPYnfS_R90C&pg=PA146 |title=Contemporary Hinduism: Ritual, Culture, and Practice |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2004 |isbn=978-1-57607-905-8 |page=146 |access-date=28 July 2012}}</ref> The [[Matsya Purana]], among the oldest of the 18 [[Puranas]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Goldberg |first=Ellen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xUhlxBozntoC&pg=PA20 |title=The Lord who is Half Woman: Ardhanārīśvara in Indian and Feminist Perspective |publisher=SUNY Press |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-7914-5325-4 |page=20 |access-date=30 May 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Kemmerer |first=Lisa |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iFEL2yjkbAAC&pg=PA78 |title=Animals and World Religions |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-19-991255-1 |page=78 |access-date=30 May 2015}}</ref> uses the [[Malaya Mountains]] of Kerala (and [[Tamil Nadu]]) as the setting for the story of [[Matsya]], the first [[Dashavatara|incarnation]] of Vishnu, and [[Manu (Hinduism)|Manu]], the first man and the king of the region.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dalal |first=Roshen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DH0vmD8ghdMC&pg=PA250 |title=Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide |publisher=Penguin Books India |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-14-341421-6 |page=250 |access-date=30 May 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Ragozin |first=Zenaide A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T16d-eRG5VkC&pg=PA341 |title=Vedic India As Embodied Principally in the Rig-veda |publisher=Kessinger Publishing |year=2005 |isbn=978-1-4179-4463-7 |page=341 |access-date=21 March 2013}}</ref>

[[File:Chera King's Sword given to the Zamorin of Calicut.png|thumbnailthumb|upright=1.3|Portrait of the sword of [[Zamorin of Calicut|Zamorins of Kozhikode]], relating to the legend of Cheraman Perumal.]]

| caption1 = A [[dolmen]] erected by Neolithic people in [[Marayur]], [[Kerala, India]].

| caption2 = [[Stone Age]] (6,000 BCE) writings of [[Edakkal Caves]] in Kerala.

Kerala has been a major spice exporter since 3000&nbsp; BCE, according to [[Sumer]]ian records and it is still referred to as the "Garden of Spices" or as the "Spice Garden of India".<ref>{{Cite news |last=Pradeep Kumar |first=Kaavya |date=28 January 2014 |title=Of Kerala, Egypt, and the Spice link |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-kerala/of-kerala-egypt-and-the-spice-link/article5625620.ece |access-date=12 November 2015 |archive-date=20 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220035118/http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-kerala/of-kerala-egypt-and-the-spice-link/article5625620.ece |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="ChattopadhyayFranke2006" />{{rp|79}} Kerala's spices attracted ancient [[Arab]]s, [[Babylonians]], [[Assyria]]ns and [[Egyptians]] to the [[Malabar Coast]] in the 3rd and 2nd millennia BCE. [[Phoenicians]] established trade with Kerala during this period.<ref name="Menon57">{{Cite book |last=A Sreedhara Menon |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FVsw35oEBv4C&pg=PA57 |title=A Survey Of Kerala History |publisher=DC Books |year=2007 |isbn=978-8126415786 |pages=57–58 |access-date=10 October 2012}}</ref> [[Arab]]s and [[Phoenicians]] were the first to enter Malabar Coast to trade [[Spice]]s.<ref name="Menon57" /> The Arabs on the coasts of [[Yemen]], [[Oman]], and the [[Persian Gulf]], must have made the first long voyage to Kerala and other [[Eastern world|eastern countries]].<ref name="Menon57" /> They must have brought the [[Cinnamon]] of Kerala to the [[Middle East]].<ref name="Menon57" /> The Greek historian [[Herodotus]] (5th century BCE) records that in his time the cinnamon spice industry was monopolisedmonopolized by the Egyptians and the Phoenicians.<ref name="Menon57" />

The ''Land of Keralaputra'' was one of the four independent kingdoms in southern India during Ashoka's time, the others being [[Chola Empire|Chola]], [[Pandya Empire|Pandya]], and [[Satiyaputras|Satiyaputra]].<ref name="SmithJackson2008">{{Cite book |last1=Vincent A. Smith |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bP7DzXQBoM4C&pg=PA166 |title=History of India, in Nine Volumes: Vol. II – From the Sixth Century BCE to the Mohammedan Conquest, Including the Invasion of Alexander the Great |last2=A. V. Williams Jackson |publisher=Cosimo, Inc. |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-60520-492-5 |page=166 |access-date=1 August 2012}}</ref> Scholars hold that Keralaputra is an alternate name of the [[Chera dynasty|Cheras]], the first dominant dynasty who ruled Kerala, and had its capital at [[Karur]].<ref name="The Cambridge Shorter History of India">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9_48AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA193 |title=The Cambridge Shorter History of India |publisher=CUP Archive |page=193 |id=GGKEY:2W0QHXZ7K40 |access-date=10 October 2012}}</ref><ref name="Dwivedi1994">{{Cite book |last=Bhanwar Lal Dwivedi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=idERT6Tg4MMC&pg=PA164 |title=Evolution of Education Thought in India |publisher=Northern Book Centre |year=1994 |isbn=978-8172110598 |page=164 |access-date=10 October 2012}}</ref> These territories once shared a common language and culture, within an area known as [[Tamilakam]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kanakasabhai |first=V. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VuvshP5_hg8C |title=The Tamils Eighteen Hundred Years Ago |publisher=Asian Educational Services |year=1997 |isbn=978-8120601505 |access-date=16 June 2009 |archive-date=25 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231125190727/https://books.google.com/books?id=VuvshP5_hg8C |url-status=live }}</ref> The region around [[Coimbatore]] was ruled by the [[Chera dynasty|Cheras]] during [[Sangam period]] between 1st and the 4th centuries CE and it served as the eastern entrance to the [[Palakkad Gap]], the principal trade route between the [[Malabar Coast]] and [[Tamil Nadu]].<ref name="Trade">{{Cite news |last=Subramanian |first=T. S |date=28 January 2007 |title=Roman connection in Tamil Nadu |work=[[The Hindu]] |url=https://www.hindu.com/thehindu/thscrip/print.pl?file=2007012800201800.htm&date=2007/01/28/&prd=th |url-status=live |access-date=28 October 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130919235748/https://www.hindu.com/thehindu/thscrip/print.pl?file=2007012800201800.htm&date=2007%2F01%2F28%2F&prd=th |archive-date=19 September 2013}}</ref> Along with the [[Ay kingdom]] in the south and the [[Ezhimala kingdom]] in the north, the [[Chera dynasty|Cheras]] formed the ruling kingdoms of Kerala in the early years of the Common Era (CE).<ref name="Menon65">{{Cite book |last=A Sreedhara Menon |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FVsw35oEBv4C&pg=PA65 |title=A Survey Of Kerala History |publisher=DC Books |year=2007 |isbn=978-8126415786 |pages=65 |access-date=10 October 2012 |archive-date=25 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231125190732/https://books.google.com/books?id=FVsw35oEBv4C&pg=PA65 |url-status=live }}</ref> It is noted in Sangam literature that the Chera king [[Uthiyan Cheralathan]] ruled most of modern Kerala from his capital in [[Kuttanad]],<ref name="Singh2008">{{cite book |last=Singh |first=Upinder |title=A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GW5Gx0HSXKUC&pg=PA385 |access-date=10 October 2012 |year=2008 |publisher=Pearson Education India |isbn=978-8131716779 |page=384}}</ref><ref name="sen2">{{Cite book |last=Sen |first=Sailendra |title=A Textbook of Medieval Indian History |publisher=Primus Books |year=2013 |isbn=978-9380607344 |pages=60–61}}</ref> and controlled the port of [[Muziris]], but its southern tip was in the kingdom of [[Pandyas]],{{sfn|Singh|2008|p=385}} which had a trading port sometimes identified in ancient Western sources as ''[[Nelcynda]]'' (or ''Neacyndi'') in [[Quilon]].<ref name="Books.google.co.in">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rQipbjusDyQC&q=nelcynda&pg=PA301 |title=History of ancient geography – Google Books |author=James Oliver Thomson |publisher=Biblo & Tannen Publishers |access-date=30 July 2009 |isbn=978-0-8196-0143-8 |year=1948 |archive-date=25 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231125190728/https://books.google.com/books?id=rQipbjusDyQC&q=nelcynda&pg=PA301#v=snippet&q=nelcynda&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> ''[[Tyndis]]'' was a major centre of trade, next only to [[Muziris]], between the Cheras and the [[Roman Empire]].<ref>Coastal Histories: Society and Ecology in Pre-modern India, Yogesh Sharma, Primus Books 2010</ref> The lesser known [[Ay kingdom|Ays]] and [[Ezhimala kingdom|Mushikas]] kingdoms lay to the south and north of the Chera regions, respectively.<ref name="Shashi1996">{{cite book |author=S. S. Shashi |title=Encyclopaedia Indica: India, Pakistan, Bangladesh |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lwswAQAAIAAJ |access-date=10 October 2012 |year=1996 |publisher=Anmol Publications |isbn=978-8170418597 |page=1207}}</ref><ref name="Ramunny1993">{{cite book |author=Murkot Ramunny |title=Ezhimala: The Abode of the Naval Academy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7Hue54bWk6IC&pg=PA3 |access-date=10 October 2012 |year=1993 |publisher=Northern Book Centre |isbn=978-8172110529 |page=3}}</ref> [[Pliny the Elder]] (1st century CE) states that the port of ''[[Tyndis]]'' was located at the northwestern border of ''Keprobotos'' ([[Chera dynasty]]).<ref name=":2">Gurukkal, R., & Whittaker, D. (2001). In search of Muziris. ''Journal of Roman Archaeology,'' ''14'', 334–350.</ref> The [[North Malabar]] region, which lies north of the port at ''[[Tyndis]]'', was ruled by the kingdom of [[Ezhimala]] during [[Sangam period]].<ref name="Malabar" /> The port at ''[[Tyndis]]'' which was on the northern side of ''[[Muziris]]'', as mentioned in Greco-Roman writings, was somewhere around [[Kozhikode]].<ref name="Malabar" /> Its exact location is a matter of dispute.<ref name="Malabar" /> The suggested locations are [[Ponnani]], [[Tanur, Malappuram|Tanur]], [[Beypore]]-[[Chaliyam]]-[[Kadalundi]]-[[Vallikkunnu]], and [[Koyilandy]].<ref name="Malabar" />

According to the ''[[Periplus of the Erythraean Sea]]'', a region known as ''[[Limyrike]]'' began at ''[[Kannur|Naura]]'' and ''[[Tyndis]]''. However the [[Ptolemy]] mentions only ''[[Tyndis]]'' as the ''[[Limyrike]]'''s starting point. The region probably ended at [[Kanyakumari]]; it thus roughly corresponds to the present-day [[Malabar Coast]]. The value of Rome's annual trade with the region was estimated at 50,000,000 [[sesterces]]. According to [[Pliny the Elder]], goods from India were sold in the Empire at 100 times their original purchase price.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.cartage.org.lb/en/themes/BookLibrary/books/bibliographie/P/Plinyelder/elder/pliny-india.html |title=Ancient History Sourcebook: Pliny: Natural History 6.96-111. (On India) |date=6 November 2013 |website=|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131106031753/https://www.cartage.org.lb/en/themes/BookLibrary/books/bibliographie/P/Plinyelder/elder/pliny-india.html |archive-date=6 November 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Pliny the Elder]] mentioned that ''[[Limyrike]]'' was prone to raids by pirates.<ref>Bostock, John (1855). "26 (Voyages to India)". Pliny the Elder, The Natural History. London: Taylor and Francis.</ref> The [[Cosmas Indicopleustes]] mentioned that the ''[[Limyrike]]'' was a source of [[Malabar pepper]]s.<ref>Indicopleustes, Cosmas (1897). Christian Topography. 11. United Kingdom: The Tertullian Project. pp. 358–373.</ref><ref>Das, Santosh Kumar (2006). The Economic History of Ancient India. Genesis Publishing Pvt Ltd. p. 301.</ref> In the last centuries BCE the coast became important to the Greeks and Romans for its spices, especially [[Malabar pepper]]. The Cheras had trading links with [[Ancient China|China]], [[Western Asia|West Asia]], [[Egypt]], [[Greece]], and the [[Roman Empire]].<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=eONSAAAAcAAJ&q=Muziris Cyclopaedia of India and of Eastern and Southern Asia.] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161227045308/https://books.google.com/books?id=eONSAAAAcAAJ&q=Muziris |date=27 December 2016 }} Ed. by Edward Balfour (1871), Second Edition. Volume 2. p. 584.</ref> In foreign-trade circles the region was known as ''Male'' or ''Malabar''.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.siamese-heritage.org/jsspdf/1961/JSS_054_1c_Minattur_MalayaWhatsInAName.pdf |title=Malaya: What's in the name |publisher=siamese-heritage.org |access-date=7 August 2012 |author=Joseph Minattur |page=1 |archive-date=23 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130523064137/http://www.siamese-heritage.org/jsspdf/1961/JSS_054_1c_Minattur_MalayaWhatsInAName.pdf |url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Muziris]], [[Tyndis]], [[Kannur|Naura]], Nelcynda, and [[Purakkad|Barace]], were among the principal ports at that time.<ref name="Kusuman">{{cite book |author=K. K. Kusuman |title=A History of Trade & Commerce in Travancore |publisher=Mittal Publications |year=1987 |isbn=978-8170990260 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qbNuyHswr1cC |pages=1–2 |access-date=30 May 2015 |archive-date=25 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231125200729/https://books.google.com/books?id=qbNuyHswr1cC |url-status=live }}</ref> Contemporary [[Sangam literature]] describes Roman ships coming to Muziris in Kerala, laden with gold to exchange for [[Malabar pepper]]. One of the earliest western traders to use the monsoon winds to reach Kerala was [[Eudoxus of Cyzicus]], around 118 or 166&nbsp; BCE, under the patronage of [[Ptolemy VIII Physcon|Ptolemy VIII]], king of the [[Hellenistic civilisation|Hellenistic]] [[Ptolemaic dynasty]] in Egypt. Roman establishments in the port cities of the region, such as a temple of ''[[Augustus]]'' and barracks for garrisoned Roman soldiers, are marked in the [[Tabula Peutingeriana]], the only surviving map of the Roman ''[[cursus publicus]]''.<ref>{{cite book |author=Abraham Eraly |title=The First Spring: The Golden Age of India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=te1sqTzTxD8C&pg=PA246 |access-date=7 August 2012 |year=2011 |publisher=Penguin Books India |isbn=978-0-670-08478-4 |pages=246–}}</ref><ref name="Iyengar_2001">{{cite book |author=Iyengar PTS |year=2001 |title=History Of The Tamils: From the Earliest Times to 600 A.D. |publisher=Asian Educational Services |isbn=978-8120601451 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ERq-OCn2cloC |access-date=29 December 2008}}</ref>

[[File:3rd Tiruvalla Copper Plate.jpg|thumb|right|200pxupright=.8|[[Quilon Syrian copper plates]] granted to [[Saint Thomas Christians]] by [[Venad]] ([[Kollam]]) ruler [[Sthanu Ravi Varma]], testified about merchant guilds and trade corporations in Early Medievalmedieval Kerala. The sixth6th plate also contains a number ofwitness signatures of the witnesses to the grant in [[Arabic]] (Kufic script), [[Middle Persian]] (cursive Pahlavi script) and [[Judeo-Persian]] (standard square [[Hebrew]] script).<ref name="cereti">{{Cite book |last=Cereti |first=C. G. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b3gOdaiXNKkC&q=Exegisti+Monumenta:+Festschrift+in+Honour+of+Nicholas+Sims-+Williams |title=Exegisti Monumenta: Festschrift in Honour of Nicholas Sims-Williams |publisher=Harrassowitz |year=2009 |isbn=978-3-447-05937-4 |editor-last=Sundermann |editor-first=W. |location=Wiesbaden |pages= |chapter=The Pahlavi Signatures on the Quilon Copper Plates |editor-last2=Hintze |editor-first2=A. |editor-last3=de Blois |editor-first3=F. |access-date=5 May 2021 |archive-date=25 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231125200731/https://books.google.com/books?id=b3gOdaiXNKkC&q=Exegisti+Monumenta:+Festschrift+in+Honour+of+Nicholas+Sims-+Williams#v=snippet&q=Exegisti%20Monumenta%3A%20Festschrift%20in%20Honour%20of%20Nicholas%20Sims-%20Williams&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref>]]

A second [[Later Chera Dynasty|second Chera Kingdom]] (c. 800–1102), also known as [[Kulasekhara dynasty (Venad)|Kulasekhara dynasty]] of Mahodayapuram]] (present-day [[Kodungallur]]), was established by [[Kulashekhara Alwar|Kulasekhara Varman]],<ref>{{Cite book |title=Agrarian Relations in Late Medieval Malabar |last=M. T. Narayanan |publisher=Northern Book Centre |year=2003}}</ref> which ruled over a territory comprising the whole of modern Kerala and a smaller part of modern Tamil Nadu. During the early part of the Kulasekara period, the southern region from [[Nagercoil]] to [[Thiruvalla]] was ruled by [[Ays (Kerala)|Ay kings]], who lost their power in the 10th century, making the region a part of the Kulasekara empire.<ref name="Balachand">{{cite book |author=K. Balachandran Nayar |title=In quest of Kerala |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EXIeAAAAMAAJ |access-date=8 August 2012 |year=1974 |publisher=Accent Publications |page=86}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=A Sreedhara Menon |title=A Survey Of Kerala History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FVsw35oEBv4C&pg=PA166 |access-date=8 August 2012 |year=2007 |publisher=DC Books |isbn=978-8126415786 |page=97}}</ref> Under Kulasekhara rule, Kerala witnessed a developing period of art, literature, trade and the [[Bhakti movement]] of Hinduism.<ref name="Sreedhar123">{{cite book |author=A Sreedhara Menon |title=A Survey Of Kerala History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FVsw35oEBv4C&pg=PA166 |access-date=8 August 2012 |year=2007 |publisher=DC Books |isbn=978-8126415786 |pages=123–31}}</ref> A [[Malayali|Keralite]] identity, distinct from the [[Tamil people|Tamils]], became linguistically separate during this period around the seventh century.<ref name="Asher2013">{{cite book |author=R Asher |title=Malayalam |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hRNTAQAAQBAJ&pg=PR24 |year=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-10084-0 |at=Introduction p. xxiv}}</ref> The origin of [[Malayalam calendar]] dates back to year 825 CE.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.new1.dli.ernet.in/data1/upload/insa/INSA_1/20005b5f_93.pdf |title=Kollam Era |publisher=Indian Journal History of Science |access-date=30 December 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150527163650/https://www.new1.dli.ernet.in/data1/upload/insa/INSA_1/20005b5f_93.pdf |archive-date=27 May 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Time measurement and calendar construction |author=Broughton Richmond |year=1956 |pages=218 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gUlmAAAAMAAJ |access-date=9 June 2021 |archive-date=24 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230824121337/https://books.google.com/books?id=gUlmAAAAMAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=History of Kerala |author=R. Leela Devi |publisher=Vidyarthi Mithram Press & Book Depot |year=1986 |pages=408 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pXpuAAAAMAAJ |access-date=9 June 2021 |archive-date=24 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230824121335/https://books.google.com/books?id=pXpuAAAAMAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> For local administration, the empire was divided into provinces under the rule of [[Naduvazhi]]s, with each province comprising a number of ''Desams'' under the control of chieftains, called as ''Desavazhis''.<ref name="Sreedhar123" /> [[Mamankam festival]], which was the largest native festival, was held at [[Tirunavaya]] near [[Kuttippuram]], on the bank of river [[Bharathappuzha]].<ref name="Logan" /><ref name="Malabar" /> [[Athavanad]], the headquarters of ''[[Azhvanchery Thamprakkal]]'', who were also considered as the supreme religious chief of the [[Nambudiri]] [[Brahmin]]s of Kerala, is also located near Tirunavaya.<ref name="Logan" /><ref name="Malabar" />

[[File:Calicut 1572 (cropped).jpg|thumb|300px|leftupright=1.2|A panorama of port [[Kozhikode]], shows several types of ships, shipbuilding, net fishing, dinghy traffic and a rugged, sparsely populated interior ([[Georg Braun]] and [[Frans Hogenberg]]'s atlas ''Civitates orbis terrarum'', 1572)]]

After his death, in the absence of a strong central power, the state was divided into thirty30 small warring principalities; the most powerful of them were the kingdom of [[Zamorin of Calicut|Zamorin of Kozhikode]] in the north, [[Venad|Kollam]] in the far-south, [[Kingdom of Cochin|Kochi]] in the south, and [[Kolathunadu|Kannur]] in the far north. The port at [[Kozhikode]] held the superior economic and political position in Kerala, while [[Kollam]] (Quilon), [[Kochi]], and [[Kannur]] (Cannanore) were commercially confined to secondary roles.<ref name="Malekandathil">''The Portuguese, Indian Ocean and European Bridgeheads 1500–1800''. Festschrift in Honour of Prof. K. S. Mathew (2001). Edited by: Pius Malekandathil and T. Jamal Mohammed. Fundacoa Oriente. Institute for Research in Social Sciences and Humanities of MESHAR (Kerala)</ref> The Zamorin of Calicut was originally the ruler of [[Eranad]], which was a minor principality located in the northern parts of present-day [[Malappuram district]].<ref name="Malabar" /><ref name="KrishnaIyer2" /> The Zamorin allied with Arab and Chinese merchants and used most of the wealth from Kozhikode to develop his military power. Kozhikode became the most powerful kingdom in the [[Malayalam]] speaking region during the [[Middle Age]]s.<ref name="Varier">Varier, M. R. Raghava. "Documents of Investiture Ceremonies" in K. K. N. Kurup, Edit., "India's Naval Traditions". Northern Book Centre, New Delhi, 1997</ref><ref name="KrishnaIyer2">K. V. Krishna Iyer, ''Zamorins of Calicut: From the earliest times to AD 1806''. Calicut: Norman Printing Bureau, 1938.</ref> In the 14th century, Kozhikode conquered larger parts of central Kerala after the seize of [[Tirunavaya]] from [[Kingdom of Valluvanad|Valluvanad]], which were under the control of the king of [[Kingdom of Cochin|''Perumbadappu Swaroopam'']] (Cochin). The ruler of [[Perumpadappu, Malappuram|Perumpadappu]] was forced to shift his capital (c. CE 1405) further south from [[Kodungallur]] to [[Kochi]]. In the 15th century, the status of Cochin was reduced to a vassal state of Kozhikode.<ref name="Varier" /><ref name="KrishnaIyer2" /> The ruler of [[Kolathunadu]] ([[Kannur]]) had also came under the influence of Zamorin by the end of the 15th century.<ref name="Malabar" /><ref name="Varier" /><ref name="KrishnaIyer2" />

[[File:Uru.jpg|thumbnail|''[[Uru (boat)|Uru]]'', a type of ship that was historically used for maritime trade, built at [[Beypore]], [[Kozhikode]]]]

[[File:1652 Sanson Map of India - Geographicus - India-sanson-1652.jpg|left|thumbnailthumb|A 1652 Map of India ([[Malabar Coast]] is highlighted separately on the right side)]]

[[File:Caminho maritimo para a India.png|thumb|The path [[Vasco da Gama]] took to reach [[Kozhikode]] (black line) in 1498, which was also the [[Age of Discovery|discovery of a sea route]] from [[Europe]] to India, and eventually paved way for the [[Colonial India|European colonisation]] of [[Indian subcontinent]].]]

The maritime [[spice trade]] monopoly in the [[Arabian Sea]] stayed with the Arabs during the [[High Middle Ages|High]] and [[Late Middle Ages]]. However, the dominance of Middle East traders was challenged in the European [[Age of Discovery]]. After [[Vasco Da Gama]]'s arrival in [[Kappad]], [[Kozhikode district|Kozhikode]] in 1498, the [[Portuguese India|Portuguese]] began to dominate eastern shipping, and the spice-trade in particular.{{efn|According to historian [[M. G. S. Narayanan]] Vasco Da Gama arrived in [[Koyilandy]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Vasco da Gama never landed at Kappad: MGS |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/kozhikode/Vasco-da-Gama-never-landed-at-Kappad-MGS/article17198107.ece |access-date=20 April 2021 |work=The Hindu |date=5 February 2017 |language=en-IN}}</ref>}}<ref>{{cite book |author=Charles Corn |year=1999 |orig-year=First published 1998 |title=The Scents of Eden: A History of the Spice Trade |publisher=Kodansha America |pages=4–5 |isbn=978-1-56836-249-6}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |author=PN Ravindran |year=2000 |title=Black Pepper: Piper Nigrum |publisher=CRC Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VaGCgSLrdr4C |page=3 |isbn=978-9057024535 |access-date=11 November 2007 |archive-date=25 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231125191246/https://books.google.com/books?id=VaGCgSLrdr4C |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Curtin1984">{{cite book |author=Philip D. Curtin |year=1984 |title=Cross-Cultural Trade in World History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R4IiYFhliv4C |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=144 |isbn=978-0-521-26931-5}}</ref> Following the discovery of sea route from [[Europe]] to [[Malabar Coast|Malabar]] in 1498, the Portuguese began to expand their territories and ruled the seas between [[Ormus]] and the Malabar Coast and south to [[Sri Lanka|Ceylon]].<ref>Sanjay Subrahmanyam, The Career and Legend of Vasco da Gama, Cambridge University Press, 1997, 288</ref><ref>{{Cite book |author=Knox, Robert |author-link=Robert Knox (sailor) |year=1681 |title=An Historical Relation of the Island Ceylon |pages=19–47 |publisher=Reprint. Asian Educational Services |place=London |title-link=An Historical Relation of the Island Ceylon}}</ref> They established a trading centre at [[Tangasseri]] in [[Quilon]] during 1502 as per the invitation of the then Queen of Quilon to start spices trade from there.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.keralatourism.org/destination/thangasseri-kollam/296 |title=Kollam – Kerala Tourism |publisher=Kerala Tourism |access-date=5 November 2015 |archive-date=14 May 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140514011139/https://www.keralatourism.org/destination/thangasseri-kollam/296 |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[Zamorin]] of Kozhikode permitted the new visitors to trade with his subjects such that Portuguese trade in Kozhikode prospered with the establishment of a [[Factory (trading post)|factory]] and a fort. However, Portuguese attacks on Arab properties in his jurisdiction provoked the Zamorin and led to conflicts between them.

The ruler of the [[Kingdom of Tanur]], who was a vassal to the [[Zamorin of Calicut]], sided with the Portuguese, against his overlord at [[Kozhikode]].<ref name="Malabar" /> As a result, the [[Kingdom of Tanur]] (''[[Tirur Taluk|Vettathunadu]]'') became one of the earliest Portuguese Colonies in India. The ruler of [[Tanur, Malappuram|Tanur]] also sided with [[Kingdom of Cochin|Cochin]].<ref name="Malabar" /> Many of the members of the royal family of Cochin in 16th and 17th centuries were selected from [[Vettom Grama Panchayath|Vettom]].<ref name="Malabar" /> However, the [[Tanur, Malappuram|Tanur]] forces under the king fought for the Zamorin of Calicut in the [[Battle of Cochin (1504)]].<ref name="Logan">{{Cite book |title=Malabar Manual (Volume-I) |last=Logan |first=William |publisher=Asian Educational Services |year=2010 |isbn=978-8120604476 |location=New Delhi |pages=631–66}}</ref> However, the allegiance of the [[Mappila]] merchants in [[Tanur, Malappuram|Tanur]] region still stayed under the [[Zamorin of Calicut]].<ref name="Makhdoom">{{cite book |author=S. Muhammad Hussain Nainar |year=1942 |title=Tuhfat-al-Mujahidin: An Historical Work in The Arabic Language |publisher=University of Madras |url=https://archive.org/details/Tuhfat-al-MujahidinAnHistoricalWorkInTheArabicLanguage}}</ref>

In 1602, the [[Zamorin]] sent messages to [[Aceh]] promising the Dutch a fort at [[Kozhikode]] if they would come and trade there. Two factors, Hans de Wolff and Lafer, were sent on an Asian ship from Aceh, but the two were captured by the chief of [[Tanur, Malappuram|Tanur]], and handed over to the Portuguese.<ref name="SanjaySubrahmanyam2">Sanjay Subrahmanyam. "The Political Economy of Commerce: Southern India 1500–1650". Cambridge University Press, 2002</ref> A Dutch fleet under Admiral [[Steven van der Hagen]] arrived at Kozhikode in November 1604. It marked the beginning of the Dutch presence in Kerala and they concluded a treaty with [[Kozhikode]] on 11 November 1604, which was also the first treaty that the [[Dutch East India Company]] made with an Indian ruler.<ref name="Malabar" /> By this time the kingdom and the port of [[Kozhikode]] was much reduced in importance.<ref name="SanjaySubrahmanyam2" /> The treaty provided for a mutual alliance between the two to expel the Portuguese from Malabar. In return the [[Dutch East India Company]] was given facilities for trade at Kozhikode and [[Ponnani]], including spacious storehouses.<ref name="SanjaySubrahmanyam2" />

The Portuguese were ousted by the [[Dutch East India Company]], who during the conflicts between the [[Saamoothiri|Kozhikode]] and the [[Kingdom of Cochin|Kochi]], gained control of the trade.<ref name="South Asia 2006">{{cite book |title=South Asia 2006 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YG8bAQAAMAAJ |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2005 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |page=289 |isbn=978-1-85743-318-0}}</ref> They lost to Dutch at [[Quilon]] after 1661 and later, the [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]] left south-western coast.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.dailyo.in/politics/goa-conquest-portuguese-indian-history-colonialism-christianity-hinduism/story/1/14633.html |title=How the Portuguese used Hindu-Muslim wars – and Christianity – for the bloody conquest of Goa |publisher=Dailyo.in |access-date=9 September 2019 |archive-date=4 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200304135615/https://www.dailyo.in/politics/goa-conquest-portuguese-indian-history-colonialism-christianity-hinduism/story/1/14633.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The arrival of [[East India Company|British]] on [[Malabar Coast]] can be traced back to the year 1615, when a group under the leadership of Captain [[William Keeling]] arrived at [[Kozhikode]], using three ships.<ref name="Malabar" /> It was in these ships that Sir [[Thomas Roe]] went to visit [[Jahangir]], the fourth [[Mughal emperors|Mughal emperor]], as [[British Empire|British envoy]].<ref name="Malabar" /> In 1664, the municipality of [[Fort Kochi]] was established by [[Dutch Malabar]], making it the first municipality in the [[Indian subcontinent]], which got dissolved when the Dutch authority got weaker in the 18th century.<ref name="d_1664" />

[[File:Kanakakkunnu Palace DSW.jpg|alt=|thumb|220x220px|[[Kanakakkunnu Palace]] at [[Thiruvananthapuram]]. Thiruvananthapuram became a major city on [[Malabar Coast]] after the ruler [[Marthanda Varma]] annexed all minor kingdoms up to [[Kingdom of Cochin|Cochin]] to form [[Travancore]] in the 18th century CE.]]

By the end of the 18th century, the whole of Kerala fell under the control of the British, either administered directly or under [[suzerainty]].<ref name="RajTharakan1981">{{cite report |last1=Raj |first1=Kakkadan Nandanath |author-link1=K. N. Raj |last2=Tharakan |first2=Michael |author-link2=P. K. Michael Tharakan |title=Agrarian reform in Kerala and its impact on the rural economy: a preliminary assessment, issue 49 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JF6FAAAAIAAJ |year=1981 |pages=2–3 |series=World Employment Programme research working paper |location=Geneva |publisher=[[International Labour Office]] |access-date=4 April 2022}}</ref> Initially the British had to suffer local resistance against their rule under the leadership of [[Pazhassi Raja|Kerala Varma Pazhassi Raja]], who had popular support in [[Thalassery]]-[[Wayanad]] region.<ref name="Malabar" /> The municipalities of [[Kozhikode]], [[Palakkad]], [[Fort Kochi]], [[Kannur]], and [[Thalassery]], were founded on 1 November 1866<ref name="Ref1">{{cite web |url=https://www.lawmin.nic.in/chronology.doc |title=Chronological List of Central Acts (Updated up to 17-10-2014) |website=Lawmin.nic.in |access-date=7 August 2016 |archive-date=7 January 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180107091128/http://lawmin.nic.in/chronology.doc |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="c1881">{{cite book |last1=Lewis McIver |first1=G. Stokes |title=Imperial Census of 1881 Operations and Results in the Presidency of Madras |year=1883 |publisher=E.Keys at the Government Press |location=Madras |page=444 |edition=(Vol II) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b_YIAAAAQAAJ |access-date=5 December 2020 |archive-date=27 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327063433/https://books.google.com/books?id=b_YIAAAAQAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="google.co.in">{{cite book |last1=Presidency |first1=Madras (India |title=Madras District Gazetteers, Statistical Appendix For Malabar District. |year=1915 |publisher=The Superintendent, Government Press |location=Madras |page=20 |edition=Vol.2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aUEwnQEACAAJ |access-date=2 December 2020 |language=en |archive-date=27 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327063433/https://books.google.com/books?id=aUEwnQEACAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="frowde">{{cite book |last1=Henry Frowde, M.A. |first1=Imperial Gazetteer of India |title=Imperial Gazetteer of India |date=1908–1909 |publisher=Clarendon Press |location=Oxford |edition=New |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/gazetteer/ |access-date=2 December 2020 |archive-date=16 December 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081216124143/http://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/gazetteer/ |url-status=live }}</ref> of the [[British Indian Empire]], making them the first modern municipalities in the state of Kerala. The [[Malabar Special Police]] was formed by the colonial government in 1884 headquartered at [[Malappuram]].<ref>{{Cite news |title=Beating the retreat: The Malabar Special Police is no longer the trigger-happy unit |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/blogs/tracking-indian-communities/beating-the-retreat-the-malabar-special-police-is-no-longer-the-trigger-happy-unit/ |last=KP Saikiran |date=10 October 2020 |access-date=13 November 2020 |work=[[The Times of India]] |archive-date=22 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210822022921/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/blogs/tracking-indian-communities/beating-the-retreat-the-malabar-special-police-is-no-longer-the-trigger-happy-unit/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

Kerala's western coastal belt is relatively flat compared to the eastern region,<ref name="ChattopadhyayFranke2006" />{{rp|33}} and is criss-crossed by a network of interconnected [[brackish]] canals, lakes, [[estuaries]],<ref name="Moss2010">{{cite book |author=Danny Moss |title=Public Relations Cases: International Perspectives |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s0-CJ3djEdEC&pg=PA41 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2010 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-0-415-77336-2 |page=41}}</ref> and rivers known as the [[Kerala Backwaters]].<ref name="Thorpe2012">{{cite book |author=Edgar Thorpe |title=The Pearson CSAT Manual 2012 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1cruroSVFoUC&pg=RA3-PA38 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2012 |publisher=Pearson Education India |isbn=978-8131767344 |page=3}}</ref> [[Kuttanad]], also known as ''The Rice Bowl of Kerala'', has the [[List of extreme points of India#Altitudes|lowest altitude in India]], and is also one of the few places in world where cultivation takes place below sea level.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Kerala Boat Ferries Lone Passenger To Help Her Take Exam |url=https://www.ndtv.com/kerala-news/coronavirus-lockdown4-kerala-government-boat-ferries-lone-passenger-sandra-babu-to-help-her-take-exam-2238752 |last=Press Trust of India |date=1 June 2020 |access-date=17 November 2020 |work=NDTV |archive-date=16 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211116093316/https://www.ndtv.com/kerala-news/coronavirus-lockdown4-kerala-government-boat-ferries-lone-passenger-sandra-babu-to-help-her-take-exam-2238752 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.hindu.com/mag/2003/07/13/stories/2003071300600200.htm |title=Thirst below sea level |last=Suchitra |first=M |date=13 August 2003 |work=[[The Hindu]] |access-date=17 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190922101804/https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-sundaymagazine/thirst-below-sea-level/article28523147.ece |archive-date=22 September 2019}}</ref> The country's longest lake [[Vembanad Lake|Vembanad]], dominates the backwaters; it lies between [[Alappuzha]] and [[Kochi]] and is about {{cvt|200|km2|sqmi}} in area.<ref name="Husain">{{cite book |author=Majid Husain |title=Understanding: Geographical: Map Entries: for Civil Services Examinations: Second Edition |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_9VGKfQ-sQsC&pg=RA9-PT18 |access-date=18 November 2012 |publisher=Tata McGraw-Hill Education |isbn=978-0-07-070288-2 |page=9 |year=2011}}</ref> Around eight percent of India's waterways are found in Kerala.<ref name="IWAI_2005">{{Cite journal |author=Inland Waterways Authority of India (IWAI—Ministry of Shipping) |year=2005 |title=Introduction to Inland Water Transport |journal=IWAI (Ministry of Shipping) |url=https://iwai.nic.in/Introduction.html |archive-url=https://archive.today/20050204175110/http://iwai.nic.in/Introduction.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=4 February 2005 |access-date=19 January 2006}}</ref> Kerala's [[List of rivers in Kerala|44 rivers]] include the [[Periyar River|Periyar]]; {{convert|244|km|mi|0}}, [[Bharathapuzha]]; {{convert|209|km|mi|0}}, [[Pamba River|Pamba]]; {{convert|176|km|mi|0}}, [[Chaliyar River|Chaliyar]]; {{convert|169|km|mi|0}}, [[Kadalundipuzha River|Kadalundipuzha]]; {{convert|130|km|mi|0}}, [[Chalakudy River|Chalakudipuzha]]; {{convert|130|km|mi|0}}, [[Valapattanam River|Valapattanam]]; {{convert|129|km|mi|0}} and the [[Achankovil River]]; {{convert|128|km|mi|0}}. The average length of the rivers is {{convert|64|km|mi|0}}. Many of the rivers are small and entirely fed by monsoon rain.<ref name=riverreport>{{cite book |last=India. |first=Planning Commission |title=Kerala Development Report |year=2008 |publisher=Academic Foundation |isbn=978-8171885947 |page=224 |url=https://books.google.com/books?isbn=8171885942}}</ref> As Kerala's rivers are small and lacking in [[river delta|delta]], they are more prone to environmental effects. The rivers face problems such as sand mining and pollution.<ref name="Padmalal">{{cite journal | url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s00254-007-0870-z | doi=10.1007/s00254-007-0870-z | title=Environmental effects of river sand mining: A case from the river catchments of Vembanad lake, Southwest coast of India | year=2008 | last1=Padmalal | first1=D. | last2=Maya | first2=K. | last3=Sreebha | first3=S. | last4=Sreeja | first4=R. | journal=Environmental Geology | volume=54 | issue=4 | pages=879–889 | bibcode=2008EnGeo..54..879P | s2cid=129312081 | access-date=12 February 2020 | archive-date=25 November 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231125191757/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00254-007-0870-z | url-status=live | issn = 0943-0105 }}</ref> The state experiences several natural hazards like landslides, floods and droughts. The state was also affected by the [[2004 Indian Ocean tsunami]],<ref name="Jha2010">{{cite book |author=M.K. Jha |title=Natural and Anthropogenic Disasters: Vulnerability, Preparedness and Mitigation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fICXQSPJwx8C&pg=PA81 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2010 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-9048124978 |page=81}}</ref> and in 2018 received [[2018 Kerala floods|the worst flooding]] in nearly a century.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/india-worst-floods-flooding-death-monsoon-rain-dead-kerala-kochi-a8493011.html |title=Worst floods in nearly a century kill 44 in India's Kerala state amid torrential monsoon rains |last=Baynes |first=Chris |date=15 August 2018 |work=The Independent |access-date=16 August 2018 |archive-date=23 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190523232643/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/india-worst-floods-flooding-death-monsoon-rain-dead-kerala-kochi-a8493011.html |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2024, Kerala experienced its worst [[2024 Wayanad landslides|landslides]] in history.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.onmanorama.com/news/kerala/2024/07/30/wayand-landslide-kerala-rain-live.html |title=Wayanad landslides: 133 dead, 481 saved, at least 98 missing |date=30 July 2024 |work=[[Onmanorama]] |access-date=31 July 2024 |archive-date=30 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240730073647/https://www.onmanorama.com/news/kerala/2024/07/30/wayand-landslide-kerala-rain-live.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

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| image1 = High Court of Kerala Building.jpg

| caption1 = The Kerala High Court complex in [[Kochi]].

| image2 = Kerala Government Secretariat.jpg

| caption2 = The Kerala Secretariat in [[Thiruvananthapuram]] – seat of executive administration of Kerala, and formerly of the legislative assembly

| image3 = Niyamasabha Mandiram.JPG

| caption3 = The [[Kerala Legislative Assembly]] Building in [[Thiruvananthapuram]]

Despite of many achievements, Kerala facingfaces many challenges like high levels of unemployment that disproportionately impact educated women, a high degree of global exposure and a very fragile environment.<ref name="Hindu2021">{{cite journal |title=Making sense of Kerala |journal=The Hindu |date=13 December 2021 |last1=Heller |first1=Patrick |last2=Törnquist |first2=Olle |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/making-sense-of-kerala/article37942860.ece |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211214151547/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/making-sense-of-kerala/article37942860.ece |accessdate=5 March 2022 |archive-date=14 December 2021 |quote=Kerala has specific challenges: persistently high levels of unemployment that disproportionately impact educated women, a high degree of global exposure and a very fragile environment. More broadly, as the 21st century unfolds, it becomes increasingly clearer that the role of the State in supporting development must fundamentally change. First, in highly educated societies like Kerala, industrialisation is no longer the path to economic prosperity.}}</ref>

<!--=== Information technology ===

Kerala has focused more attention towards growth of Information Technology sector with formation of [[Technopark, Trivandrum|Technopark]], Thiruvananthapuram which is one of the largest IT employer in Kerala. It was the first technology park in India<ref>{{cite web |title=Official site of Kerala IT |url=https://www.keralait.org/search_result.php?project_id=2 |publisher=Department of IT, Government of Kerala |access-date=22 October 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Technopark aims to be among top 5 IT investment locations |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/economy/infrastructure/technopark-aims-to-be-among-top-5-it-investment-locations/articleshow/6224254.cms |work=The Economic Times |date=27 July 2010}}</ref> and with the inauguration of the Thejaswini complex on 22 February 2007, Technopark became the largest IT Park in India.<ref>{{cite news |last=PI |first=Rajeev |title=God's own country to house largest IT park |url=https://www.indianexpress.com/news/gods-own-country-to-house-largest-it-park/24662/ |access-date=22 October 2013 |newspaper=The Indian Express |date=3 March 2007}}</ref> Software giants like [[Infosys]], [[Oracle Corporation|Oracle]], [[Tata Consultancy Services]], [[Capgemini]], [[HCL Technologies|HCL]], [[UST Global]], NeST and Suntec have offices in the state. The state has a second major IT hub, the [[InfoPark, Kochi|Infopark]] centred in Kochi with "spokes"(it acts as the "hub") in Thrissur and Alleppy. {{As of|2014}}, Infopark generates one-third of total IT Revenues of the state<ref name="thehindu.com">{{cite news |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/states/article26324.ece |location=Chennai, India |work=The Hindu |title=Symbols akin to Indus valley culture discovered in Kerala |date=29 September 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kochi/Infoparks-IT-exports-climb-53-in-FY14/articleshow/45141011.cms |location=Kochi, India |work=[[The Times of India]] |title=Infopark's IT exports climb 53% in FY14 |date=14 November 2014}}</ref> with key offices of IT majors like Tata Consultancy Services, [[Cognizant]], [[Wipro]], UST Global, IBS Software Services etc. and [[Multinational corporation]]s like [[KPMG]], [[Ernst & Young]], [[EXL Service]], [[Etisalat]] DB Telecom, [[Nielsen Audio]], [[Affiliated Computer Services|Xerox ACS]], Tata ELXSI etc. Kochi also has another major project [[SmartCity, Kochi|SmartCity]] under construction, built in partnership with Dubai Government. A third major IT Hub is under construction centred around [[Kozhikode]] known as Cyberpark.<ref>{{cite news |title=Cyberpark to place Kozhikode on IT map |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/cyberpark-to-place-kozhikode-on-it-map/article5686855.ece |access-date=16 February 2014 |newspaper=The Hindu |date=14 February 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Now, Cyberpark puts Kozhikode on the IT map |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kochi/Now-Cyberpark-puts-Kozhikode-on-the-IT-map/articleshow/30482192.cms |access-date=16 February 2014 |newspaper=The Times of India |date=16 February 2014}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=UL CyberPark marks a first in IT sector |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/kozhikode/ul-cyberpark-marks-a-first-in-it-sector/article8274206.ece |last=Govind |first=Biju |date=24 February 2016 |work=The Hindu}}</ref> Kerala is the first Indian state to make Internet access a basic right.<ref name="eco" /> As of 2019, Kerala's Internet penetration rate is the second-highest in India only after to [[Delhi]].<ref name="eco" /> Kerala is the first Indian state to have its own Internet service with the launch of [[Kerala Fiber Optic Network]] in 2021.<ref>{{Cite web |title=kerala: Kerala becomes first state to have own internet service – The Economic Times |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/india/kerala-becomes-first-state-to-have-own-internet-service/articleshow/92883039.cms |access-date=3 June 2023 |website=[[The Economic Times]]}}</ref>
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Kerala has [[Ports in Kerala|one major port, four intermediate ports, and 13 minor ports]], 4 of which have immigration check point facilities.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/kollam-port-gets-icp-clearance/article68293607.ece |date=15 Jun 2024 |title=Kollam port gets ICP clearance |work=The Hindu |access-date=16 Jun 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.mha.gov.in/sites/default/files/2024-03/ICPList_05032024..pdf |date= |title=LIST OF IMMIGRATION CHECK POSTs |publisher=Ministry of Home Affairs - Govt. of India |access-date=16 Jun 2024}}</ref> The major port in the state is at [[Cochin Port|Kochi]], which has an area of 8.27&nbsp;km².{{sfn|Chandran|2018|p=424}} The [[Vizhinjam International Seaport]], which is currently classified as an intermediate port, is an upcoming major port under construction.{{sfn|Chandran|2018|p=424}} Other intermediate ports include [[Beypore]], [[Kollam]], and [[Azhikode and Azhikkal|Azheekal]].{{sfn|Chandran|2018|p=424}} The remaining ports are classified as minor which include [[Manjeshwaram]], [[Kasaragod]], [[Nileshwaram]], [[Kannur]], [[Thalassery]], [[Vadakara]], [[Ponnani]], [[Munambam]], Manakodam, [[Alappuzha]], [[Kayamkulam]], [[Neendakara]], and [[Valiyathura]].{{sfn|Chandran|2018|p=424}} The [[Kerala Maritime Institute]] is headquartered at [[Neendakara]], which has an additional subcentre at [[Kodungallur]] too.{{sfn|Chandran|2018|p=424}} The state has numerous [[Kerala backwaters|backwaters]], which are used for commercial [[inland navigation]]. Transport services are mainly provided by country craft and passenger vessels. There are 67 navigable rivers in the state while the total length of inland waterways is {{convert|1687|km}}.<ref name="google14">{{cite book |author=Government of India Planning Commission |title=Kerala Development Report |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ul-OkF5gUJQC&pg=PA207 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2008 |publisher=Academic Foundation |isbn=978-8171885947 |page=207}}</ref> The main constraints to the expansion of inland navigation are; lack of depth in waterways caused by silting, lack of maintenance of navigation systems and bank protection, accelerated growth of the [[water hyacinth]], lack of modern inland craft terminals, and lack of a cargo handling system.

[[Malayalam]] is the official language of Kerala,<ref>{{cite news |title=Malayalam to be official language |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/malayalam-is-officiallanguage-from-may-1/article18259641.ece |date=28 April 2017 |newspaper=The Hindu |access-date=3 April 2022}}</ref> and one of the six [[Languages of India|Classical languages of India]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/classical-status-for-malayalam/article4744630.ece |title='Classical' status for Malayalam |work=[[The Hindu]] |date=24 May 2013 |access-date=25 May 2013 |location=Thiruvananthapuram, India}}</ref> There is a significant [[Tamil language|Tamil]] population throughout Kerala mainly in [[Idukki district]] and [[Palakkad district]] which accounts for 17.48% and 4.8% of itseach district's total population.<ref name="lg">{{cite web |title=Census of India – Language |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/2011census/C-16.html |website=censusindia.gov.in}}</ref> [[Tulu language|Tulu]] and [[Kannada]] are spoken mainly in the northern parts of [[Kasaragod district]], each of which account for 8.77% and 4.23% of total population in the district, respectively.<ref name="lg" /><ref>{{cite news |title=Kerala government to appoint officer to study issues of linguistic minorities |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/thiruvananthapuram/government-to-appoint-officer-to-study-issues-of-linguistic-minorities/articleshow/59892625.cms |date=2 August 2017 |newspaper=The Times of India |department=City: Thiruvananthapuram |agency=TNN |access-date=29 December 2019}}</ref>

Islam arrived in Kerala, a part of the larger [[Indian Ocean]] rim, via spice and silk traders from the [[Middle East]]. Historians do not rule out the possibility of Islam being introduced to Kerala as early as the seventh century CE.<ref name="indiatimes3">{{cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Trade-not-invasion-brought-Islam-to-India/articleshow/2144414.cms |title=Trade, not invasion brought Islam to India |last=Sethi |first=Atul |date=24 June 2007 |work=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=24 September 2014}}</ref><ref name="autogenerated20002">Katz 2000; Koder 1973; Thomas Puthiakunnel 1973; David de Beth Hillel, 1832; Lord, James Henry 1977.</ref> Notable has been the occurrence of [[Legend of Cheraman Perumals|Cheraman Perumal Tajuddin]], the mythical Hindu king thatwho moved to [[Arabia]] to meet the [[Muhammad]] and converted to Islam.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Varghese |first1=Theresa |title=Stark World Kerala |year=2006 |publisher=Stark World Pub. |isbn=978-8190250511 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lDhuAAAAMAAJ&q=cheraman+perumal+tajuddin |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Kumar |first1=Satish |title=India's National Security: Annual Review 2009 |year=2012 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x-esAgAAQBAJ&q=cheraman+perumal+tajuddin&pg=PA346 |publisher=Routledge |language=en |isbn=978-1-136-70491-8}}</ref><ref>Minu Ittyipe; [[Solomon]] to Cheraman; Outlook Indian Magazine; 2012</ref> Kerala Muslims are generally referred to as the [[Mappila]]s. Mappilas are but one among the many communities that forms the Muslim population of Kerala.<ref name="KunhaliV2">Kunhali, V. "Muslim Communities in Kerala to 1798" PhD Dissertation Aligarh Muslim University (1986) [https://ir.amu.ac.in/2736/1/T%205242.pdf]</ref><ref name="Divakaruni20112">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W0wLgfQyvFAC |title=The Palace of Illusions |author=Chitra Divakaruni |year=2011 |publisher=Pan Macmillan |isbn=978-0-330-47865-6 |access-date=18 November 2012}}</ref> According to the [[Legend of Cheraman Perumals]], the first Indian mosque was built in {{CE|624}} at [[Kodungallur]] with the mandate of the last the ruler (the Cheraman Perumal) of [[Chera dynasty]], who converted to Islam during the lifetime of [[Muhammad]] ({{Circa|570}}–632).<ref>{{cite book |author=Jonathan Goldstein |title=The Jews of China |publisher=M. E. Sharpe |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-7656-0104-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8Z6DlzyT2vwC |page=123}}</ref><ref name="SimpsonKresse2008">{{cite book |author1=Edward Simpson |author2=Kai Kresse |title=Struggling with History: Islam and Cosmopolitanism in the Western Indian Ocean |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w0qHKA7zEaEC&pg=PA333 |access-date=24 July 2012 |year=2008 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-70024-5 |pages=333}}</ref><ref name="Kupferschmidt1987" /><ref name="Raṇṭattāṇi2007">{{cite book |author=Husain Raṇṭattāṇi |title=Mappila Muslims: A Study on Society and Anti Colonial Struggles |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xlb5BrabQd8C&pg=PA179 |access-date=25 July 2012 |year=2007 |publisher=Other Books |isbn=978-8190388788 |pages=179–}}</ref> According to ''[[Qissat Shakarwati Farmad]]'', the [[Mosque|''Masjids'']] at [[Kodungallur]], [[Kollam]], [[Madayi]], [[Barkur]], [[Mangalore]], [[Kasaragod]], [[Kannur]], [[Dharmadam]], [[Koyilandy|Panthalayini]], and [[Chaliyam]], were built during the era of [[Malik Dinar]], and they are among the oldest ''Masjid''s in the [[Indian subcontinent]].<ref name="Prange" /> It is believed that [[Malik Dinar]] died at [[Thalangara]] in [[Kasaragod]] town.<ref name="ch">A. Sreedhara Menon (1978), ''Cultural heritage of Kerala: an introduction'', East-West Publications, p. 58 {{ISBN?}}</ref> According to popular tradition, [[Islam]] was brought to [[Lakshadweep]] islands, on the western side of Kerala, by [[Sheikh Ubaidullah|Ubaidullah]] in 661 CE. His grave is believed to be located on the island of [[Andrott]].<ref>{{cite web |title=History |url=https://lakshadweep.nic.in/KL_History.html |publisher=lakshadweep.nic.in |access-date=1 August 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120514235511/https://lakshadweep.nic.in/KL_History.html |archive-date=14 May 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref> A few [[Umayyad Caliphate|Umayyad]] (661–750 CE) coins were discovered from [[Kothamangalam]] in the eastern part of [[Ernakulam district]].<ref name="TheEncyclopediaofIslam2" />

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Among the prominent athletes hailing from the state are [[P. T. Usha]], [[Shiny Wilson]] and [[M.D. Valsamma]], all three of whom are recipients of the [[Padma Shri]] as well as [[Arjuna Award]], while [[K. M. Beenamol]] and [[Anju Bobby George]] are [[Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna]] and Arjuna Award winners. [[T. C. Yohannan]], [[Suresh Babu (long jumper)|Suresh Babu]], [[Sinimol Paulose]], Angel Mary Joseph, [[Mercy Kuttan]], K. Saramma, [[Rosa Kutty|K. C. Rosakutty]], Padmini Selvan and Tintu Luka are the other Arjuna Award winners from Kerala.<ref name="PRD-sports" /><ref>{{cite web |url=https://keralaathletics.org/history.html |title=Kerala State Athletics Association: History |publisher=Kerala State Athletics Association |access-date=12 June 2012 |archive-date=24 June 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120624082221/http://keralaathletics.org/history.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> Volleyball is another popular sport and is often played on makeshift courts on sandy beaches along the coast.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Rough Guide to South India |author1=David Abram |author2=Nick Edwards |publisher=Rough Guides |year=2004 |isbn=978-1-84353-103-6 |page=64}}</ref> [[Jimmy George]] was a notable Indian volleyball player, rated in his prime as among the world's ten best players.<ref>{{cite web |title=Jimmy George |work=Sports Portal |publisher=Ministry of Youth Affairs and Sports |access-date=11 November 2007 |url=https://sportal.nic.in/legenddetails.asp?sno=667&moduleid=&maincatid=59&subid=0&comid=55 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080514040141/https://sportal.nic.in/legenddetails.asp?sno=667&moduleid=&maincatid=59&subid=0&comid=55 |archive-date=14 May 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Other popular sports include [[badminton]], [[basketball]] and [[kabaddi]].<ref name="Reddy2005">{{cite book |author=P.A. Reddy |title=Sports Promotion In India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T37m8eRAEX0C&pg=PA119 |access-date=17 November 2012 |year=2005 |publisher=Discovery Publishing House |isbn=978-8171419272 |pages=31–42}}</ref> The Indian Hockey team captain [[P. R. Shreejesh]], ace goalkeeper hails from Kerala. International Walkers from the state include [[K. T. Irfan]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Irfan |first=KT |title=KT Irfan, World Athletics Championships, Moscow |url=https://sports.ndtv.com/othersports/athletics/212223-indians-disappoint-in-mens-20km-race-walk-in-athletics-worlds |newspaper=NDTV Sports |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130814035243/https://sports.ndtv.com/othersports/athletics/212223-indians-disappoint-in-mens-20km-race-walk-in-athletics-worlds |archive-date=14 August 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

Kerala's culture and traditions, coupled with its varied [[demographics of Kerala|demographics]], have made the state one of the most popular tourist destinations in India. In 2012, [[National Geographic Society|National Geographic]]'s [[National Geographic Traveler|Traveller]] magazine named Kerala as one of the "ten paradises of the world"<ref name="Kerala Tourism">{{cite web |title=Kerala Tourism: Paradises in the world |url=https://www.hindu.com/edu/2004/05/11/stories/2004051100040100.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040904094648/https://www.hindu.com/edu/2004/05/11/stories/2004051100040100.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=4 September 2004 |work=[[The Hindu]] |access-date=20 February 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.pravasikairali.com/Homepage.aspx?p=articles&news=447 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141108151228/https://www.pravasikairali.com/Homepage.aspx?p=articles&news=447 |archive-date=8 November 2014 |title=Pravasi KairaLi Home |publisher=Pravasikairali.com |access-date=11 January 2014}}</ref> and "50 must see destinations of a lifetime".<ref name="Kerala India">{{cite web |title=Kerala – The Gateway of India |url=https://forbesindia.com/printcontent/26162 |work=[[Forbes]] |access-date=3 January 2012}}</ref> [[Travel and Leisure]] also described Kerala as "One of the 100 great trips for the 21st century".<ref name="Kerala Tourism" /><ref>{{Cite news |title=Kerala : National Geographic Traveler selects Kerala as 'one of the 50 must-see destinations of a lifetime' |publisher=Travel Portal of India |date=27 January 2009 |access-date=11 June 2011 |url=https://www.travelportalofindia.com/2009/07/kerala-national-geographic-traveler-selects-kerala-as-one-of-the-50-must-see-destinations-of-a-lifetime/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110904030433/https://www.travelportalofindia.com/2009/07/kerala-national-geographic-traveler-selects-kerala-as-one-of-the-50-must-see-destinations-of-a-lifetime/ |archive-date=4 September 2011}}</ref> In 2012, it overtook the [[Taj Mahal]] to be the number one travel destination in Google's search trends for India.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Kerala beats Taj in Google Search Trends for 2012 |work=Indian Express |date=28 December 2012 |access-date=11 January 2012 |url=https://www.indianexpress.com/news/tourism-kerala-beats-taj-in-google-search-trends-for-2012/1051412}}</ref> [[CNN Travel]] listed Kerala among its '19 best places to visit in 2019'.<ref>{{Cite web |title=CNN Travel's 19 places to visit in 2019 |url=https://www.cnn.com/travel/article/places-to-visit-2019/index.html |website=CNN Travel |date=22 May 2019 |language=en |access-date=4 April 2022}}</ref> Kerala was named by [[Time (magazine)|TIME magazine]] in 2022 among the 50 extraordinary destinations to explore in its list of the World's Greatest Places.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/lifestyle/travel/story/ahmedabad-and-kerala-on-time-magazine-s-list-of-world-s-greatest-places-of-2022-1975386-2022-07-14 |title=Ahmedabad and Kerala on TIME magazine's list of World's Greatest Places of 2022 |website=India Today|date=14 July 2022 }}</ref>

=== Citations ===