Geoffroy's spider monkey: Difference between revisions

| image = PanamaGeoffroy's spider monkey, Costa(Ateles Ricageoffroyi yucatanensis) male Peten.JPGjpg

| image_caption = Male ''A. g. ornatusyucatanensis'', in southern [[Costa Rica]]Guatemala

| status_ref = <ref name=iucn>{{Cite iucn |author1= Cortes-Ortíz, L.|author2= Canales EspinosaSolano-Rojas, D.|author3= MarshRosales-Meda, L.KM.|author4= MittermeierWilliams-Guillén, R.AK.|author5= Méndez-Carvajal, P.|author6= Rosales-MedaMarsh, ML.K.|author7= SolanoCanales-Espinosa, D.|author8= Williams-GuillénMittermeier, KR.A. |title= ''Ateles geoffroyi'' |amends=2020 |year= 20202021|page= e.T2279A191688782 | doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2021-1.RLTS.T2279A191688782.en|access-date=629 AprilNovember 2021}}</ref>

| range_map_caption = Distribution of ''A. {{nbsp}}geoffroyi'' (blue) and ''A. {{nbsp}}fusciceps'' (red)

'''Geoffroy's spider monkey''' ('''''Ateles geoffroyi'''''), also known as the '''black-handed spider monkey''' or the '''Central American spider monkey''',<ref name=pic/> is a species of [[spider monkey]], a type of [[New World monkey]], from [[Central America]], parts of [[Mexico]] and possibly a small portion of [[Colombia]]. There are at least five subspecies. Some primatologists classify the [[black-headed spider monkey]] (''A. &nbsp;fusciceps''), found in Panama, Colombia, and [[Ecuador]] as the same species as Geoffroy's spider monkey.

Agreement over the number of spider monkey species is not universal. Kellogg and Goldman (1944) based their classification on fur color, and Groves (1989) based his on fur color and geographic distribution. Kellogg and Goldman differentiated Geoffroy's spider monkey from other species by its dark black head, hands and wrists. Recent studies use [[mitochondrial DNA]] to help differentiate species. Such studies by Collins and Daubach (2000, 2001, 2006) indicate the Geoffroy's spider monkey is more closely related to the [[white-fronted spider monkey]], ''A. &nbsp;belzebuth'', and the [[brown spider monkey]], ''A. &nbsp;hybridus'', than it is to the [[red-faced spider monkey]], ''A. &nbsp;paniscus''. According to these studies, ''A. &nbsp;paniscus'' branched off from the other spider monkeys approximately 3.27 ''&nbsp;''million years ago and the spider monkeys branched off from the woolly monkeys and muiriquis 3.59 ''&nbsp;''million years ago. Older studies by Porter, et al. indicate the howler monkeys are believed to have branched off from the other Atelides over 10 ''&nbsp;''million years ago.<ref name=spidertax/>

In 2005, mammalian taxonomy reference work, [[Mammal Species of the World]], listed five [[subspecies]]:<ref name=msw3/>

In 2015, a phylogenetic study recommended ''A. &nbsp;g. &nbsp;yucatanensis'' was a [[junior synonym]] of ''A. &nbsp;g. &nbsp;vellerosus''.<ref name="Morales_etal2005">{{cite journal |title=Phylogenetic relationships of Mesoamerican spider monkeys (''Ateles geoffroyi''): Molecular evidence suggests the need for a revised taxonomy |year=2015 |last1=Morales-Jimenez |first1=Alba Lucia |last2=Cortés-Ortiz |first2=Liliana |last3=Di Fiore |first3=Anthony |journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution |volume=82 |pages=484–494 |pmid=25451800 |doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2014.08.025|bibcode=2015MolPE..82..484M }}</ref> Some authorities also recognize ''[[Azuero spider monkey|A. &nbsp;g. &nbsp;azuerensis]]'' and ''A. &nbsp;g. &nbsp;frontatus'' as valid subspecies.<ref name=iucn/>

The [[black-headed spider monkey]], ''Ateles fusciceps'', is considered by authorities such as [[Colin Groves|Groves]] (1989) and Rylands et al. (2006) to be a separate species from Geoffroy's spider monkey.<ref name=msw3/><ref name=tax3>{{cite book|title=New Perspectives in the Study of Mesoamerican Primates|url=https://archive.org/details/newperspectivess00estr|url-access=limited|chapter=Taxonomy and Distributions of Mesoamerican Primates|author=Rylands, A.|author2=Groves, C.|author3=Mittermeier, R.|author4=Cortes-Ortiz, L.|author5=Hines, J.|name-list-style=amp|editor = Estrada, A. |editor2=Garber, P. |editor3=Pavelka, M. |editor4=Luecke, L.|publisher=Springer|year=2006|isbn=0-387-25854-X|pages=[https://archive.org/details/newperspectivess00estr/page/n79 67]–69}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=South American Primates|editor=Garber, P. |editor2=Estrada, A. |editor3=Bicca-Marqyes, J.C. |editor4=Heymann, E. |editor5=Streier, K.|chapter=The Diversity of the New World Primates|author1=Rylands, A. |author2=Mittermeier, R.|page=44|year=2009|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-0-387-78704-6}}</ref> Other authorities, including Froelich (1991), Collins and Dubach (2001) and Nieves (2005), consider ''A. &nbsp;fusciceps'' to be synonymous with ''A. &nbsp;geoffroyi''.<ref name=spidertax>{{cite book|title=Spider Monkeys|url=https://archive.org/details/spidermonkeysbio00camp_528|url-access=limited|editor=Campbell, C.|chapter=The taxonomic status of spider monkeys in the twenty-first century|author=Collins, A.|year=2008|pages=[https://archive.org/details/spidermonkeysbio00camp_528/page/n60 50]–72|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-86750-4}}</ref> Under this treatment, the two subspecies of the black-headed spider monkey represent additional subspecies of Geoffroy's spider monkey, ''[[Ateles fusciceps fusciceps|A. &nbsp;g. &nbsp;fusciceps]]'' and ''[[Ateles fusciceps rufiventris|A. &nbsp;g. &nbsp;rufiventris]]''.<ref name=spidertax/>

The [[range (biology)|range]] of this species extends over much of Central America, encompassing [[Panama]], [[Costa Rica]], [[Nicaragua]], [[Guatemala]], [[Honduras]], [[El Salvador]], [[Belize]] and the south and much of the eastern portion of [[Mexico]].<ref name=tax>{{cite book|title=New Perspectives in the Study of Mesoamerican Primates|chapter=Taxonomy and Distributions of Mesoamerican Primates|author=Rylands, A.|author2=Groves, C.|author3=Mittermeier, R.|author4=Cortes-Ortiz, L.|author5=Hines, J.|name-list-style=amp|year=2006|publisher=Springer|isbn=0-387-25854-X|pages=56–66}}</ref> Observations by local people indicate the southernmost subspecies, the [[hooded spider monkey]], ''A. &nbsp;g. &nbsp;grisescens'', may also occur in the portion of [[Colombia]] near the Panama border.<ref name=tax/><ref name=iucn2>{{cite iucn |author=RylandMéndez-Carvajal, AP.G. |display-authorsauthor2=etalCortes-Ortíz, L. |yeardate=2000|url=https://www.iucnredlist.org/details/2287/02020 |title=''Ateles geoffroyi '' ssp. '' grisescens'' |volume=2020 |page=e.T2287A17979753 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-2.RLTS.T2287A17979753.en |access-date=2008-08-3013 November 2021}}</ref> In western Colombia and northeast Panama, it is replaced by the [[black-headed spider monkey]], ''A. &nbsp;fusciceps'', which is considered by some primatologists to be a subspecies of Geoffroy's spider monkey.<ref name=tax/><ref name=spidertax/>

Geoffroy's spider monkey lives in various types of forest, including [[rainforest]], [[semi-deciduous forest|semideciduous]] and [[mangrove]] forests.<ref>{{cite web|title=BBC Black-Handed Spider Monkey|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/wildfacts/factfiles/310.shtml|access-date=2008-08-29}}</ref> Higher densities of Geoffroy's spider monkeys are generally found in areas containing evergreen forest.<ref>{{cite book |author1=DeGama, H. |author2=Fedigan, L. | editor = Estrada, A. |editor2=Garber, P. |editor3=Pavelka, M. |editor4=Luecke, L.|location=New York|chapter = The Effects of Forest Fragment Age, Isolation, Size, Habitat Type, and Water Availability on Monkey Density in a Tropical Dry Forest | title = New Perspectives in the Study of Mesoamerican Primates |url=https://archive.org/details/newperspectivess00estr |url-access=limited | publisher=Springer | isbn=978-0-387-25854-6 | year = 2006| pages = [https://archive.org/details/newperspectivess00estr/page/n174 165]–186}}</ref>

Geoffroy's spider monkey is one of the largest New World monkeys. Its length measures between {{convert|30|and|63|cm|in|frac=2|abbr=on}} and it weighs between {{convert|6|and|9|kg|lb|0|abbr=on}}.<ref name=pic>{{cite book|title=The Pictorial Guide to the Living Primates|url=https://archive.org/details/pictorialguideto0000rowe|url-access=registration|author=Rowe, N.|year=1996|page=[https://archive.org/details/pictorialguideto0000rowe/page/114 114]|publisher=Pogonias Press|isbn=0-9648825-0-7}}</ref><ref name=neo>{{cite book|title=Neotropical Rainforest Mammals|edition=Second|author=Emmons, L.|year=1997|publisher=The University of Chicago Press|isbn=0-226-20721-8|pages=143–144}}</ref> The tail is longer than the body at between {{convert|63|and|85|cm|in|frac=2|abbr=on}}.<ref name=pic/><ref name=neo/> Males and females are approximately the same size.<ref name=perspective>{{cite book|title=Primates in Perspective|chapter=The Atelines|author1=Di Fiore, A. |author2=Campbell C.|editor = Campbell, C. |editor2=Fuentes, A. |editor3=MacKinnon, K. |editor4=Panger, M. |editor5=Bearder, S.|year=2007|page=624|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-517133-4}}</ref>

Its arms and legs are long and slim.<ref name=watch>{{cite book|title=Watching Wildlife in Central America|author1=Hunter, L. |author2=Andrew, D.|year=2002|page=151|publisher=Lonely Planet Publications|isbn=1-86450-034-4}}</ref> The arms are about 25% longer than the legs.<ref name=costa>{{cite book|title=The Natural History of Costa Rican Mammals|author=Wainwright, M.|year=2002|publisher=Zona Tropical|isbn=0-9705678-1-2|pages=146–149}}</ref> The thumb is only vestigial, but the fingers are long and strong, making the hands hook-like.<ref name=costa/><ref>{{cite book|title=Spider Monkeys|url=https://archive.org/details/spidermonkeysbio00camp_528|url-access=limited|editor=Campbell, C.|chapter=Morphology and evolution of the spider monkey, genus ''Ateles''|author=Rosenberger, A.|author2=Halenar, L.|author3=Cooke, S.|author4=Hartwig, W.|name-list-style=amp|pages=[https://archive.org/details/spidermonkeysbio00camp_528/page/n40 30]–33|year=2008|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-86750-4}}</ref> The long arms and hook-like hands allow Geoffroy's spider monkey to [[brachiate]], that is, swing by its arms beneath the tree branches.<ref name=costa/>

The [[clitoris]] of female Geoffroy's spider monkeys is large and protrudes, looking like a [[penis]].<ref name=costa/> This organ, called a [[Pseudo-penis|pendulous clitoris]] because of the way it dangles externally, is actually larger than the male flaccid penis.<ref name=spidersex>{{cite book|title=Spider Monkeys|url=https://archive.org/details/spidermonkeysbio00camp_528|url-access=limited|editor=Campbell, C.|chapter=Spider monkey reproduction and sexual behavior|author1=Campbell, C. |author2=Gibson, K.|pages=[https://archive.org/details/spidermonkeysbio00camp_528/page/n273 266]–283|year=2008|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-86750-4}}</ref> As a result, females are sometimes mistaken for males by [[human]] observers.<ref name=costa/> The enlarged clitoris is believed to aid males in determining sexual receptiveness, allowing them to touch the clitoris and smell their fingers to pick up chemical or olfactory cues to the female's reproductive status.<ref name=spidersex/>

[[File:Geoffroy's Spiderspider Monkeymonkey Hand(Ateles 1geoffroyi yucatanensis) Peten.jpg|thumb|right|Thumbless''A. g. handsyucatanensis'' areusing usefulits forprehensile [[brachiation]]tail]]

[[File:Ateles geoffroyi - ueno2010.ogv|thumb|thumbtime=7|left|Captive Geoffroy's spider monkeys in [[Ueno Zoo]], [[Japan]] (video)]]

Sounds produced by Geoffroy's spider monkey include barks, whinnies, squeals, squeaks and screams.<ref name=pic/><ref name=neo/><ref name=costa/> Barks are typically alarm calls.<ref name=costa/> Whinnies and screams can be used as distress calls, and are also made at dawn and at dusk.<ref name=costa/> Each monkey makes a unique sound, which may allow monkeys to recognize each other through vocal communication alone.<ref name=costa/> Several researchers have investigated the use of whinnies, which consist of between two and 12twelve quick increases and decreases in pitch, in more detail.<ref name=spidercom/> This research has indicated one additional purpose of whinnies is to call other group members to a food source.<ref name=spidercom>{{cite book|title=Spider Monkeys|url=https://archive.org/details/spidermonkeysbio00camp_528|url-access=limited|editor=Campbell, C.|chapter=Communication|author=Ramos-Fernandez, G.|pages=[https://archive.org/details/spidermonkeysbio00camp_528/page/n231 224]–229|year=2008|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-86750-4}}</ref> Other purposes of whinnies suggested by this research have included maintaining vocal contact with other group members while traveling and distinguishing between group members and members of other groups.<ref name=spidercom/>

Although they do not use tools, spider monkeys, including Geoffroy's spider monkey, are regarded as intelligent primates. A study performed in 2007 concluded they were the third most intelligent nonhuman primate, behind only [[orangutan]]s and [[chimpanzee]]s, and ahead of [[gorilla]]s and all other monkeys.<ref name=intelligence>{{cite web|title=Chimps Knocked Off Top of the IQ Tree|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/article1654998.ece|author1=Leake, D. |author2=Dobson, R.|publisher=The Sunday Times|date=April 15, 2007|access-date=2008-08-29 | location=London}}</ref> This mental capacity may be an adaptation to spider monkeys' [[frugivore|frugivorous]] diets, which require them to be able to identify and memorize many different types of foods and their locations.<ref name=mach>{{cite book|title=Machiavellian intelligence: social expertise and the evolution of intellect in monkeys, apes, and humans|author1=Byrne, R. |author2=Whiten, A.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=unlEuP-GgmoC|pages=289–294|year=1988|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-852175-4}}</ref>

Geoffroy's spider monkey eats mostly fruit – preferably ripe and fleshy – and spends 70% to 8070–80% of its feeding time eating fruit. Leaves make up most of the rest of its diet. Young leaves are especially important to provide the protein that can be lacking in fruit. Other elements of its diet include flowers, bark, insects, honey, seeds and buds.<ref name=henderson>{{cite book|title=Field Guide to the Wildlife of Costa Rica|url=https://archive.org/details/fieldguidetowild00hend|url-access=limited|author=Henderson, C.|pages=[https://archive.org/details/fieldguidetowild00hend/page/n398 452]–454|year=2002|publisher=University of Texas Press|isbn=978-0-292-73459-3}}</ref><ref name=costa/>

Geoffroy's spider monkeys mate in a sitting position, both facing the same direction, with the male seated behind the female and his arms wrapped around her chest and legs wrapped around her waist.<ref name=pic/><ref name=costa/> This embrace can last between 8&nbsp;and&nbsp; 22&nbsp;minutes.<ref name=costa/> Prior to mating, the male and female both separate themselves from the rest of the group, so they are alone except for any of the female's juvenile offspring.<ref name=spidersex/>

Geoffroy's spider monkey is listed as "Endangered"[[endangered species|endangered]] by the [[IUCN]], mostly due to [[habitat loss]] and capture for the pet trade.<ref name=iucn/> It requires large tracts of [[Old-growth forest|primary forest]] to survive, so it is vulnerable to deforestation and is sometimes hunted by humans and captured for the pet trade.<ref name=costa/> Because of its low reproductive turnover, it cannot quickly replenish its numbers when affected by these events.<ref name=costa/> As a result, Geoffroy's spider monkey has disappeared from some areas where it was once common.<ref name=costa/> Three subspecies are critically endangered.<ref name=iucn3>{{cite iucn|author=Cuarón, A.D.|author2=Morales, A.|author3=Shedden, A.|author4=Rodriguez-Luna, E.|author5=de Grammont, P.C.|name-list-style=amp|year=2008|url=https://www.iucnredlist.org/details/39923/0|title=''Ateles geoffroyi ''ssp.'' vellerosus''|access-date=2009-02-01}}</ref><ref name=iucn4>{{cite iucn |author=CuarónMéndez-Carvajal, AP.DG. |author2=MoralesCortes-Ortíz, AL.|author3=Shedden, A.|author4date=Rodriguez-Luna,2020 E.|author5=de Grammont, P.C.|name-list-style=amp|year=2008|url=https://www.iucnredlist.org/details/2286/0|title=''Ateles geoffroyi '' ssp. '' azuerensis'' |volume=2020 |page=e.T2286A195990183 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-2.RLTS.T2286A195990183.en |access-date=2009-02-0113 November 2021}}</ref><ref name=iucn5>{{cite iucn |author=CuarónWilliams-Guillén, A.DK. |author2=SheddenSolano-Rojas, AD. |author3=RodríguezCortes-LunaOrtíz, EL.|author4=de Grammont, P.C.|author5date=Link,2020 A.|name-list-style=amp|year=2008|url=https://www.iucnredlist.org/details/43901/0|title=''Ateles geoffroyi '' ssp. '' geoffroyi'' |volume=2020 |page=e.T43901A17979679 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-2.RLTS.T43901A17979679.en |access-date=2009-02-0113 November 2021}}</ref>

Geoffroy's spider monkey was extirpated on [[Barro Colorado Island]] in [[Panama]]. Hunting had eliminated the native population there by 1912. However, between 1959 and 1966, an effort was made to reintroduce the species to Barro Colorado. At least 18 monkeys were reintroduced, but only five, one male and four females, survived the reintroduction. This small group has thrived, and the island population had grown to 28 monkeys by 2003.<ref name=tax2>{{cite book|title=New Perspectives in the Study of Mesoamerican Primates|url=https://archive.org/details/newperspectivess00estr|url-access=limited|chapter=Spider Monkey Population on Barro Colorado Island, Panama|author1=Milton, K. |author2=Hopkins, M.|editor = Estrada, A. |editor2=Garber, P. |editor3=Pavelka, M. |editor4=Luecke, L.|publisher=Springer|year=2006|isbn=0-387-25854-X|pages=[https://archive.org/details/newperspectivess00estr/page/n418 417]–436}}</ref>

*The Mexican painter [[Frida Kahlo]]'s ''Self-Portrait with Monkey 1938'' portrays this species; the artist kept several of them as pets.<ref name=SMT>{{cite web |title=Spider Monkey Trivia |url=https://www.spidermonkeyrehab.com/spider-monkey-trivia.html |publisher=Spider Monkey Rehab |access-date=3 June 2018 |archive-date=3 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170703000519/http://www.spidermonkeyrehab.com/spider-monkey-trivia.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>