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{{short description|1571 naval battle of the Ottoman–Habsburg wars}}
{{About|the 1571 battle}}
{{pp|small=yes}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = Battle of Lepanto
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| image_size = 300px
| caption = ''The Battle of Lepanto'', [[Laureys a Castro]]
| partof = the [[Ottoman–Habsburg wars]] and the [[Ottoman–Venetian War (1570–1573)|Fourth Ottoman–Venetian War]]
| date = 7 October 1571
| place = [[Gulf of Patras]], [[Ionian Sea]]
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| coordinates = {{Coord|38|15|N|21|15|E|type:event|display=title,inline}}
| result = [[Holy League (1571)|Holy League]] victory
| combatant1 = {{flagicon image|Banner of the Holy League 1571.png|border=no}} '''[[Holy League (1571)|Holy League]]'''：▼
<br>'''{{flag|Republic of Venice}}'''
▲{{flagicon image|Banner of the Holy League 1571.png|border=no}} '''[[Holy League (1571)|Holy League]]'''：
<br>
*[[File:Bandera de Nápoles - Trastámara.svg|24px]] [[Kingdom of Naples]]
*{{flag|Kingdom of Sicily}}
*
*{{flag|Duchy of Parma}}
{{flag|Republic of Genoa}}<br>{{flag|Duchy of Savoy}}<br>{{flagicon|Tuscany|medici}} [[Grand Duchy of Tuscany]]<br>{{flag|SMOM|name= Order of St. John}}<br>{{flagicon|Papal States|old}} [[Papal States]]<br>{{flagicon image|Greek Revolution flag.svg}} [[Greeks|Greek]] rebels
| combatant2 = '''{{flagicon image|Flag of the Ottoman Empire (1453-1844).svg}} [[Ottoman Empire]]'''
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{{Campaignbox Ottoman–Venetian War (1570–73)}}
The '''Battle of Lepanto''' was a [[naval warfare|naval engagement]] that took place on 7 October 1571 when a fleet of the [[Holy League (1571)|Holy League]], a coalition of [[Catholic state]]s arranged by [[Pope Pius V]], inflicted a major defeat on the fleet of the [[Ottoman Empire]] in the [[Gulf of Patras]]. The Ottoman forces were sailing westward from their naval station in [[Naupactus|Lepanto]] (the [[Venetian language|Venetian]] name of ancient Naupactus – Greek {{lang|grc|Ναύπακτος}}, [[Turkish language|Turkish]] {{lang|tr|İnebahtı}}) when they met the fleet of the Holy League which was sailing east from [[Messina, Italy|Messina]], [[Sicily]].
The fleet of the Holy League consisted of 109 [[galleys]] and six [[galleasses]] from the [[Republic of Venice]], 49 [[galley]]s from the [[Spanish Empire]], 27 galleys from the [[Republic of Genoa]], seven galleys from the [[Papal States]], five galleys from the [[Order of Saint Stephen]] and the [[Grand Duchy of Tuscany]], three galleys from the [[Duchy of Savoy]], three galleys from the [[Knights of Malta]] and some private ships.{{sfn|Davis|1999|p=195}} [[John of Austria]], half-brother of [[Philip II of Spain]], was named by [[Pope Pius V]] as overall commander of the fleet and led the centre division along with Papal captain [[Marcantonio Colonna]] and the Venetian [[Sebastiano Venier]]; the wings were commanded by the Venetian [[Agostino Barbarigo (admiral)|Agostino Barbarigo]] and the Genoese [[Gianandrea Doria]]. The Ottoman fleet consisted of 222 galleys and 56 [[galliot]]s and was led by [[Müezzinzade Ali Pasha]], [[Mahomet Sirocco]] and [[Occhiali]].
In the history of [[naval warfare]], Lepanto marks the last major engagement in the Western world to be fought almost entirely between rowing vessels,{{sfn|Hanson|2010|p=96}} namely the [[galley]]s and [[galleass]]es which were the direct descendants of ancient [[trireme]] warships. The battle was in essence an "infantry battle on floating platforms".<ref name=Stevens83>William Stevens, ''History of Sea Power'' (1920), [https://books.google.com/books?id=bN11UKPTew0C&pg=PA83 p. 83].</ref> It was the [[Largest naval battle in history|largest naval battle]] in Western history since classical antiquity, involving more than
The victory of the Holy League is of great importance in the history of Europe and of the Ottoman Empire, with the Ottoman fleet almost completely destroyed and marking the [[Stagnation of the Ottoman Empire|turning-point]] of Ottoman military expansion into the Mediterranean, although the [[Ottoman wars in Europe]] would continue for another century.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Beaton |first=Roderick |author-link=Roderick Beaton |title=The Greeks: A Global History |publisher=Basic Books |year=2021 |isbn=9781541618299 |edition=1st |location=New York |pages=368 |language=en}}</ref> It has long been compared to the [[Battle of Salamis]], both for tactical parallels and for its crucial importance in the defense of Europe against imperial expansion.<ref>See e.g. William Stevens, ''History of Sea Power'' (1920), [https://books.google.com/books?id=bN11UKPTew0C&pg=PA83 p. 83]; Frederick A. de Armas, ''Cervantes, Raphael and the Classics'' (1998), [https://books.google.com/books?id=hVUCz-BNWHUC&pg=PA87 p. 87].</ref> It was also of great symbolic importance in a period when Europe was torn by its own [[European wars of religion|wars of religion]] following the [[Protestant Reformation]]. Pope Pius V instituted the feast of [[Our Lady of Victory]], and Philip II of Spain used the victory to strengthen his position as the "[[Catholic Monarchs|Most Catholic King]]" and defender of [[Christendom]] against Muslim incursion.<ref>His efforts to finance the Holy League against the Ottomans earned Philip II, the "Most Catholic King", his place as "champion of Catholicism throughout Europe, a role that led him to spectacular victories and equally spectacular defeats. Spain's leadership of a 'holy league' against Turkish enroachments in the Mediterranean resulted in a stunning victory over the Turkish fleet in the Battle of Lepanto in 1571. Philip's greatest misfortunes came from his attempts to crush the revolt in the Netherlands and his tortured relations with Queen Elizabeth of England."{{cite book |author=Jackson J. Spielvogel |title=Western Civilization: A Brief History, Volume II: Since 1500 |edition=8th |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=APlvG4Ur6TwC&pg=PA293|year=2012|publisher=Cengage Learning |page=253 |isbn=9781133607939 }}</ref> Historian Paul K. Davis writes that
<blockquote>More than a military victory, Lepanto was a moral one. For decades, the Ottoman Turks had terrified Europe, and the victories of [[Suleiman the Magnificent]] caused Christian Europe serious concern. The defeat at Lepanto further exemplified the rapid deterioration of Ottoman might under [[Selim II]], and Christians rejoiced at this setback for the Ottomans. The mystique of Ottoman power was tarnished significantly by this battle, and Christian Europe was heartened.{{sfn|Davis|1999|p=199}}</blockquote>
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The banner for the fleet, blessed by the Pope, reached the Kingdom of Naples (then ruled by Philip II of Spain) on 14 August 1571, where it was solemnly consigned to [[John of Austria]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Savona-Ventura |first=Charles |date=Nov 2015 |title=The Order of St. Lazarus in the Battle of Lepanto, October 1571 |url=https://www.um.edu.mt/library/oar/handle/123456789/47341 |journal=Sancti Lazari Ordinis Academia Internationalis |language=en}}</ref>
All members of the alliance viewed the [[Ottoman Navy|Ottoman navy]] as a significant threat, both to the security of maritime trade in the [[Mediterranean Sea]] and to the security of continental Europe itself. Spain was the largest financial contributor, though the Spaniards preferred to preserve most of their galleys for Spain's own wars against the nearby sultanates of the [[Barbary Coast]] rather than expend its naval strength for the benefit of Venice.<ref>[[#Stevens|Stevens (1942)]], p. 61</ref><ref name=Setton1984>[[#Setton|Setton (1984)]], p. 1047. Meyer Setton, Kenneth: ''The Papacy and the Levant, 1204–1571'', Vol. IV. Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1984. {{ISBN|978-0-87169-162-0}}, p. 1047.</ref> The combined Christian fleet was placed under the command of John of Austria with
[[Marcantonio Colonna]] as his principal deputy. The various Christian contingents met the main force
==Deployment and order of battle==
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The Christian fleet consisted of 206 galleys and six galleasses (large new galleys with substantial [[naval artillery|artillery]], developed by the Venetians). John of Austria, half-brother of Philip II of Spain, was named by Pope Pius V as overall commander of the fleet and led the centre division, with his principal deputies and counselors being the Roman Marcantonio Colonna and the Venetian [[Sebastiano Venier]]; the wings were commanded by the Venetian [[Agostino Barbarigo]] and the Genoese [[Gianandrea Doria]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Lepanto 1571: The Greatest Naval Battle Of The Renaissance |last=Konstam |first=Angus |author-link=Angus Konstam |year=2003 |publisher=[[Osprey Publishing]] |location=[[United Kingdom]] |isbn=1-84176-409-4 |page=23 |access-date=August 29, 2012 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xloOS43F-X8C&pg=PA23 }}{{Dead link|date=August 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref name=Stevens67>[[#Stevens|Stevens (1942)]], pp. 66–69</ref> The Republic of Venice contributed 109 galleys and six galleasses, 49 galleys came from the Spanish Empire (including 26 from the Kingdom of Naples, the Kingdom of Sicily, and other Italian territories), 27 galleys of the [[Genoese navy|Genoese fleet]], seven galleys from the Papal States, five galleys from the [[Order of Saint Stephen]] and the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, three galleys each from the Duchy of Savoy and the Knights of Malta, and some privately owned galleys in Spanish service. This fleet of the Christian alliance was manned by 40,000 sailors and oarsmen. In addition, it carried approximately 30,000<ref>{{ISBN|1861899467}}, p. 70</ref><ref name="ISBN|0-306-81544-3">{{ISBN|0-306-81544-3}}, p. 263</ref> fighting troops: 7,000 Spanish Empire regular infantry of excellent quality,<ref>[[#Stevens|Stevens (1942)]], p. 67</ref> (4,000 of the Spanish Empire's troops were drawn from the Kingdom of Naples, mostly Calabria),<ref>Gregory Hanlon. "The Twilight Of A Military Tradition: Italian Aristocrats And European Conflicts, 1560–1800." Routledge: 1997. Page 22.</ref> 7,000 Germans,<ref name=Setton>[[#Setton|Setton (1984)]], p. 1026</ref> 6,000 Italian mercenaries in Spanish pay, all good troops,<ref name=Setton/> in addition to 5,000 professional Venetian soldiers.<ref>Konstam (2003), p. 20</ref> A significant number of Greeks also participated in the conflict on the side of the [[Holy League (1571)|Holy League]] with three Venetian galleys commanded by Greek captains.<ref name=":0">{{cite journal |last1=Yildirim |first1=Onur |title=The Battle of Lepanto and Its Impact on Ottoman History and Historiography |url=http://www.storiamediterranea.it/public/md1_dir/b700.pdf |journal=Mediterraneo in Armi (Secc. XV-XVIII) | volume = 2 | year = 2007 |pages=537–538 | issn=1828-1818}}</ref> The historian [[George Finlay]] estimated that over 25,000 Greeks fought on the side of the Holy League during the battle (both as soldiers and sailors/oarsmen) and stated that their numbers "far exceeded that of the combatants of any other nation engaged".<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Brewer |first=David |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eBCMDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA92 |title=Greece, the Hidden Centuries: Turkish Rule from the Fall of Constantinople to Greek Independence |date=2012 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-0-85772-167-9 |pages=92 |language=en}}</ref>
Oarsmen were mainly drawn from local Greek populations, who were experienced in maritime affairs,<ref name=":0" /> although there were some Venetian oarsmen as well.<ref name="Guilmartin 222-225">John F. Guilmartin (1974), pp. 222–25</ref> Free oarsmen were generally acknowledged to be superior to [[galley slave|enslaved or imprisoned oarsmen]], but the former were gradually replaced in all galley fleets (including those of Venice from 1549) during the 16th century by cheaper slaves, convicts, and prisoners-of-war owing to rapidly rising costs.<ref>The first regularly sanctioned use of convicts as oarsmen on Venetian galleys did not occur until 1549. re Tenenti, ''Cristoforo da Canal'', pp. 83, 85. See Tenenti, ''Piracy and the Decline of Venice'' (Berkeley, 1967), pp. 124–25, for Cristoforo da Canal's comments on the tactical effectiveness of free oarsmen c. 1587 though he was mainly concerned with their higher cost. Ismail Uzuncarsili, ''Osmanli Devletenin Merkez ve Bahriye Teskilati'' (Ankara, 1948), p. 482, cites a squadron of 41 Ottoman galleys in 1556 of which the flagship and two others were rowed by Azabs, salaried volunteer light infantrymen, three were rowed by slaves and the remaining 36 were rowed by salaried mercenary Greek oarsmen.</ref> The Venetian oarsmen were mainly free citizens and able to bear arms, adding to the fighting power of their ships, whereas convicts were used to row many of the galleys in other Holy League squadrons.<ref name="Guilmartin 222-225" />
[[File:Lepanto f1.jpg|thumb|left|Depiction of the [[Ottoman Navy]], detail from the painting by Tommaso Dolabella (1632)]]
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While soldiers on board the ships were roughly matched in numbers,<ref>{{ISBN|0-306-81544-3}}, p. 264</ref> an advantage for the Christians was the numerical superiority in guns and cannon aboard their ships. It is estimated that the Christians had 1,815 guns, while the Turks had only 750 with insufficient ammunition.<ref name="Geoffrey Parker 87-88"/> The Christians embarked with their much improved [[arquebusier]] and [[musketeer]] forces, while the Ottomans trusted in their greatly feared [[composite bow]]men.<ref>John Keegan, ''[[A History of Warfare]]'' (1993), p. 337.</ref>
The Christian fleet started from Messina on 16 September, crossing the [[Adriatic]] and creeping along the coast, arriving at [[Echinades|the group of rocky islets]] lying just north of the opening of the [[Gulf of Corinth]] on 6 October. Serious conflict had broken out between Venetian and Spanish soldiers, and Venier enraged Don Juan by hanging a Spanish soldier for impudence.<ref name="Stevens103">William Oliver Stevens and Allan F. Westcott, ''A History of Sea Power'', 1920, p. 103.</ref> Despite bad weather, the Christian ships sailed south and, on 6 October, reached the port of [[Sami, Cephalonia]] (then also called Val d'Alessandria), where they remained for a while.
[[File:One of the Venetian Galleasses at Lepanto - Pg 74.jpg|thumb|''One of the Venetian Galleasses at Lepanto'' (1851 drawing, after a 1570s painting)]]▼
Early on 7 October, they sailed toward the [[Gulf of Patras]], where they encountered the Ottoman fleet. While neither fleet had immediate strategic resources or objectives in the gulf, both chose to engage. The Ottoman fleet had an express order from [[Selim II]] to fight, and John of Austria found it necessary to attack in order to maintain the integrity of the expedition in the face of personal and political disagreements within the Holy League.<ref>Glete, Jan: Warfare at Sea, 1500–1650: Maritime Conflicts and the Transformation of Europe. Routledge. 2000. p. 105. Retrieved from Ebrary.</ref> On the morning of 7 October, after the decision to offer battle was made, the Christian fleet formed up in four divisions in a north–south line:
* At the northern end, closest to the coast, was the Left Division of 53 galleys, mainly Venetian, led by [[Agostino Barbarigo (admiral)|Agostino Barbarigo]], with
* The Centre Division consisted of 62 galleys under John of Austria himself in his ''[[Real (galley)|Real]]'', along with Marcantonio Colonna commanding the papal flagship, Venier commanding the Venetian flagship, [[Paolo Giordano I Orsini]] and Pietro Giustiniani, prior of Messina, commanding the flagship of the [[Knights of Malta]].
* The Right Division to the south consisted of another 53 galleys under the Genoese [[Giovanni Andrea Doria]], great-nephew of admiral [[Andrea Doria]].
* A reserve division was stationed behind (that is, to the west of) the main fleet, to lend support wherever it might be needed, commanded by [[Álvaro de Bazán, 1st Marquis of Santa Cruz|Álvaro de Bazán, the Marquis of Santa Cruz]].
▲[[File:One of the Venetian Galleasses at Lepanto - Pg 74.jpg|thumb|''One of the Venetian Galleasses at Lepanto'' (1851 drawing, after a 1570s painting)]]
The Ottoman fleet consisted of 57 galleys and two galliots on its right under Mehmed Siroco, 61 galleys and 32 galliots in the centre under Ali Pasha in the ''Sultana'', and about 63 galleys and 30 galliots in the south offshore under [[Uluç Ali]]. A small reserve consisted of eight galleys, 22 galliots, and 64 [[fusta]]s, behind the centre body. Ali Pasha is supposed to have told his Christian galley slaves, "If I win the battle, I promise you your liberty. If the day is yours, then God has given it to you." John of Austria, more laconically, warned his crew, "There is no paradise for cowards."<ref name="Stevens64">[[#Stevens|Stevens (1942)]], p. 64</ref>
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The engagement was a significant defeat for the Ottomans, who had not lost a major naval battle since the fifteenth century.<ref>[[#refWheatcroft2004|Wheatcroft 2004, pp. 33–34]]</ref> However, the Holy League failed to capitalize on the victory, and while the Ottoman defeat has often been cited as the historical turning-point initiating the eventual stagnation of Ottoman territorial expansion, this was by no means an immediate consequence. The Christian victory at Lepanto confirmed the ''de facto'' division of the Mediterranean, with the eastern half under firm Ottoman control and the western under the Spanish Crown and their Italian allies. The battle halted the Ottoman encroachment on Italian territories, but the Holy League did not regain any territories that had been lost to the Ottomans prior to Lepanto.{{sfn|Abulafia|2012|p=451}} Historian Paul K. Davis sums up the importance of Lepanto this way: "This Turkish defeat stopped Ottomans' expansion into the Mediterranean, thus maintaining Western dominance, and confidence grew in the West that Turks, previously unstoppable, could be beaten."{{sfn|Davis|1999|p=194}}
The Ottomans were quick to rebuild their navy.<ref>Keegan, ''A History of Warfare '' (1993), p. 337.</ref> By 1572, about six months after the defeat, more than 150 galleys, 8 galleasses, and in total 250 ships had been built, including eight of the largest capital ships ever seen in the Mediterranean.<ref name="fleet">J. Norwich, ''A History of Venice'', 490</ref> With this new fleet the Ottoman Empire was able to reassert its supremacy in the Eastern Mediterranean.<ref name="Kinross272">L. Kinross, ''The Ottoman Centuries: The Rise and Fall of the Turkish Empire'', 272</ref> [[Selim II|Sultan Selim II]]'s Chief Minister, the [[List of Ottoman grand viziers|Grand Vizier]] [[Sokollu Mehmed
{{blockquote|text=You come to see how we bear our misfortune. But I would have you know the difference between your loss and ours. In wrestling Cyprus from you, we deprived you of an arm; in defeating our fleet, you have only shaved our beard. An arm when cut off cannot grow again; but a shorn beard will grow all the better for the razor.<ref>[[#refWheatcroft2004|Wheatcroft 2004, p. 34]]</ref>}}
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<gallery>
(Venice) Allegoria della battaglia di Lepanto - Gallerie Accademia.jpg|''The Allegory of the Battle of Lepanto'' by [[Paolo Veronese]] (c. 1572, [[Gallerie dell'Accademia]], Venice
(Venice) Battaglia di Lepanto - Andrea Vicentino - Correr Museum.jpg|''The Battle of Lepanto'' by [[Andrea Vicentino]] (c. 1571-1600), [[Museo Correr]], Venice
Battle of Lepanto 1595-1605 Andrea Vicentino.jpg|''The Battle of Lepanto'' by [[Andrea Vicentino]] (c. 1600, [[Doge's Palace]], Venice)
Lepanto Dolabella.jpg|''The Battle of Lepanto'' by [[Tommaso Dolabella]] (c. 1625–1630, [[Wawel Castle]], Kraków)
'The Battle of Lepanto', painting by Andries van Eertvelt.jpg|''The Battle of Lepanto'' by [[Andries van Eertvelt]] (1640)
The Battle of Lepanto of 1571 full version by Juan Luna.jpg|''The Battle of Lepanto'' by [[Juan Luna]] (1887, Spanish Senate, Madrid)
Battaglia di Lepanto.jpg|''The Battle of Lepanto'' by [[Tintoretto]]
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===Poetry and fiction===
There was an immediate poetical response to the victory at Lepanto. In Italy alone 233 titles of sonnets, madrigals and poems were printed between 1571 and 1573, some of these including writing in dialect or Latin.<ref>Emma Grootveld, ''Trumpets of Lepanto. Italian narrative poetry (1571–1650) on the war of Cyprus'', KU Leuven & University of Ghent 2017, [https://web.archive.org/web/20190414213241/https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/157814375.pdf p.7 ff]
This was replicated by the Spanish response, with poems in [[Catalan language|Catalan]] and the Mallorcan dialect and full scale epics by [[Juan Latino]] (''Austriados libri duo'' 1573), [[Jerónimo Corte-Real]] ( ''Austriada ou Felicissima Victoria'', 1578) and [[:es:Juan Rufo]] (''La Austriada'', 1586). Though these longer works have, in the words of a later critic, "not unjustly been consigned to that oblivion which few epics have escaped", there was also a [[Romance (music)|Spanish ballad]] which retained its popularity and was translated into English by [[Thomas Rodd]] in 1818.<ref>William Stirling Maxwell, ''Don John of Austria: Or Passages from the History of the Sixteenth Century'', Longmans 1883, Vol. 1, [https://books.google.com/books?id=zt0nAQAAIAAJ pp.454–6]</ref>
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* Christopher Check, [https://web.archive.org/web/20161128195358/http://www.catholic.com/magazine/articles/the-battle-that-saved-the-christian-west The Battle that Saved the Christian West], ''This Rock'' 18.3 (March 2007).
* Lepanto – Rudolph, Harriet, [http://www.uni-regensburg.de/philosophie-kunst-geschichte-gesellschaft/neuere-geschichte/medien/lepanto.pdf "Die Ordnung der Schlacht und die Ordnung der Erinnerung"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201116030812/https://www.uni-regensburg.de/philosophie-kunst-geschichte-gesellschaft/neuere-geschichte/medien/lepanto.pdf |date=2020-11-16 }} in: ''Militärische Erinnerungskulturen vom 14. bis zum 19. Jahrhundert'' (2012), 101–28.
* Guilmartin, John F. [https
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