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{{More citations needed|date=July 2015}}▼
{{short description|Native American leader (1840–1904)}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Chief Joseph
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| known_for = [[Nez Perce]] leader
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1840|03|03}}
| birth_place = [[Wallowa Valley]], Nez Perce territory
| death_date = {{death date and age|1904|9|21|1840|03|03}}
| death_place = [[Colville Indian Reservation]], Washington, U.S.
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}}
| resting_place = Chief Joseph Cemetery, [[Nespelem, Washington]]
| resting_place_coordinates = {{coord|48|10|6.
| education =
| spouse = {{Plainlist|
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'''''Hin-mah-too-yah-lat-kekt''''' (or '''''hinmatóowyalahtq̓it''''' in [[Americanist phonetic notation|Americanist]] orthography; March 3, 1840 – September 21, 1904), popularly known as '''Chief Joseph''', '''Young Joseph''', or '''Joseph the Younger''', was a leader of the wal-lam-wat-kain (Wallowa) band of [[Nez Perce]], a [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] tribe of the interior [[Pacific Northwest]] region of the United States, in the latter half of the 19th century. He succeeded his father [[tuekakas]] (Chief Joseph the Elder) in the early 1870s.
Chief Joseph led his band of Nez Perce during the most tumultuous period in their history, when they were [[Indian removal|forcibly removed]] by the [[United States federal government]] from their ancestral lands in the [[Wallowa Valley]] of northeastern [[Oregon]] onto a significantly reduced [[Indian reservation|reservation]] in the [[Idaho Territory]]. A series of violent encounters with white settlers in the spring of 1877 culminated in those Nez Perce who resisted removal, including Joseph's band and an allied band of the [[Palouse people|Palouse]] tribe, fleeing the United States in an attempt to reach [[political asylum]] alongside the [[Lakota people]], who had sought refuge in Canada under the leadership of [[Sitting Bull]].
At least 800 men, women, and children led by Joseph and other Nez Perce chiefs were pursued by the [[U.S. Army]] under General [[Oliver O. Howard]] in a {{convert|1170|mi|-2|adj=on}} fighting retreat known as the [[Nez Perce War]]. The skill with which the Nez Perce fought and the manner in which they conducted themselves in the face of incredible adversity earned them widespread admiration from their military opponents and the American public, and coverage of the war in [[U.S. newspapers]] led to popular recognition of Chief Joseph and the Nez Perce.
In October 1877, after months of fugitive resistance, most of the surviving remnants of Joseph's band were cornered in northern [[Montana Territory]], just {{convert|40|mi|km}} from the Canadian border. Unable to fight any longer, Chief Joseph surrendered to the Army with the understanding that he and his people would be allowed to return to the reservation in western [[Idaho]]. He was instead transported between various forts and reservations on the southern Great Plains before being moved to the [[Colville Indian Reservation]] in the state of [[Washington (state)|Washington]], where he died in 1904.
Chief Joseph's life remains an iconic event in the history of the [[American Indian Wars]]. For his passionate, principled resistance to his tribe's forced removal, Joseph became renowned as both a humanitarian and a peacemaker.
==Background==
Chief Joseph was born ''Hinmuuttu-yalatlat'' (alternatively ''Hinmaton-Yalaktit'' or ''hin-mah-too-yah-lat-kekt'' {{bracket}}[[Nez Perce language|Nez Perce]]: "Thunder Rolling Down the Mountain"], or ''hinmatóoyalahtq'it'' ["Thunder traveling to higher areas"])<ref>{{cite web |author=TonyIngram - [email protected] |url=http://www.nezperce.org/Official/commands.htm |title=Nez Perce language |publisher=Nezperce.org |access-date=December 4, 2013
While initially hospitable to the region's white settlers, Joseph the Elder grew wary when they demanded more Indian lands. Tensions grew as the settlers appropriated traditional Indian lands for farming and livestock. [[Isaac Stevens]],
In 1863, however, an influx of new settlers, attracted by a [[gold rush]], led the government to call a second council. Government commissioners asked the Nez Perce to accept a new, much smaller reservation of {{convert|760000|acre|sqkm|-2}} situated around the village of [[Lapwai, Idaho|Lapwai]] in western [[Idaho Territory]], and excluding the Wallowa Valley.<ref name=trtypd>{{cite news |url=https://www.nps.gov/nepe/learn/historyculture/the-treaty-era.htm |publisher=Nez Perce National Historical Park |agency=National Park Service |title=The Treaty Period |access-date=April 5, 2016 |archive-date=April 25, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160425011013/https://www.nps.gov/nepe/learn/historyculture/the-treaty-era.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=trmap63>{{cite news |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=34NfAAAAIBAJ&pg=2266%2C2857500 |newspaper=Lewiston Morning Tribune |location=Idaho |title=Historical look at boundaries |date=February 25, 1990 |page=5-centennial |access-date=November 14, 2020 |archive-date=May 19, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230519154409/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=34NfAAAAIBAJ&pg=2266,2857500 |url-status=live }}</ref> In exchange, they were promised financial rewards, schools, and a hospital for the reservation. [[Chief Lawyer]] and one of his allied chiefs signed the treaty on behalf of the Nez Perce Nation, but Joseph the Elder and several other chiefs were opposed to selling their lands and did not sign.<ref>{{cite book
Their refusal to sign caused a rift between the "non-treaty" and "treaty" bands of Nez Perce. The "treaty" Nez Perce moved within the new reservation's boundaries, while the "non-treaty" Nez Perce remained on their ancestral lands. Joseph the Elder demarcated Wallowa land with a series of poles, proclaiming, "Inside this boundary all our people were born. It circles the graves of our fathers, and we will never give up these graves to any man."
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Joseph the Younger succeeded his father as leader of the Wallowa band in 1871. Before his death, the latter counseled his son:
{{quote|"My son, my body is returning to my mother earth, and my spirit is going very soon to see the Great Spirit Chief. When I am gone, think of your country. You are the chief of these people. They look to you to guide them. Always remember that your father never sold his country. You must stop your ears whenever you are asked to sign a treaty selling your home. A few years more and white men will be all around you. They have their eyes on this land. My son, never forget my dying words. This country holds your father's body. Never sell the bones of your father and your mother."<ref>{{cite book |author=Wilson, James |title=The Earth Shall Weep: A History of Native America |date=
Joseph commented: "I clasped my father's hand and promised to do as he asked. A man who would not defend his father's grave is worse than a wild beast."
The non-treaty Nez Perce suffered many injustices at the hands of settlers and [[Prospecting|prospectors]], but out of fear of reprisal from the militarily superior Americans, Joseph never allowed any violence against them, instead making many concessions to them in the hope of securing peace. A handwritten document mentioned in the Oral History of the Grande Ronde recounts an 1872 experience by Oregon pioneer Henry Young and two friends in search of acreage at Prairie Creek, east of Wallowa Lake. Young's party was surrounded by 40–50 Nez Perce led by Chief Joseph. The Chief told Young that white men were not welcome near Prairie Creek, and Young's party was forced to leave without violence.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://pierce.eou.edu/ohgr/exhibit1/documents/young_transcript.pdf |title=Lola Young, Oral History of the Grande Ronde, Eastern Oregon University p. 32 |access-date=
[[File:Alice Fletcher2.jpg|left|thumb|upright=1.10|An 1889 photograph of Joseph speaking to [[ethnology|ethnologist]] [[Alice Cunningham Fletcher]] and her [[Interpreting|interpreter]] James Stuart]]
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{{main|Nez Perce War}}
[[File:Flight of the Nez Perce-1877-map.jpg|thumb|upright=1.10|Map of the flight of the Nez Perce and key battle sites]]
The U.S. Army's pursuit of about 750 Nez Perce and a small allied band of the [[Palouse
Robert Forczyk states in his book ''Nez Perce 1877: The Last Fight'' that the tipping point of the war was that "Joseph responded that his clan's traditions would not allow him to cede the Wallowa Valley".<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |title=Nez Perce 1877: The Last Fight |last=Forczyk |first=Robert |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |year=2013 |pages=8, 41, 45 }}</ref> The band led by Chief Joseph never signed the treaty moving them to the Idaho reservation. General Howard, who was dispatched to deal with Chief Joseph and the Nez Perce, tended to believe the Nez Perce were right about the treaty: "the new treaty finally agreed upon excluded the Wallowa, and vast regions besides".<ref>{{Cite book |title=Nez Perce Joseph: an account of his ancestors, his lands, his confederates, his enemies, his murders, his war, his pursuit and capture. |last=Howard |first=Oliver |publisher=Lee and Shepard |year=1881 |location=Boston, MA |pages=17 }}</ref>
For over three months, the Nez Perce deftly outmaneuvered and battled their pursuers, traveling more than {{convert|1170|mi|km|-1}} across present-day [[Oregon]], [[Washington (state)|Washington]], [[Idaho]], [[Wyoming]], and [[Montana]]. One of those battles was led by Captain Perry and two cavalry companies of the U.S. Army led by Captain Trimble and Lieutenant Theller,<ref>{{cite book |last=Sharfstein |first=Daniel |date=2019 |title=Thunder in the Mountains |location=New York, NY |publisher=W.W. Norton & Company |page=246 }}</ref> who engaged Chief Joseph and his people at [[Battle of White Bird Canyon|White Bird Canyon]] on June 17, 1877. The Nez Perce repelled the attack, killing 34 soldiers, while suffering only three Nez Perce wounded. The Nez Perce continued to repel the Army's advances, eventually reaching the [[Clearwater River (Idaho)|Clearwater River]], where they united with another Nez Perce chief, Looking Glass, and his group, bringing the size of their party to 740, though only 200 of these were warriors.<ref name=":0" /> The final battle of the Nez Perce War occurred approximately {{convert|40 |miles}} south of the Canadian border where the Nez Perce were camped on Snake Creek near the [[Bears Paw Mountains]], close to present-day [[Chinook, Montana|Chinook]] in [[Blaine County, Montana]]. A U.S. Army detachment commanded by General [[Nelson A. Miles]] and accompanied by [[Cheyenne]] scouts intercepted the Nez Perce on September 30 at the [[Battle of Bear Paw]]. After his initial attacks were repelled, Miles violated a truce and captured Chief Joseph; however, he would later be forced to exchange Chief Joseph for one of his captured officers.<ref name=":0" />
General Howard arrived on October 3, leading the opposing cavalry, and was impressed with the skill with which the Nez Perce fought, using advance and rear guards, skirmish lines, and field fortifications. Following a devastating five-day siege during freezing weather, with no food or blankets and the major war leaders dead, Chief Joseph formally [[Surrender (military)|surrendered]] to General Miles on the afternoon of October 5, 1877. The battle is remembered in popular history by the words attributed to Joseph at the formal surrender:
{{quote|Tell General Howard I know his heart. What he told me before, I have it in my heart. I am tired of fighting. Our chiefs are killed; Looking Glass is dead, Too-hul-hul-sote is dead. The old men are all dead. It is the young men who say yes or no. He who led on the young men is dead. It is cold, and we have no blankets; the little children are freezing to death. My people, some of them, have run away to the hills, and have no blankets, no food. No one knows where they are—perhaps freezing to death. I want to have time to look for my children, to see how many I can find. Maybe I shall find them among the dead. Hear me, my chiefs! I am tired; my heart is sick and sad. From where the sun now stands, I will fight no more forever.<ref name="Leckie">{{cite book |last=Leckie |first=Robert |title=The Wars of America |publisher=Castle Books |year=1998 |page=[https://archive.org/details/warsofamerica00robe/page/537 537] |isbn=0-7858-0914-7 |url=https://archive.org/details/warsofamerica00robe/page/537 }}</ref>}}
The popular legend deflated, however, when the original pencil draft of the report was revealed to show the handwriting of the later poet and lawyer Lieutenant [[Charles Erskine Scott Wood]], who claimed to have taken down the great chief's words on the spot. In the margin it read, "Here insert Joseph's reply to the demand for surrender".<ref name=One>{{cite book |author=Walsh, James Morrow |author-link=James Morrow Walsh |title=
Although Joseph was not technically a war chief and probably did not command the retreat, many of the chiefs who did had died. His speech brought attention, and therefore credit, his way. He earned the praise of General [[William Tecumseh Sherman]] and became known in the press as "The Red [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon]]". However, as Francis Haines argues in ''Chief Joseph and the Nez Perce Warrior'', the battlefield successes of the Nez Perce during the war were due to the individual successes of the Nez Perce men and not that of the fabled military genius of Chief Joseph. Haines supports his argument by citing L. V. McWhorter, who concluded "that Chief Joseph was not a military man at all, that on the battlefield he was without either skill or experience".<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Haines |first=Francis |date=1954 |title=Chief Joseph and the Nez Perce Warriors |journal=The Pacific Northwest Quarterly |volume=45 |issue=1 |pages=1 }}</ref> Furthermore, Merle Wells argues in ''The Nez Perce and Their War'' that the interpretation of the Nez Perce War of 1877 in military terms as used in the United States Army's account distorts the actions of the Nez Perce. Wells supports his argument: "The use of military concepts and terms is appropriate when explaining what the whites were doing, but these same military terms should be avoided when referring to Indian actions; the United States use of military terms such as 'retreat' and 'surrender' has created a distorted perception of the Nez Perce War, to understand this may lend clarity to the political and military victories of the Nez Perce."<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wells |first=Merle |date=1964 |title=The Nez Perce and Their War |journal=The Pacific Northwest Quarterly |volume=55 |issue=1 |pages=35–37 }}</ref>
==Aftermath==
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By the time Joseph had surrendered, 150 of his followers had been killed or wounded. Their plight, however, did not end. Although Joseph had negotiated with Miles and Howard for a safe return home for his people, General Sherman overruled this decision and forced Joseph and 400 followers to be taken on unheated rail cars to [[Fort Leavenworth]], in eastern Kansas, where they were held in a [[prisoner of war]] campsite for eight months. Toward the end of the following summer, the surviving Nez Perce were taken by rail to a reservation in the [[Indian Territory]] (now [[Oklahoma]]); they lived there for seven years. Many of them died of epidemic diseases while there.
In 1879, Chief Joseph went to
Joseph continued to lead his Wallowa band on the Colville Reservation, at times coming into conflict with the leaders of the 11 other unrelated tribes also living on the reservation. [[Chief Moses]] of the [[Sinkiuse-Columbia]], in particular, resented having to cede a portion of his people's lands to Joseph's people, who had "made war on the Great Father".
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In his last years, Joseph spoke eloquently against the injustice of United States policy toward his people and held out the hope that America's promise of freedom and equality might one day be fulfilled for Native Americans as well. In 1897, he visited Washington, D.C. again to plead his case. He rode with [[Buffalo Bill]] in a parade honoring former President [[Ulysses Grant]] in New York City, but he was a topic of conversation for his traditional headdress more than his mission.
In 1903, Chief Joseph visited [[Seattle]], a booming young town, where he stayed in the Lincoln Hotel as guest to [[Edmond Meany]], a history professor at the [[University of Washington]]. It was there that he also befriended [[Edward Curtis]], the photographer, who took one of his most memorable and well-known photographs.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Joseph--Nez Percé |url=https://www.loc.gov/item/2002722462/ |access-date=
==Death==
[[File:Chief Joseph Group Photo.png|thumb|upright=1.10|Chief Joseph in a group photo the year before his death]]
An indomitable voice of conscience for the West, still in exile from his homeland, Chief Joseph died on September 21, 1904, according to his doctor, "of a broken heart".<ref>{{cite book |author=Nerburn, Kent |title=Chief Joseph & the Flight of the Nez Perc |location=
== Legacy ==
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=== Notable dramatic works ===
* ''[[I Will Fight No More Forever]]'' (1975), an historical drama film starring [[Ned Romero]].
* ''[[Buffalo Bill and the Indians, or Sitting Bull's History Lesson]]'' (1976), [[Robert Altman]]'s revisionist Western film based on the [[Broadway (theatre)|Broadway]] play ''[[Indians (play)|Indians]]''.
*From 1969 to 1970, actor [[George Mitchell (actor)|George Mitchell]] played Chief Joseph on [[Broadway (theatre)|Broadway]] in the play ''[[Indians (play)|Indians]]''.
=== Literary works ===
* Merrill Beal's ''I Will Fight No More Forever: Chief Joseph and the Nez Perce War'' (2000) was positively received both regionally and nationally.<ref>{{cite book |publisher=University of Washington Press |title=I Will Fight No More Forever: Chief Joseph and the Nez Perce War |date=2000 |author=Beal, Merrill |asin=B00J4Z7S9I }}</ref>
* Chief Joseph is sympathetically portrayed in [[Henry Wilson Allen|Will Henry]]'s novel of the Nez Perce War, ''From Where the Sun Now Stands'' (1959). The book won the 1960 [[Western Writers of America]] [[Spur Award for Best Novel of the West]].
* [[Helen Hunt Jackson]] recorded one early Oregon settler's tale of her encounter with Joseph in her ''Glimpses of California and the Missions'' (1902):
[[File:Wall quote from Chief Joseph.jpg|thumb|upright=1.10|A wall-mounted quote by Chief Joseph in [[The American Adventure (Epcot)|The American Adventure]] in the World Showcase pavilion of [[Walt Disney World Resort|Walt Disney World]]'s [[Epcot]]]]
{{quote|Why I got lost once, an' I came right on Chief Joseph's camp before I knowed it ... 't was night, 'n' I was kind o' creepin' along cautious, an' the first thing I knew there was an Injun had me on each side, an' they jest marched me up to Jo's tent, to know what they should do with me ...
Well; 'n' they gave me all I could eat, 'n' a guide to show me my way, next day, 'n' I could n't make Jo nor any of 'em take one cent. I had a kind o' comforter o' red yarn, I wore rund my neck; an' at last I got Jo to take that, jest as a kind o' momento.<ref name=Three>{{cite book |author=Jackson, Helen Hunt |author-link=Helen Hunt Jackson |title=Glimpses of California and the Missions |location=Boston |publisher=
*In the children's fiction book, ''[[Thunder Rolling in the Mountains]]'', by [[Newbery Medal|Newbery medalist]] [[Scott O'Dell]] and Elizabeth Hall, the story of Chief Joseph is told by Joseph's daughter, Sound of Running Feet.
*The saga of Chief Joseph is depicted in [[Robert Penn Warren]]'s poem "Chief Joseph of the Nez Perce" (1982).
*Chief Joseph appears in ''[[The Secret History of Twin Peaks]]'' by [[Mark Frost]]. In his speech, Chief Joseph says that he visited "the place known to our [his tribe's] ancestors, seldom visited, the place of smoke by the great falls and twin mountains, to seek the aid of the Great Spirit Chief in this time of need" in a speech he gives to his people before the retreat, in 1877
=== Memorials and commemorations===
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*A wall-mounted quote by Joseph in [[The American Adventure (Epcot)|The American Adventure]] in the World Showcase pavilion of [[Walt Disney World Resort|Walt Disney World]]'s [[Epcot]]
*[[Chief Joseph Pass]] in Montana<ref name="treasurydirect.gov" />
*Chief Joseph Elementary School<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://gfps.k12.mt.us/blog/location/chief-joseph-elementary/ |title=Chief Joseph Elementary – Great Falls Public Schools |access-date=August 13, 2020 |archive-date=August 7, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807005239/https://gfps.k12.mt.us/blog/location/chief-joseph-elementary/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://gfps.k12.mt.us/blog/location/chief-joseph-elementary/ |title=Chief Joseph Elementary – Great Falls Public Schools |language=en-US |access-date=
*Chief Joseph Middle School<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://cjms.bsd7.org/ |title=Chief Joseph Middle School - Bozeman Public Schools |language=en-US |access-date=June 14, 2024 |archive-date=June 14, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240614075138/https://cjms.bsd7.org/ |url-status=live }}</ref> in Bozeman, Montana
*The city of [[Joseph, Oregon]],<ref name="treasurydirect.gov" /> home of Chief Joseph Days festival.<ref name="bbcdjo">{{cite news |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=JI9TAAAAIBAJ&pg=4765%2C1284654 |newspaper=The Bulletin |location=Bend, Oregon |title=Chief Joseph Days |last=Hopper |first=Ila Grant |date=August 22, 1982 |page=B6 |access-date=November 14, 2020 |archive-date=October 4, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231004153707/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=JI9TAAAAIBAJ&pg=4765,1284654 |url-status=live }}</ref>
*[[Joseph Canyon]], in northern [[Wallowa County, Oregon]], and southern [[Asotin County, Washington]]<ref name="treasurydirect.gov" />
*Joseph Creek, on the Oregon–Washington border<ref name="treasurydirect.gov" />
*[[Chief Joseph Scenic Byway]] in Wyoming
*[[Chief Joseph Dam]] on the [[Columbia River]] in Washington, the second-largest hydroelectric power producer in the U.S. and the only dam in the Northwest named after an American Indian
*Chief Joseph is depicted on previously issued $200 Series [[United States Savings Bonds]]<ref name="treasurydirect.gov">{{cite web |url=http://www.treasurydirect.gov/indiv/research/indepth/ibonds/res_ibonds_ibondslooklike.htm |title=Individual – What I Savings Bonds Look Like |publisher=[[U.S. Department of the Treasury]], Treasurydirect.gov |date=December 27, 2007 |access-date=April 6, 2013 |archive-date=June 12, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130612144048/http://www.treasurydirect.gov/indiv/research/indepth/ibonds/res_ibonds_ibondslooklike.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>
*Chief Joseph Ranch south of Darby, Montana is depicted as the Dutton Ranch on the hit series Yellowstone, starring Kevin
*Chief Joseph School of the Arts, Meridian, ID
*[[Chief Joseph Trail Ride]], an annual horse trail ride following his route during the Nez Perce War<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-06-02 |title=The Chief Joseph Trail Ride |url=https://www.distanceriding.org/chief-joseph-trail-ride/ |access-date=2024-07-20 |website=South Eastern Distance Riders Association |language=en-US}}</ref>
=== Tributes in music ===
[[Bryan Adams|Bryan Adam's]] song "Native Son", from his 1987 album ''[[Into the Fire (album)|Into the Fire]]'' is based on Chief Joseph's story.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Vallance |first1=Jim |title=Native Son |url=http://www.jimvallance.com/01-music-folder/songs-folder-may-27/pg-song-adams-native-son.html
In 2014, [[Micky & the Motorcars|Micky and the Motorcars]] released the album
Swedish country pop group [[Rednex]] sampled a part of his famous speech in their 2000 single ''[[The Spirit of the Hawk]],'' which became a worldwide hit.
In his 2000 release
In 1983, [[Fred Small (singer-songwriter)|Fred Small]] released "The Heart of the Appaloosa".
===Halls of fame===
In 1973, he was inducted into the [[Hall of Great Westerners]] of the [[National Cowboy & Western Heritage Museum]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Hall of Great Westerners |url=https://nationalcowboymuseum.org/hall-of-great-westerners/ |website=National Cowboy & Western Heritage Museum |access-date=November 22, 2019 |archive-date=April 19, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190419213638/https://nationalcowboymuseum.org/hall-of-great-westerners/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
===Other===
In June 2012, Chief Joseph's 1870s war shirt was sold to a private collection for the sum of $877,500.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://indiancountrytodaymedianetwork.com/2012/07/23/chief-josephs-war-shirt-fetches-nearly-900000-at-auction-124976 |title=Chief Joseph's War Shirt Fetches Nearly $900,000 at Auction |work=[[Indian Country Today]] |access-date=July 24, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120725195356/http://indiancountrytodaymedianetwork.com/2012/07/23/chief-josephs-war-shirt-fetches-nearly-900000-at-auction-124976 |archive-date=July 25, 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
*Chief Joseph is depicted in the [[Audio-Animatronics|Audio-Animatronic]] show [[The American Adventure (Epcot)|The American Adventure]] at [[Walt Disney World|Walt Disney World's]] [[Epcot]], voiced by [[Dehl Berti]]. In it, he interrupts narrators [[Benjamin Franklin]] and [[Mark Twain]] to speak out against the mistreatment of Native American people throughout the nation's history.
==Notes==
{{notelist}}
==References==
{{Reflist
==Further reading==
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