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'''Distance education''', also known as '''distance learning''', is the education of students who may not always be physically present at a [[school]],<ref name="Kaplan Haenlein 2016">{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.bushor.2016.03.008 |title=Higher education and the digital revolution: About MOOCs, SPOCs, social media, and the Cookie Monster |journal=Business Horizons |volume=59 |issue=4 |pages=441–50 |year=2016 |last1=Kaplan |first1=Andreas M. |last2=Haenlein |first2=Michael }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last=Honeyman |first=M |author2=Miller, G |date=December 1993 | title= Agriculture distance education: A valid alternative for higher education? | journal =Proceedings of the 20th Annual National Agricultural Education Research Meeting | pages= 67–73 |url=http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED366794.pdf#page=80 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150430055648/http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED366794.pdf |archive-date=2015-04-30 |url-status=live }}</ref> or where the learner and the [[teacher]] are separated in both time and distance.<ref name=":2" /> Traditionally, this usually involved '''correspondence courses''' wherein the student corresponded with the school via [[mail]]. Distance education is a technology mediated modality and has evolved with the evolution of technologies such as video conferencing, TV, and internet.<ref name=":3" /> Today, it usually involves '''online education''' and the learning is usually mediated by some form of [[technology]]. A distance learning program can be completely distance learning, or a combination of distance learning and traditional classroom instruction (called hybrid<ref>{{cite journal |last=Tabor | first = Sharon W |date= Spring 2007 |title= Narrowing the Distance: Implementing a Hybrid Learning Model |journal= Quarterly Review of Distance Education | volume = 8 |issue=1 |pages=48–49 |publisher=IAP |issn=1528-3518 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b46TLTrx0kUC | access-date=23 January 2011| isbn = 9787774570793 }}</ref> or [[Blended learning|blended]]).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Vaughan |first1=Dr Norman D. |editor1-first=MF |editor1-last= Cleveland-Innes |editor2-first= DR | editor2-last =Garrison |title=An Introduction to Distance Education: Understanding Teaching and Learning in a New Era |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AI5as0yooGoC | access-date=23 January 2011 | year=2010 | publisher=Taylor & Francis | isbn=978-0-415-99598-6 | page=165 | chapter=Blended Learning}}</ref> Other modalities include distance learning with complementary virtual environment or teaching in virtual environment (e-learning).<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Anderson |first1=Terry |last2=Rivera Vargas |first2=Pablo |date=June 2020 |title=A Critical look at Educational Technology from a Distance Education Perspective |journal=Digital Education Review |issue=37 |pages=208–229 |doi=10.1344/der.2020.37.208-229 |hdl=2445/172738 |s2cid=225664918 |url=http://diposit.ub.edu/dspace/handle/2445/172738 |issn=2013-9144|hdl-access=free }}</ref>▼
▲'''Distance education''', also known as '''distance learning''', is the education of students who may not always be physically present at
[[Massive open online course]]s (MOOCs), offering large-scale interactive participation and open access through the [[World Wide Web]] or other network technologies, are recent educational modes in distance education.<ref name="Kaplan Haenlein 2016" /> A number of other terms (distributed learning, [[educational technology|e-learning]], [[m-learning]], online learning, virtual classroom, etc.) are used roughly synonymously with distance education. E-learning has shown to be a useful educational tool. E-learning should be an interactive process with multiple learning modes for all learners at various levels of learning. The distance learning environment is an exciting place to learn new things, collaborate with others, and retain self-discipline.{{citation needed|date=April 2022}}▼
▲[[Massive open online course]]s (MOOCs), offering large-scale interactive participation and open access through the [[World Wide Web]] or other network technologies, are recent educational modes in distance education.<ref name="Kaplan Haenlein 2016" /> A number of other terms (distributed learning, [[educational technology|e-learning]], [[m-learning]], online learning, virtual classroom, etc.) are used roughly synonymously with distance education. E-learning has shown to be a useful educational tool. E-learning should be an interactive process with multiple learning modes for all learners at various levels of learning. The distance learning environment is an exciting place to learn new things, collaborate with others, and retain self-discipline.<ref>{{
== History ==
One of the earliest attempts
The first distance education course in the modern sense was provided by Sir [[Isaac Pitman]] in the 1840s who taught a system of shorthand by mailing texts transcribed into shorthand on [[postcard]]s and receiving transcriptions from his students in return for correction. The element of student feedback was a crucial innovation in Pitman's system.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=http://www.irrodl.org/index.php/irrodl/article/view/134/214|author=Alan Tait|publisher=The International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning|title=Reflections on Student Support in Open and Distance Learning|journal=The International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning|date=April 2003|volume=4|issue=1|doi=10.19173/irrodl.v4i1.134|doi-access=free}}</ref>
This early beginning proved extremely successful and the Phonographic Correspondence Society was founded three years later to establish these courses on a more formal basis. The society paved the way for the later formation of Sir Isaac Pitman Colleges across the country.<ref name=MooreKearsley>{{cite book | last= Moore | first= Michael G. |author2=Greg Kearsley | year= 2005 | title= Distance Education: A Systems View | edition= 2nd | location= Belmont, CA | publisher= Wadsworth | isbn= 0-534-50688-7}}</ref>
The first correspondence school in the United States was the [[Society to Encourage Studies at Home]] which was founded in 1873.<ref>{{Cite
Founded in 1894, [[Wolsey Hall, Oxford]] was the first distance
=== University correspondence courses ===
====United Kingdom====
[[File:SomersetHousebyAnonpublAckermann&Co1836.jpg |thumb|[[Somerset House]], home of the University of London from 1837 to 1870]]
|first= Vigneswari |last=Thanapal|title=The social mediation of multinational legal education: A case study of the University of London's undergraduate laws programme for external/international students|publisher=[[Queen Mary, University of London]]|date=January 2015|type=PhD|page=16}}</ref>
The External Programme is now known as the University of London Worldwide, and includes postgraduate and undergraduate degrees created by member institutions of the University of London.<ref name="Key Facts" />
====Australia and South Africa====
▲With the state giving examining powers to a separate entity, the groundwork was laid for the creation of a programme within the new university which would both administer examinations and award qualifications to students taking instruction at another institution or pursuing a course of self-directed study. Referred to as "People's University" by [[Charles Dickens]] because it provided access to [[higher education]] to students from less affluent backgrounds, the External Programme was chartered by [[Queen Victoria]] in 1858, making the University of London the first university to offer distance learning degrees to students.<ref name="External Programme History">{{cite web |url=http://www.londonexternal.ac.uk/about_us/history.shtml |title="History", University of London External Programme Website |publisher=Londonexternal.ac.uk |date=15 July 2009 |access-date=27 April 2010}}</ref><ref name="Key Facts">{{cite web |url=http://www.londonexternal.ac.uk/about_us/facts.shtml |title="Key Facts", University of London External Programme Website |publisher=Londonexternal.ac.uk |date=15 July 2009 |access-date=27 April 2010}}</ref> Enrollment increased steadily during the late 19th century, and its example was widely copied elsewhere.<ref name="Guardian Article">{{cite web|url=http://www.guardianabroad.co.uk/education/article/283 |author=Tatum Anderson |title=History lessons at the people's university |date=16 May 2007 |publisher=Guardianabroad.co.uk |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070524102204/http://www.guardianabroad.co.uk/education/article/283 |archive-date=24 May 2007 |access-date=20 September 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref> This programme is now known as the University of London International Programme and includes Postgraduate, Undergraduate and Diploma degrees created by colleges such as the London School of Economics, Royal Holloway and Goldsmiths.<ref name="Key Facts" />
The vast distances made Australia especially active; the [[University of Queensland]] established its Department of Correspondence Studies in 1911.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1080/0158791820030207 |title=Distance education in Australian higher education – a history |journal=Distance Education |volume=3 |issue=2 |pages=255–78 |year=2009 |last1=White |first1=Michael }}</ref>
In South Africa, the [[University of South Africa]], formerly an examining and certification body, started to present distance education tuition in 1946.
[[File:Portrait of William Rainey Harper.jpg|thumb|[[William Rainey Harper]] encouraged the development of external university courses at the new University of Chicago in the 1890s.]]
In the United States, [[William Rainey Harper]], founder and first president of the [[University of Chicago]], celebrated the concept of extended education, where a research university had satellite colleges elsewhere in the region.<ref>{{Cite web |title=William Rainey Harper |url=https://president.uchicago.edu/ |access-date=2023-02-17 |website=president.uchicago.edu |language=en}}</ref>▼
====United States====
In 1892, Harper encouraged correspondence courses to further promote education, an idea that was put into practice by [[Chicago]], Wisconsin, Columbia, and several dozen other universities by the 1920s.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Levinson |first1=David L |title=Community colleges: a reference handbook |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xrnPJcb7c54C |year= 2005 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn= 1-57607-766-7 |page=69 |access-date=2011-01-23}}</ref><ref>Von V. Pittman, ''Correspondence Study in the American University: A Second Historiographical Perspective,'' in Michael Grahame Moore, William G. Anderson, eds. ''Handbook of Distance Education'' pp 21-36</ref> Enrollment in the largest private for-profit school based in [[Scranton, Pennsylvania]], the [[International Correspondence Schools]] grew explosively in the 1890s. Founded in 1888 to provide training for immigrant coal miners aiming to become state mine inspectors or foremen, it enrolled 2500 new students in 1894 and matriculated 72,000 new students in 1895. By 1906 total enrollments reached 900,000. The growth was due to sending out complete textbooks instead of single lessons, and the use of 1200 aggressive in-person salesmen.<ref>Joseph F. Kett, ''Pursuit of Knowledge Under Difficulties: From Self-Improvement to Adult Education in America'' (1996) pp 236-8</ref><ref>J.J. Clark, "The Correspondence School—Its Relation to Technical Education and Some of Its Results," ''Science'' (1906) 24#611 pp 327-8, 332, 333. Clark was manager of the school's text-book department.</ref> There was a stark contrast in pedagogy:▼
In the United States, only a third of the population lived in cities of 100,000 or more population in 1920; in order to reach the rest, correspondence techniques were adopted.
▲
▲In 1892, Harper encouraged correspondence courses to further promote education, an idea that was put into practice by
{{blockquote|The regular technical school or college aims to educate a man broadly; our aim, on the contrary, is to educate him only along some particular line. The college demands that a student shall have certain educational qualifications to enter it and that all students study for approximately the same length of time; when they have finished their courses they are supposed to be qualified to enter any one of a number of branches in some particular profession. We, on the contrary, are aiming to make our courses fit the particular needs of the student who takes them.<ref>Clark, "The Correspondence School" (1906) p 329</ref>}}
Education was a high priority in the [[Progressive Era]], as American high schools and colleges expanded greatly. For men who were older or were too busy with family responsibilities, night schools were opened, such as the [[YMCA]] school in Boston that became [[Northeastern University]].
====International Conference====
=== Open universities ===
{{Main
The [[Open University]] (OU) in the United Kingdom was founded by the
[[File:Walton Hall Pen&Ink.jpg|thumb|[[Walton Hall, Milton Keynes|Walton Hall]], renovated in 1970 to act as the headquarters of the newly established [[Open University]] (artist: Hilary French)]]
The Open University
[[Athabasca University]], Canada's open university, was created in 1970 and followed a similar, though independently developed, pattern.<ref name="byrne">{{cite book | last =Byrne | first =T. C. | author-link =Tim Byrne | title =Athabasca University The Evolution of Distance Education | publisher = University of Calgary Press | year= 1989 |location = Calgary, Alberta | page = 135| isbn = 0-919813-51-8}}</ref> The Open University inspired the creation of Spain's [[National University of Distance Education]] (1972)<ref>{{cite web |title= History of UNED (in Spanish) | location=ES | access-date=2012-01-26| url= http://portal.uned.es/portal/page?_pageid=93,499271,93_20500119&_dad=portal&_schema=PORTAL }}</ref> and Germany's [[University of Hagen|FernUniversität in Hagen]] (1974).<ref>{{cite web |title= Three Decades |url= http://www.fernuni-hagen.de/english/profile/3decades/learning.shtml |publisher= FernUniversität in Hage |location= UK |access-date= 2011-01-23 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20101123042944/http://fernuni-hagen.de/english/profile/3decades/learning.shtml |archive-date= 23 November 2010 |url-status= dead }}</ref> There are now many similar institutions around the world, often with the name "Open University" (in [[English language|English]] or in the local language).<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=13.2
The University of the Philippines Open University was established in 1995 as the fifth constituent
Most [[open universities]] use distance education technologies as delivery methods, though some require attendance at local study
===COVID-19 pandemic===
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{{Further|Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on education}}
[[File:8938Filipino_homeschooling_students_01.jpg|thumb|150px|right| Filipino homeschooling students – blended (printed-digital modular) distance learning with self-learning materials during the 2020 COVID-19 pandemic in [[San Miguel, Bulacan]]]]
The [[COVID-19 pandemic]] resulted in the closure of the vast majority of schools worldwide for in-person learning.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last=Arandas |first=Mohammed Fadel |last2=Salman |first2=Ali |last3=Idid |first3=Syed Arabi |last4=Loh |first4=Yoke Ling |last5=Nazir |first5=Syaira |last6=Ker |first6=Yuek Li |date=2024 |title=The influence of online distance learning and digital skills on digital literacy among university students post Covid-19. |url=https://digitalcommons.uri.edu/jmle/vol16/iss1/6 |journal=Journal of Media Literacy Education |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=79–93 |doi=10.23860/JMLE-2024-16-1-6 |issn=2167-8715}}</ref><ref name="Template_UNESCO-closures">{{Cite web|url=https://en.unesco.org/covid19/educationresponse |title=School closures caused by Coronavirus (COVID-19) |website=UNESCO |language=en|access-date=2021-01-12}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://en.unesco.org/news/290-million-students-out-school-due-covid-19-unesco-releases-first-global-numbers-and-mobilizes |title=290 million students out of school due to COVID-19: UNESCO releases first global numbers and mobilizes response |date=4 March 2020 |publisher=[[UNESCO]] |access-date=6 March 2020}}</ref> COVID-19 increased the value of distance education although its policies were implemented and formulated among several universities much earlier.<ref name=":4" /> Many schools moved to online remote learning through platforms including—but not limited to—[[Zoom (software)|Zoom]], [[Blackboard Inc.|Blackboard]], [[Cisco Webex]], [[Google Classroom]], [[Google Meet]], [[Microsoft Teams]], [[D2L]], and [[Edgenuity]].<ref name=":4" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.poconorecord.com/lifestyle/20200501/virtual-learning-gets-mixed-reviews-from-pocono-parents|title=Virtual learning gets mixed reviews from Pocono parents|date=2020-05-01|last=Hood|first=Micaela|access-date=17 May 2020|archive-date=7 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200507160538/https://www.poconorecord.com/lifestyle/20200501/virtual-learning-gets-mixed-reviews-from-pocono-parents|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.11alive.com/article/news/health/coronavirus/georgia-school-districts-digital-learning-grants-atlanta/85-3a783e3c-2642-44e9-8fa6-090012604481|title=Georgia awards $21 million in digital learning grants|date=2020-04-28|last=Raymond|first=Jonathon}}</ref> A recent study showed that [[Google Classroom]] was the most used platform by students followed by [[Microsoft Teams]] and [[Zoom (software)|Zoom]] respectively. The less-used platforms included [[Blackboard Learn]], [[Cisco Webex|Webex]] by [[Cisco]], [[DingTalk]], [[Tencent Video|Tencent]], and [[WhatsApp]]. However, the most preferred platforms by students were [[Microsoft Teams]] followed by [[Google Classroom]] and [[Zoom (software)|Zoom]]. Although [[Google Classroom]] was the most used by students as decided by their lectures, [[Microsoft Teams]] was the most preferred by those students<ref name=":4" />
Concerns arose over the impact of this transition on students without access to an internet-enabled device or a stable internet connection.<ref name="Aristovnik et al. 2020">{{cite journal | vauthors = Aristovnik A, Keržič D, Ravšelj D, Tomaževič N, Umek L|title = Impacts of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Life of Higher Education Students: A Global Perspective| journal = Sustainability | volume = 12 | issue = 20 | pages = 8438 | date = October 2020 | doi=10.3390/su12208438| doi-access = free }}</ref> Distanced education during the COVID-19 pandemic has interrupted synchronous learning for many students and teachers; where educators were no longer able to teach in real-time and could only switch to asynchronous instruction, this significantly and negatively affected their coping with the transition,<ref name="JelinskaParadowski2021a">{{Cite journal|last1=Jelińska|first1=Magdalena|last2=Paradowski|first2=Michał B.|date=2021|title=Teachers' engagement in and coping with emergency remote instruction during COVID-19-induced school closures: A multi-national contextual perspective|journal=Online Learning Journal|volume=25|issue=1|pages=303–328|doi=10.24059/olj.v25i1.2492|doi-access=free}}</ref> and posed various legal issues, especially in terms of copyright.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi = 10.1007/s12115-021-00584-w|title = The Right to Teach in a Hyper-Digital Age: Legal Protections for (Post-)Pandemic Concerns|year = 2021|last1 = Deflem|first1 = Mathieu|journal = Society|volume = 58|issue = 3|pages = 204–212|pmid = 34075264|pmc = 8161721}}</ref> The physical surroundings during the COVID-19 pandemic are seen by university instructors as having a detrimental effect on the quality of distance education. However, where the lecture is delivered and the type of faculty do not show any significant statistical variances in the quality of distance education.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Al-Tkhayneh |first1=Khawlah M. |last2=Altakhaineh |first2=Abdel Rahman Mitib |last3=Nser |first3=Khaled Khamis |date=2023-01-01 |title=The impact of the physical environment on the quality of distance education |url=https://doi.org/10.1108/QAE-09-2022-0163 |journal=Quality Assurance in Education |volume=31 |issue=3 |pages=504–519 |doi=10.1108/QAE-09-2022-0163 |issn=0968-4883}}</ref> The shift away from real-time instruction to asynchronous learning modes has posed significant challenges, impacting both the teaching and learning experience.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=James |first1=Trixie |last2=Toth |first2=Gabriela |last3=Tomlins |first3=Melissa |last4=Kumar |first4=Brijesh |last5=Bond |first5=Kerry |date=2021-11-02 |title=Digital Disruption in the COVID-19 Era: The Impact on Learning and Students' Ability to Cope with Study in an Unknown World |url=https://studentsuccessjournal.org/article/view |journal=Student Success |language=en |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=84–95 |doi=10.5204/ssj.1784 |issn=2205-0795}}</ref> Educators, grappling with this abrupt transition, have faced hurdles in effectively engaging students and delivering course content, leading to heightened stress and burnout among faculty members. Additionally, this shift has raised legal concerns, particularly regarding copyright issues related to the dissemination of educational materials in digital formats.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mezei |first=Péter |date=2023-06-30 |title=Digital Higher Education and Copyright Law in the Age of Pandemic - The Hungarian Experience |url=http://www.jipitec.eu/issues/jipitec-14-2-2023/5744 |journal=Jipitec |volume=14 |issue=2 |issn=2190-3387}}</ref> Post-COVID-19 pandemic, while some educational institutions went back to physical classes, others switched to blended learning or kept up their online distance learning.<ref name=":4" />
Though schools are slow to adapt to new technologies, [[COVID-19|Covid-19]] required schools to adapt and learn how to use new digital and online learning tools.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=Hew |first1=Khe Foon |last2=Jia |first2=Chengyuan |last3=Gonda |first3=Donn Emmanuel |last4=Bai |first4=Shurui |date=2020-12-21 |title=Transitioning to the "new normal" of learning in unpredictable times: pedagogical practices and learning performance in fully online flipped classrooms |url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-020-00234-x |journal=International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=57 |doi=10.1186/s41239-020-00234-x |issn=2365-9440 |pmc=7750097 |pmid=34778516}}</ref> [[Web conferencing]] has become more popular since 2007.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bower |first=Matt |date=2011-05-01 |title=Synchronous collaboration competencies in web‐conferencing environments – their impact on the learning process |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/01587919.2011.565502 |journal=Distance Education |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=63–83 |doi=10.1080/01587919.2011.565502 |s2cid=17247273 |issn=0158-7919}}</ref> Researchers have found that people in [[online classes]] perform just as effectively as participants in conventional learning classes.<ref name=":1" /> The use of online learning is becoming a pathway for learners with sparse access to physical courses so they can complete their degrees.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Veletsianos |first=George |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1145122616 |title=Learning online : the student experience |date=2020 |others=Johns Hopkins University. Press |isbn=978-1-4214-3810-8 |location=Baltimore, Maryland |oclc=1145122616}}</ref> Furthermore, digital classroom technologies allow those living remotely to access learning and it enables the student to fit learning into their schedule more easily.{{citation needed|date=June 2022}}▼
▲A recent study about the benefits and drawbacks of online learning found that students have had a harder time producing their own work.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{Cite journal|last1=Mukhtar|first1=Khadijah|last2=Javed|first2=Kainat|last3=Arooj|first3=Mahwish|last4=Sethi|first4=Ahsan|date=May 2020|title=Advantages, Limitations and Recommendations for online learning during COVID-19 pandemic era|journal=Pakistan Journal of Medical Sciences|volume=36|issue=COVID19–S4|pages=S27–S31|doi=10.12669/pjms.36.COVID19-S4.2785|issn=1682-024X|pmc=7306967|pmid=32582310}}</ref> The study suggests teachers should cut back on the amount of information taught and incorporate more activities during the lesson, in order for students to create their own work.<ref name="ReferenceA" /> Though schools are slow to adapt to new technologies, [[COVID
== Technologies ==
[[Internet]] technology has enabled many forms of distance learning through [[open educational resources]] and facilities such as [[Educational technology|e-learning]] and [[Massive open online course|MOOCs]]. Although the expansion of the Internet blurs the boundaries, distance education technologies are divided into two modes of delivery: [[synchronous learning]] and [[asynchronous learning]].
In synchronous learning, all participants are "present" at the same time in a virtual classroom, as in traditional classroom teaching.
| title= Teaching and Learning with Technology
| url= https://books.google.com/books?id=9wxKAAAAYAAJ | access-date = 23 January 2011 | edition = 3rd
|date=March 2007 | publisher=Allyn & Bacon | isbn=978-0-205-51191-4 | page=377}}</ref>
Web conferencing software helps to facilitate class meetings, and usually contains additional interaction tools such as text chat, polls, hand raising, emoticons etc.
Some universities have been starting to use robot proxies to enable more engaging synchronous hybrid classes where both remote and in-person students can be present and interact using [[telerobotics]] devices such as the Kubi Telepresence robot stand that looks around and the Double Robot that roams around. With these telepresence robots, the remote students have a seat at the table or desk instead of being on a screen on the wall.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://designstudio.educ.msu.edu/from-a-spot-on-the-wall-to-a-seat-at-the-table/|title=From a Spot on the Wall to a Seat at the Table – CEPSE/COE Design Studio|access-date=25 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181108162011/http://designstudio.educ.msu.edu/from-a-spot-on-the-wall-to-a-seat-at-the-table/|archive-date=8 November 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Meyer |first=Leila |date=2015-02-24 |title=Michigan State Tests Telepresence Robots for Online Students
In asynchronous learning, participants access course materials flexibly on their
▲Some universities have been starting to use robot proxies to enable more engaging synchronous hybrid classes where both remote and in-person students can be present and interact using [[telerobotics]] devices such as the Kubi Telepresence robot stand that looks around and the Double Robot that roams around. With these telepresence robots, the remote students have a seat at the table or desk instead of being on a screen on the wall.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://designstudio.educ.msu.edu/from-a-spot-on-the-wall-to-a-seat-at-the-table/|title=From a Spot on the Wall to a Seat at the Table – CEPSE/COE Design Studio|access-date=25 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181108162011/http://designstudio.educ.msu.edu/from-a-spot-on-the-wall-to-a-seat-at-the-table/|archive-date=8 November 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Meyer |first=Leila |date=2015-02-24 |title=Michigan State Tests Telepresence Robots for Online Students - |url=https://campustechnology.com/articles/2015/02/24/michigan-state-tests-telepresence-robots-for-online-students.aspx |access-date=2023-02-17 |website=Campus Technology |language=en-US}}</ref>
The five characteristics of technological innovations (compatibility, observability, relative advantage, complexity, and trialability) have a significant positive relationship with the [[digital literacy]] of users. Besides, observability, trialability, and digital skill were found to have a positive significant influence on [[digital literacy]]. <ref name=":4" />
▲In asynchronous learning, participants access course materials flexibly on their own schedules. Students are not required to be together at the same time. Mail correspondence, which is the oldest form of distance education, is an asynchronous delivery technology, as are [[message board]] forums, [[e-mail]], [[video]] and [[audio recording]]s, print materials, [[voicemail]], and [[fax]].<ref name="lever-duffy" />
The two methods can be combined. Many courses offered by both open universities and an increasing number of campus-based institutions use periodic sessions of residential or day teaching to supplement the sessions delivered at a distance.<ref name="Burns">{{cite book |last1=Burns |first1=Mary | title= Distance Education for Teacher Training: Modes, Models and Methods | url= http://go.edc.org/07xd | access-date = 10 September 2012}}</ref> This type of mixed distance and campus-based education has recently come to be called "[[blended learning]]" or less often "hybrid learning". Many open universities use a blend of technologies and a blend of learning modalities (face-to-face, distance, and hybrid) all under the rubric of "distance learning".
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Distance learning can also use interactive radio instruction (IRI), interactive audio instruction (IAI), online [[virtual world]]s, digital games, webinars, and webcasts, all of which are referred to as e-Learning.<ref name="Burns"/>
=== Radio and
{{external media | width = 210px | float = right | audio1 = [http://www.wnyc.org/story/745-air-college-talk/ Air college talk.], 2:45, 2 December 1931, [[WNYC (AM)|WNYC]]<ref name="smarth">{{cite web | title = Air college talk. | publisher =
The rapid spread of film in the 1920s and radio in the 1930s led to proposals to use it for distance education.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Cuban |first=Larry |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uQeEn1vEUSQC |title=Teachers and Machines: The Classroom Use of Technology Since 1920 |date=1986-06-15 |publisher=Teachers College Press |isbn=978-0-8077-2792-8 |language=en}}</ref> By 1938, at least 200 city school systems, 25 state boards of education, and many colleges and universities broadcast educational
{{blockquote|Experts in given fields broadcast lessons for pupils within the many schoolrooms of the public school system, asking questions, suggesting readings, making assignments, and conducting tests. This mechanizes education and leaves the local teacher only the tasks of preparing for the broadcast and keeping order in the classroom.<ref>Lloyd Allen Cook. (1938). ''Community Backgrounds of Education: A Textbook and Educational Sociology'', pp 249–250</ref>}}
The first large-scale implementation of radio for distance education [[Distance education in Chicago Public Schools in 1937|took place in 1937 in Chicago]]. During a three-week school closure implemented in response to a [[polio]] outbreak that the city was experiencing, [[William Johnson (educator)|superintendent of Chicago Public Schools
A typical setup came in Kentucky in 1948 when [[John Wilkinson Taylor (educator)|John Wilkinson Taylor]], president of the [[University of Louisville]], teamed up with [[NBC]] to use radio as a medium for distance education
[[Charles Wedemeyer]] of the [[University of Wisconsin–Madison]] also promoted new methods. From 1964 to 1968, the [[Carnegie Corporation of New York|Carnegie Foundation]] funded Wedemeyer's ''Articulated Instructional Media Project'' (AIM) which brought in a variety of communications technologies aimed at providing learning to an off-campus population. The radio courses faded away in the 1950s.<ref>Cuban. (1986). ''Teachers and Machines: The Classroom Use of Technology Since 1920'', pp 19–26</ref> Many efforts to use television along the same lines proved unsuccessful, despite heavy funding by the [[Ford Foundation]].<ref>{{cite book|author1=Christopher H. Sterling|author2=Cary O'Dell|title=The Concise Encyclopedia of American Radio|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dmmLAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA609|year=2011|publisher=Routledge|page=609|isbn=978-1-135-17684-6}}</ref><ref>Robert J. Taggart. (2007). "The Promise and Failure of Educational Television in a Statewide System: Delaware, 1964–1971." ''American Educational History Journal'', ''24'' (1), 111–122. [https://books.google.com/books?id=n_eEVfDG44kC&pg=PA111 online]</ref><ref>Cuban
From 1970 to 1972 the Coordinating Commission for Higher Education in California funded Project Outreach to study the potential of
=== Internet ===
{{Main|Virtual education}}The widespread use of computers and the [[Internet]] has made distance learning easier and faster, and today [[virtual school]]s and [[Virtual university|virtual universities]] deliver full curricula online.<ref>{{cite book |last1 = Gold|first1 = Larry|last2 = Maitland|first2 = Christine|editor1-first = Ronald A.|editor1-last = Phipps|editor2-first = Jamie P.|editor2-last = Merisotis|title = What's the difference? A review of contemporary research on the effectiveness of distance learning in higher education|url = https://books.google.com/books?ei=ldA7TcruEZG38gODpYykCA|access-date = 23 January 2011|year = 1999|publisher = Institute for Higher Education Policy|location = Washington, DC}}</ref> The capacity of the Internet to support voice, video, text, and immersion teaching methods made earlier distinct forms of telephone, videoconferencing, radio, television, and text
The first
Between 2000 and 2008, enrollment in distance education courses increased rapidly
In the United States in 2011, it was found that a third of all the students enrolled in postsecondary education had taken an accredited online course in a postsecondary institution.<ref name="Lederman2">{{cite news|last = Lederman|first = Doug |title = Growth for Online Learning |url = http://www.insidehighered.com/news/2013/01/08/survey-finds-online-enrollments-slow-continue-grow|access-date = 30 March 2013 |newspaper = InsideHigherEd|date = 8 January 2013}}</ref>
By 2008, online learning
[[Internet forum]]s, online [[discussion group]]s, and [[online learning community]] can contribute to a distance education experience. Research shows that [[socialization]] plays an important role in some forms of distance education.<ref name="SRE4(13)2">{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.09.199 |title=Alleviating the Senses of Isolation and Alienation in the Virtual World: Socialization in Distance Education |journal=Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences |volume=93 |pages=332–7 |year=2013 |last1=Sazmandasfaranjan |first1=Yasha |last2=Shirzad |first2=Farzad |last3=Baradari |first3=Fatemeh |last4=Salimi |first4=Meysam |last5=Salehi |first5=Mehrdad |doi-access=free }}</ref>
[[ECourse|E-Course]]s are available from educational platforms such as [[Khan Academy]] and [[MasterClass]] on many topics and for students of all levels.
== Paced and self-paced models ==
Most distance education uses a paced format similar to traditional campus-based models in which learners commence and complete a course at the same time.
[[Andreas Kaplan|Kaplan]] and Haenlein classify distance education into four groups according to "Time dependency" and "Number of participants":
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# SSOCs (Synchronous Private Online Courses): Online course that only offers a limited number of places and requires students to be "present" at the same time (synchronously).<ref name="Kaplan Haenlein 2016"/>
Paced models are a familiar mode since they are used almost exclusively in campus-based schools. Institutes that offer both distance and campus
Self-paced courses maximize student freedom, as not only can students commence studies on any date, but they can complete a course in as little time as a few weeks or up to a year or longer. Students often enroll in self-paced study when they are under pressure to complete
== Benefits ==
Distance learning can expand access to education and training for both general populace and businesses since its flexible scheduling structure lessens the effects of the many time-constraints imposed by personal responsibilities and commitments.<ref name=Oblinger>{{cite journal |last=Oblinger |first=Diana G. |year=2000 |title=The Nature and Purpose of Distance Education |journal=The Technology Source |issue=March/April |publisher=Michigan Virtual University |location=Michigan |url=http://technologysource.org/article/nature_and_purpose_of_distance_education/ |access-date=23 January 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718000146/http://technologysource.org/article/nature_and_purpose_of_distance_education/ |archive-date=18 July 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="CFP">{{cite journal|last1=Masson|first1=M|title=Benefits of TED Talks|journal=Canadian Family Physician|date=December 2014|volume=60|issue=12|pages=1080|pmid=25500595|pmc=4264800}}</ref> Devolving some activities off-site alleviates institutional capacity constraints arising from the traditional demand on institutional buildings and infrastructure.<ref name=Oblinger /> As a result, more classes can be offered and enable students to enroll in more of their required classes on time and prevent delayed graduation.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fischer |first1=Christian |last2=Baker |first2=Rachel |last3=Li |first3=Qiujie |last4=Orona |first4=Gabe Avakian |last5=Warschauer |first5=Mark |date=2022 |title=Increasing success in Higher Education: The relationships of online course taking with college completion and time-to-degree
As the population at large becomes more involved in [[lifelong learning]] beyond the normal schooling age, institutions can benefit financially, and adult learning business courses may be particularly lucrative.<ref name=Oblinger /><ref name="CFP"/> Distance education
Distance education can also provide a broader method of communication within the realm of education.<ref name="CFP"/> With the many tools and
The high cost of education affects students in higher education,
Within the class, students are able to learn in ways that traditional classrooms would not be able to provide. It is able to promote good learning experiences and therefore, allow students to obtain higher satisfaction with their online learning.<ref name=Kirtman>{{cite journal|last=Kirtman|first=Lisa|title=Online Versus In-Class Courses: An Examination of Differences in Learning Outcomes|journal=Issues in Teacher Education|date=Fall 2009|volume=18|issue=2|pages=103–115|url=http://www1.chapman.edu/ITE/public_html/ITEFall09/12kirtman.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130606074223/http://www1.chapman.edu/ITE/public_html/ITEFall09/12kirtman.pdf |archive-date=2013-06-06 |url-status=live|access-date=30 March 2013}}</ref> For example, students can review their lessons more than once according to their needs. Students can then manipulate the coursework to fit their learning by focusing more on their weaker topics while breezing through concepts that they already have or can easily grasp.<ref name=Kirtman /> When course design and the [[learning environment]] are at their optimal conditions, distance education can lead students to higher satisfaction with their learning experiences.<ref name=Nguyen /> Studies have shown that high satisfaction correlates to increased learning. For those in a healthcare or mental health distance learning
Distance learning may enable students who are unable to attend a traditional school setting, due to [[disability]] or illness such as decreased mobility and immune system suppression, to get a good education.<ref>{{cite journal|title=An Exploration of the Representation of Students with Disabilities in Distance Education|journal=Online Journal of Distance Learning Administration|date=15 December 2011|volume=14|issue=4|url=http://www.westga.edu/~distance/ojdla/winter144/woods_maiden_brandes144.html|access-date=7 December 2012|last1=Woods|first1=Michael L.|last2=Maiden|first2=Jeffrey|last3=Brandes|first3=Joyce A.}}</ref> Children who are sick or are unable to attend classes are able to attend them in "person" through the use of [[robot]] proxies. This helps the students have experiences
Distance education may provide equal access regardless of socioeconomic status or income, area of residence, gender, race, age, or cost per student.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://madamenoire.com/105928/cyber-charter-schools-the-end-of-public-education-or-a-new-beginning |title=Cyber-charter Schools: The end of Public Education or a New Beginning|date=22 November 2010}}</ref> Applying [[universal design]] strategies to distance learning courses as they are being developed (rather than instituting accommodations for specific students on an as-needed basis) can increase the [[accessibility]] of such courses to students with a range of abilities, disabilities, learning styles, and native languages.<ref>Burgstahler, S.,{{cite web |url=http://www.washington.edu/doit/Brochures/Technology/equal_access_uddl.html |title=Equal Access: Universal Design of Distance Learning |access-date=12 February 2013}}</ref>
Distance education graduates, who would never have been associated with the school under a traditional system, may donate money to the school.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1080/01930826.2010.488597 |title=Untapped Potential: Seeking Library Donors among Alumni of Distance Learning Programs |journal=Journal of Library Administration |volume=50 |issue=5–6 |pages=515–29 |year=2010 |last1=Casey |first1=Anne Marie |last2=Lorenzen |first2=Michael |s2cid=62142672 |url=https://commons.erau.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1005&context=hunt-library-staff-works }}</ref>
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Distance learning may also offer a final opportunity for adolescents that are no longer permitted in the general education population due to behavior disorders. Instead of these students having no other academic opportunities, they may continue their education from their homes and earn their diplomas, offering them another chance to be an integral part of society.
Distance learning offers individuals a unique opportunity to benefit from the expertise and resources of the best universities currently available. Moreover, the online environment facilitates pedagogical innovation such as new
Distance learning can also reduce the phenomenon of rural exodus by enabling students from remote regions to remain in their hometowns while pursuing higher education. Eliminating the distance barrier to higher education can also increase the number of alternatives open to students, and foster greater competition between institutions of higher learning regardless of geography.<ref>{{Cite web|first=Joel |last=Goldenberg |title=Quebec can become a 'leader in distance learning" at universities: MEI|url=https://www.thesuburban.com/news/city_news/quebec-can-become-a-leader-in-distance-learning-at-universities-mei/article_59a7d233-2b80-5622-867b-86cd0b2075bc.html|access-date=2021-10-13|website=The Suburban Newspaper|date=6 October 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
== Criticism ==
Barriers to effective distance education include obstacles such as domestic distractions and unreliable technology,<ref>{{cite web|last=Östlund|first=Berit|title=Stress, disruption and community — Adult learners' experiences of obstacles and opportunities in distance education|url=http://www.eurodl.org/index.php?p=&sp=full&article=179|publisher=Department of Child and Youth Education, Special Education and Counselling, Umeå University|access-date=3 December 2011|archive-date=25 April 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120425225833/http://www.eurodl.org/index.php?p=&sp=full&article=179|url-status=dead}}</ref> as well as students'
Some students attempt to participate in distance education without proper training with the tools needed to be successful in the
The results of a study of Washington state community college students showed that distance- learning students tended to drop out more often than their traditional counterparts due to difficulties in language, time management, and study skills.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ccrc.tc.columbia.edu/publications/online-hybrid-courses-washington.html?UID=872|title=Online and Hybrid Course Enrollment and Performance in Washington State Community and Technical Colleges|last=Gabriel|date=March 2011}}</ref>
According to
Not all courses required to complete a degree may be offered online. Health care profession
There is a theoretical problem
There may also be institutional challenges. Distance learning is new enough that it may be a challenge to gain support for these
Additionally, though distance education offers industrial countries the opportunity to become globally informed, there are still negative sides to it. Hellman states that "These include its cost and capital intensiveness, time constraints and other pressures on instructors, the isolation of students from instructors and their peers, instructors' enormous difficulty in adequately evaluating students they never meet face-to-face, and drop-out rates far higher than in classroom-based courses."<ref name="Hellman, Judith Adler 2003">Hellman, Judith Adler. "The Riddle of Distance Education." Geneva. 1 June 2003.</ref>
A more complex challenge of distance education relates to cultural differences between students and teachers and among students. Distance
==
Tools have been developed to assess the quality of distance education. Walker developed a survey instrument known as the [[Distance Education Learning Environments Survey|Distance Education Learning Environment Survey]] (DELES), which examines instructor support, student interaction, and collaboration, personal relevance, authentic learning, active learning, and student autonomy.<ref>{{Citation |last=Walker |first=S |title=Development and Validation of an Instrument for Assessing Distance Education Learning Environments in Higher Education: The Distance Education Learning Environments Survey (DELES) |year=2003 |url=https://espace.curtin.edu.au/handle/20.500.11937/1303 |place=Western Australia |publisher=Curtin University of Technology |format=unpublished doctoral thesis}}.</ref> Harnish and Reeves provide a systematic approach based on training, implementation, system usage, communication, and support.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Harnish |first1=D |title=Issues in the evaluation of large-scale two-way interactive distance learning systems |journal=International Journal of Educational Telecommunications |volume=6 |issue=3 |pages=267–81 |year=2000 |last2=Reeves |first2=P}}.</ref>
The modern use of electronic [[educational technology]] (also called e-learning) facilitates distance learning and independent learning by the extensive use of [[information and communications technology]] (ICT),<ref name="CFP"/> replacing traditional content delivery by postal correspondence. Instruction can be synchronous and asynchronous online communication in an interactive learning environment or virtual communities, in lieu of a physical classroom. "The focus is shifted to the education transaction in the form of a virtual community of learners sustainable across time."<ref>Garrison, D.R. (20 May 2011). E-Learning in the 21st Century: A Framework for Research and Practice. New York: Taylor & Francis. {{ISBN|0-203-83876-9}}{{page needed|date=January 2017}}</ref>▼
== Educational technology ==
One of the most significant issues encountered in the mainstream correspondence model of distance education is the transactional distance, which results from the lack of appropriate communication between learner and teacher. This gap has been observed to become wider if there is no communication between the learner and teacher and has direct implications over the learning process and future endeavors in distance education. Distance education providers began to introduce various strategies, techniques, and procedures to increase the amount of interaction between learners and teachers. These measures e.g. more frequent face-to-face tutorials, increased use of information and communication technologies including teleconferencing and the Internet, were designed to close the gap in transactional distance.<ref>Soekartawi, Haryono, A. & Librero, F. 2002. Greater Learning Opportunities Through Distance Education: Experiences in Indonesia and the Philippines. ''Journal of Southeast Asian Education'', Vol. 3, No. 2, pp. 283–320. Retrieved from [https://web.archive.org/web/20140307211743/http://www.seameo-journal.com/journal/index.php/education/article/viewFile/39/38]</ref>▼
▲The modern use of electronic [[educational technology]] (also called e-learning) facilitates distance learning and independent learning
▲One of the most significant issues encountered in the mainstream correspondence model of distance education is
== Credentials ==
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== See also ==
* [[Autodidacticism]]
* [[Digital divide]]
* [[Educational technology]]
* [[Low-residency program]]
* [[Media psychology]]
* [[New media]]
* [[Online school]]
* [[Qualifications framework#Qualifications frameworks for online learning|Qualifications frameworks for online learning]]
* ''[[Sunrise Semester]]''
* [[Teleseminars]]
* [[Videotelephony]]
* [[Virtual education]]
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== Further reading ==
*Anderson, T. (2008). ''Theory and Practice of Online Education'' (2nd ed) {{ISBN|9781897425084}}
* Anderson, T., & Dron, J. (2010). "Three generations of distance education pedagogy". ''The International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning'', 12(3), 80–97.
* Bates, T. (2005). ''Technology, e-learning and distance education'': RoutledgeFalmer.
* Bender, Tisha. (2023) ''Discussion-based online teaching to enhance student learning: Theory, practice and assessment'' (Taylor & Francis).
* Betts, Kristen, et al. (2021) "Historical review of distance and online education from 1700s to 2021 in the United States: Instructional design and pivotal pedagogy in higher education." ''Journal of Online Learning Research and Practice'' 8.1 (2021) pp 3-55 [https://jolrap.scholasticahq.com/article/26963.pdf online].
* Caruth, Gail D., and Donald L. Caruth. "The impact of distance education on higher education: A case study of the United States." ''Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education'' 14.4 (2013): 121-131. [https://dergipark.org.tr/en/download/article-file/155860 online]
* {{cite journal |doi=10.1126/science.24.611.327 |pmid=17772791 |title=The Correspondence School--Its Relation to Technical Education and Some of Its Results |journal=Science |volume=24 |issue=611 |pages=327–34 |year=1906 |last1=Clark |first1=J. J. |bibcode=1906Sci....24..327C |url=https://zenodo.org/record/1447968 }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Hampel | first1 = Robert L | year = 2010 | title = The Business of Education: Home Study at Columbia University and the University of Wisconsin in the 1920s and 1930s | journal = Teachers College Record | volume = 112 | issue = 9| pages = 2496–2517 | doi = 10.1177/016146811011200905 | s2cid = 141830291 | doi-access = free }}
*Holmberg, Börje. (1995). ''Theory and Practice of Distance Education'' (2nd ed) [https://www.questia.com/library/109055550/theory-and-practice-of-distance-education online]
* Jacob, J.U., Ensign M. (2020). [https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-32369-1 Transactional Radio Instruction: Improving Educational Outcomes for Children in Conflict Zones], Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-32369-1.
* Kett, Joseph F. (1994). ''Pursuit of Knowledge Under Difficulties: From Self-Improvement to Adult Education in America.'' {{ISBN|978-0804726801}}
* {{cite book|author=Moore, Michael Grahame and William Anderson|title=Handbook of Distance Education|year=2012|edition=2nd|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-1-4106-0729-4}} [
*Major, C. H. (2015). ''Teaching online: A guide to theory, research, and practice
* Moore, M. G. ed. (1990). ''Contemporary issues in American distance education''
* Picciano, Anthony G. (2021) "Theories and frameworks for online education: Seeking an integrated model." in ''A guide to administering distance learning'' ( Brill, 2021) pp. 79-103.
*Stubblefield, Harold W., and Patrick Keane. (1994). ''Adult Education in the American Experience: From the Colonial Period to the Present'' {{ISBN| 978-0787900250}}▼
*
▲*Stubblefield, Harold W., and Patrick Keane.
* Sun, Anna, and Xiufang Chen. (2016) "Online education and its effective practice: A research review." ''Journal of Information Technology Education'' 15 [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Anna-Sun/publication/310503884_Online_Education_and_Its_Effective_Practice_A_Research_Review/links/5dea533d299bf10bc3452ad4/Online-Education-and-Its-Effective-Practice-A-Research-Review.pdf?_sg%5B0%5D=started_experiment_milestone&origin=journalDetail online]
* Taylor, J. C. (2001). "Fifth-generation distance education" ''e-Journal of Instructional Science and Technology'' (e-JIST), 4(1), 1-14.
* Terry Evans, M. H., David Murphy (Ed.). (2008). ''International Handbook of Distance Education''. Bingley: Emerald Group Publishing Limited.
* Vlachopoulos, Dimitrios, and Agoritsa Makri. (2019) "Online communication and interaction in distance higher education: A framework study of good practice." ''International Review of Education'' 65.4 (2019): 605-632.
* Walsh, T. (2011). ''Unlocking the Gates: How and Why Leading Universities Are Opening Up Access to Their Courses'' (Princeton University Press, 2011) [https://www.questia.com/read/120917363/unlocking-the-gates-how-and-why-leading-universities online]▼
▲* Walsh, T. (2011). ''Unlocking the Gates: How and Why Leading Universities Are Opening Up Access to Their Courses'' (Princeton University Press, 2011)
== External links ==
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[[Category:Learning methods]]
[[Category:Types of university or college]]
[[Category:Television terminology
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