Ancient Mesopotamian religion: Difference between revisions

{{Short description|Western Asian body of religious beliefsnone}}

'''Mesopotamian religion''' wasrefers to the original [[religionReligion|religious]] beliefs (concerning the gods, [[Ancient near eastern cosmology|creation and practicesthe cosmos]], the origin of man, and so forth) and practices of the civilizations of ancient [[Mesopotamia]], particularly [[Sumer]], [[Akkadian Empire|Akkad]], [[Assyria]] and [[Babylonia]] between circa 6000 BC<ref name=":0">{{Cite book Sfn|last=Schneider |first=Tammi J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2HfU9gv0fXYC |title=An Introduction to Ancient Mesopotamian Religion |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-8028-2959-7 |pagesp=19–20 |access-date=2022-07-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220731225443/https://books.google.com/books?id=2HfU9gv0fXYC |archive-date=2022-07-31 |url-status=live}}</ref> and 400 AD. The religious development of Mesopotamia and Mesopotamian culture in general, especially in the south, were not particularly influenced by the movements of the various peoples into and throughout the area. Rather, Mesopotamian religion was a consistent and coherent tradition, which adapted to the internal needs of its adherents over millennia of development.<ref name=brit>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Mesopotamian-religion|title=Mesopotamian religion|encyclopedia=Britannica|access-date=19 July 2016|archive-date=21 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180621173318/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Mesopotamian-religion|url-status=live}}</ref>

The earliest undercurrents of Mesopotamian religious thought are believed to have developed in Mesopotamia in the [[6th millennium BC]], coinciding with when the region beginningbegan to be permanently settled.<ref name{{Sfn|Schneider|2011|p=":0" />19–20}} The earliest evidence of Mesopotamian religion dates to the mid-[[4th millennium BC]], coincides with the [[invention of writing]], and involved the [[nature worship|worship of forces of nature]] as providers of sustenance.{{Citation needed|date=August 2022}} In the [[3rd millennium BC]], objects of worship were personified and became an expansive cast of divinities with particular functions. The last stages of Mesopotamian polytheism, which developed in the 2nd and 1st millennia BC, introduced greater emphasis on personal religion and structured the gods into a monarchical hierarchy, with the national god being the head of the pantheon.<ref name=brit/> Mesopotamian religion finally declined with the spread of Iranian religions during the [[Achaemenid Empire]] and with the [[Christianization]] of Mesopotamia.

The very earliest undercurrents of Mesopotamian religious thought are believed to have developed in the first half of the sixth millennium BC, at the time people first began to permanently settle in Mesopotamia owing to improved irrigation. The early religious developments of the region are unknown since they preceded the invention of writing.<ref name{{Sfn|Schneider|2011|p=":0" />19–20}} The first evidence for what is recognisably Mesopotamian religion can be seen with the invention in Mesopotamia of [[writing]] circa 3500 BC.

The Sumerians were advanced: as well as inventing writing, they developed early forms of [[mathematics]], early [[wheel]]ed vehicles/[[chariot]]s, [[astronomy]], [[astrology]], written [[code of law]], organised [[medicine]], advanced [[agriculture]] and [[architecture]], and the [[calendar]]. They created the first [[city-state]]s such as [[Uruk]], [[Ur]], [[Lagash]], [[Isin]], [[Kish (Sumer)|Kish]], [[Umma]], [[Eridu]], [[Adab (city)|Adab]], [[Akshak]], [[Sippar]], [[Nippur]] and [[Larsa]], each of them ruled by an ''[[ensí]]''. The Sumerians remained largely dominant in this synthesised culture, however, until the rise of the [[Akkadian Empire]] under [[Sargon of Akkad]] circa 2335 BC, which united all of Mesopotamia under one ruler.<ref>{{Sfn|Bottéro (|2001:|p=7–9)</ref>}}

Then, two centuries later in 330 BC, the [[Macedonia (ancient kingdom)|Macedonian emperor]] [[Alexander the Great]] overthrew the Persians and took control of Mesopotamia itself. After Alexander's death, increased [[Hellenistic period|Hellenistic influence]] was brought to the region by the [[Seleucid Empire]].<ref>{{Sfn|Bottéro (|2001:|p=17–18)</ref>}} Assyria and Babylonia later became provinces under the [[Parthian Empire]] ([[Achaemenid Assyria]] and province of [[Persian Babylonia|Babylonia]]), [[Ancient Rome|Rome]] (province of [[Assyria (Roman province)|Assyria]]) and [[Sasanian Empire]] (province of [[Asoristan]]). Babylonia was dissolved as an entity during the Parthian Empire, though Assyria endured as a geopolitical entity until the [[Muslim conquest of Persia]], while the Assyrians are still present today.

Mesopotamian religion was [[polytheism|polytheistic]], thereby accepting the existence of many different deities, both male and female, though it was also [[henotheism|henotheistic]],<ref>{{Sfn|Bottéro (|2001:|p=41)</ref>}} with certain gods being viewed as superior to others by their specific devotees. These devotees were often from a particular city or city-state that held that deity as its [[tutelary deity]]; for instance, [[Enki]] was often associated with the city of [[Eridu]] in Sumer, Assur with [[Assur]] and [[Assyria]], [[Enlil]] with the Sumerian city of [[Nippur]], [[Ishtar]] with the Assyrian city of [[Erbil|Arbela]], and the god [[Marduk]] with [[Babylon]].<ref>{{Sfn|Bottéro (|2001:|p=53)</ref>}} Though the full number of gods and goddesses found in Mesopotamia is not known, K. Tallqvist, in his ''Akkadische Götterepitheta'' (1938) counted around 2,400 that scholars know, most of which had Sumerian names. In the [[Sumerian language]], the gods were referred to as ''dingir'', while in the Akkadian language they were known as ''ilu'' and it seems that there was syncreticismsyncretism between the gods worshipped by the two groups, adopting one another's deities.<ref name="{{Sfn|Bottéro |2001:|p=45" />}}

The Mesopotamian gods bore many similarities with humans, and were [[anthropomorphic]], thereby having humanoid form. Similarly, they often acted like humans, requiring food and drink, as well as drinking alcohol and subsequently suffering the effects of [[drunkenness]],<ref>{{Sfn|Bottéro (|2001:|p=64–66)</ref>}} but were thought to have a higher degree of perfection than common men. They were thought to be more powerful, all-seeing and all-knowing, unfathomable, and, above all, immortal. One of their prominent features was a terrifying brightness (''melammu'') which surrounded them, producing an immediate reaction of awe and reverence among men.<ref name="Ringgren_a">{{Sfn|Ringgren (|1974: |p=50)</ref>}} In many cases, the various deities were family relations of one another, a trait found in many other polytheistic religions.<ref>{{Sfn|Bottéro (|2001:|p=50)</ref>}} The historian J. Bottéro was of the opinion that the gods were not viewed [[mysticism|mystically]], but were instead seen as high-up masters who had to be obeyed and feared, as opposed to loved and adored.<ref name="{{Sfn|Bottéro |2001:|p=37">Bottéro (2001:37)</ref>}} Nonetheless, many Mesopotamians, of all classes, often had names that were devoted to a certain deity; this practice appeared to have begun in the third millennium BC among the Sumerians, but also was later adopted by the Akkadians, Assyrians and Babylonians as well.<ref>{{Sfn|Bottéro (|2001:|p=39)</ref>}}

Initially, the [[Pantheon (gods)|pantheon]] was not ordered, but later Mesopotamian theologians came up with the concept of ranking the deities in order of importance. A Sumerian list of around 560 deities that did this was uncovered at Farm and [[Abu Salabikh|Tell Abû Ṣalābīkh]] and dated to circa 2600 BC, ranking five primary deities as being of particular importance.<ref>{{Sfn|Bottéro (|2001:|p=48–49)</ref>}}

One of the most important of these early Mesopotamian deities was the god [[Enlil]], who was originally a Sumerian divinity viewed as a king of the gods and a controller of the world, who was later adopted by the Akkadians. Another was the Sumerian god An, who served a similar role to Enlil and became known as [[Anu]] among the Akkadians. The Sumerian god [[Enki]] was later also adopted by the Akkadians, initially under his original name, and later as [[Éa (Babylonian god)|Éa]]. Similarly the Sumerian moon god [[Sin (mythology)|Nanna]] became the Akkadian Sîn while the Sumerian sun god [[Utu]] became the Akkadian [[Shamash]]. One of the most notable goddesses was the Sumerian sex and war deity [[Inanna]]. With the later rise to power of the Babylonians in the 18th century BC, the king, [[Hammurabi]], declared Marduk, a deity who before then had not been of significant importance, to a position of supremacy alongside Anu and Enlil in southern Mesopotamia.<ref>Bottéro (Although Marduk may have been modelled after the Sumerian storm-god [[Ninurta]]; whose [[Lugal-e|exploits]] share great similarity.{{Sfn|Bottéro|2001:|p=54)</ref>}}

Akkadian religion sometimes took inspiration from influential [[Sumerians|Sumerian]] religious leaders and beliefs, and deified [[Sumerian kings]] at some points.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Woolley |first=C. Leonard |title=The Sumerians |date=19 September 1965 |publisher=[[W. W. Norton]] |isbn=0-393-00292-6 |location=New York |pages=132 |author-link=Leonard Woolley}}</ref>

Each Mesopotamian city was home to a deity, and each of the prominent deities was the patron of a city, and all known temples were located in cities, though there may have been shrines in the suburbs.<ref>{{Sfn|Schneider (|2011: |p=39)</ref>}} The temple itself was constructed of mud brick in the form of a [[ziggurat]], which rose to the sky in a series of stairstep stages. Its significance and symbolism have been the subject of much discussion, but most regard the tower as a kind of staircase or ladder for the god to descend from and ascend to the heavens, though there are signs which point towards an actual cult having been practiced in the upper temple, so the entire temple may have been regarded as a giant altar. Other theories treat the tower as an image of the cosmic mountain where a dying and rising god "lay buried." Some temples, such as the temple of Enki in Eridu contained a holy tree (''kiskanu'') in a holy grove, which was the central point of various rites performed by the king, who functioned as a "master gardener."<ref name="{{Sfn|Ringgren">Ringgren (|1974:|p=78)</ref>}}

Mesopotamian temples were originally built to serve as dwelling places for the god, who was thought to reside and hold court on earth for the good of the city and kingdom.<ref>{{Sfn|Schneider (2001: |2011|p=66)</ref>}} His presence was symbolized by an image of the god in a separate room. The god's presence within the image seems to have been thought of in a very concrete way, as instruments for the presence of the deity."<ref>{{Sfn|Ringgren (|1974:|p=77)</ref>}} This is evident from the poem ''How Erra Wrecked the World'', in which [[Erra (god)|Erra]] deceived the god Marduk into leaving his [[Cult image|cult statue]].<ref>{{Sfn|Bottéro (|2001:|p=65)</ref>}} Once constructed, idols were consecrated through special nocturnal rituals where they were given "life", and their mouth "was opened" (''pet pî'') and washed (''mes pî'') so they could see and eat.<ref name="{{Sfn|Ringgren" />|1974|p=78}} If the deity approved, it would accept the image and agree to "inhabit" it. These images were also entertained, and sometime escorted on hunting expeditions. In order to service the gods, the temple was equipped with a household with kitchens and kitchenware, sleeping rooms with beds and side rooms for the deity's family, as well as a courtyard with a basin and water for cleansing visitors, as well as a stable for the god's chariot and draft animals.<ref>{{Sfn|Schneider (|2011:|p=68)</ref>}}

Generally, the god's well-being was maintained through service, or work (''dullu''). The image was dressed and served banquets twice a day. It is not known how the god was thought to consume the food, but a curtain was drawn before the table while he or she "ate", just as the king himself was not allowed to be seen by the masses while he ate. Occasionally, the king shared in these meals, and the priests may have had some share in the offerings as well. Incense was also burned before the image, because it was thought that the gods enjoyed the smell. Sacrificial meals were also set out regularly, with a sacrificial animal seen as a replacement (''pūhu'') or substitute (''dinānu'') for a man, and it was considered that the anger of the gods or demons was then directed towards the sacrificial animal. Additionally, certain days required extra sacrifices and ceremonies for certain gods, and every day was sacred to a particular god.<ref>{{Sfn|Ringgren (|1974: |p=81–82)</ref>}}

The king was thought, in theory, to be the religious leader (''enu'' or ''šangū'') of the cult and exercised a large number of duties within the temple, with a large number of specialists whose task was to mediate between men and gods:<ref>{{Sfn|Ringgren (|1974: |p=79)</ref>}} a supervising or "watchman" priest (''šešgallu''), priests for individual purification against demons and magicians (''[[āšipu]]''), priests for the purification of the temple (''mašmašu''), priests to appease the wrath of the gods with song and music (''kalū''), as well as female singers (''nāru''), male singers (''zammeru''), craftsmen (''mārē ummāni''), swordbearers (''nāš paṭri''), masters of divination (''[[bārû]]''), penitents (''šā'ilu''), and others.<ref>{{Sfn|Ringgren (|1974:|p=80)</ref>}}

Besides the worship of the gods at public rituals, individuals also paid homage to a personal deity. As with other deities, the personal gods changed over time and little is known about early practice as they are rarely named or described. In the mid-third millennium BC, some rulers regarded a particular god or gods as being their personal protector. In the second millennium BC, personal gods began to function more on behalf of the common man,<ref name="{{Sfn|Schneider |2011: 59">Schneider (2011: |p=59)</ref>}} with whom he had a close, personal relationship, maintained through prayer and maintenance of his god's statue.<ref name="{{Sfn|Bottéro |2001:91ff">Bottéro (2001:|p=91ff)</ref>}} A number of written [[prayers]] have survived from ancient Mesopotamia, each of which typically exalt the god that they are describing above all others.<ref>{{Sfn|Bottéro (|2001:|p=29–30)</ref>}} The historian J. Bottéro stated that these poems display "extreme reverence, profound devotion, [and] the unarguable emotion that the [[supernatural]] evoked in the hearts of those ancient believers" but that they showed a people who were scared of their gods rather than openly celebrating them.<ref name="{{Sfn|Bottéro |2001:|p=37" />}} They were thought to offer good luck, success, and protection from disease and demons,<ref name="{{Sfn|Schneider |2011: |p=59"/>}} and one's place and success in society was thought to depend on his personal deity, including the development of his certain talents and even his personality. This was even taken to the point that everything he experienced was considered a reflection of what was happening to his personal god.<ref name="{{Sfn|Bottéro |2001:|p=91ff"/>}} When a man neglected his god, it was assumed that the demons were free to inflict him, and when he revered his god, that god was like a shepherd who seeks food for him.<ref>{{cite book |last=Dhorme |first=P. |year=1910 |title=La Religion Assyro-Babylonienne |location=Paris |page=199}}</ref>

There was a strong belief in [[demons]] in Mesopotamia, and private individuals, like the temple priests, also participated in incantations (šiptu) to ward them off.<ref>{{Sfn|Ringgren (|1974: |p=89)</ref>}} Although there was no collective term for these beings either in Sumerian or Akkadian, they were merely described as harmful or dangerous beings or forces, and they were used as a logical way to explain the existence of evil in the world.<ref>{{Sfn|Bottéro (|2001:|p=63)</ref>}} They were thought to be countless in number, and were thought to even attack the gods as well. Besides demons, there were also [[Ghosts in Mesopotamian religions|spirits of the dead]], (etimmu) who could also cause mischief. Amulets were occasionally used, and sometimes a special priest or exorcist ([[āšipu]] or mašmašu) was required. Incantations and ceremonies were also used to cure diseases which were also thought to be associated with demonic activity, sometimes making use of [[sympathetic magic]].<ref>{{Sfn|Ringgren (|1974: |p=90–91)</ref>}} Sometimes an attempt was made to capture a demon by making an image of it, placing it above the head of a sick person, then destroying the image, which the demon was somehow likely to inhabit. Images of protecting spirits were also made and placed at gates to ward off disaster.<ref name="{{Sfn|Ringgren |1974: 92-93">Ringgren (1974: |p=92–93)</ref>}}

[[Divination]] was also employed by private individuals, with the assumption that the gods have already determined the destinies of men and these destinies could be ascertained through observing omens and through rituals (e.g., casting lots).<ref name="{{Sfn|Ringgren |1974: 92-93"/>|p=92–93}} It was believed that the gods expressed their will through "words" (amatu) and "commandments" (qibitu) which were not necessarily spoken, but were thought to manifest in the unfolding routine of events and things.<ref>{{Sfn|Bottéro (|2001:|p=92)</ref>}} There were countless ways to divine the future, such as observing oil dropped into a cup of water ([[lecanomancy]]), observing the entrails of sacrificial animals ([[extispicy]]), observation of the behavior of birds ([[augury]]) and observing celestial and meteorological phenomena ([[astrology]]), as well as through interpretation of dreams. Often interpretation of these phenomena required the need for two classes of priests: askers (sa'ilu) and observer ([[Bārû|baru]]), and also sometimes a lower class of ecstatic seer (mahhu) that was also associated with [[witchcraft]].<ref>{{Sfn|Ringgren (|1974: |p=93–95)</ref>}}

Although ancient [[paganism]] tended to focus more on duty and ritual than morality, a number of general moral virtues can be gleaned from surviving prayers and myths. It was believed that man originated as a divine act of creation, and the gods were believed to be the source of life, and held power over sickness and health, as well as the destinies of men. Personal names show that each child was considered a gift from divinity.<ref name="{{Sfn|Ringgren |1974:|p=108">Ringgren (1974:108)</ref>}} Man was believed to have been created to serve the gods, or perhaps wait on them: the god is lord (''belu'') and man is servant or slave (''ardu''), and was to fear (''puluhtu'') the gods and have the appropriate attitude towards them. Duties seem to have been primarily of a cultic and ritual nature,<ref>{{Sfn|Ringgren (|1974:|p=111–112)</ref>}} although some prayers express a positive psychological relationship, or a sort of conversion experience in regard to a god.<ref name="{{Sfn|Ringgren |1974:|p=116">Ringgren (1974:116)</ref>}} Generally the reward to mankind is described as success and long life.<ref name="{{Sfn|Ringgren |1974:|p=108"/>}}

Every man also had duties to his fellow man which had some religious character, particularly the king's duties to his subjects. It was thought that one of the reasons the gods gave power to the king was to exercise justice and righteousness,<ref>{{Sfn|Ringgren (|1974:|p=110)</ref>}} described as ''mēšaru'' and ''kettu'', literally "straightness, rightness, firmness, truth".<ref>{{Sfn|Ringgren (|1974:|p=112)</ref>}} Examples of this include not alienating and causing dissension between friends and relatives, setting innocent prisoners free, being truthful, being honest in trade, respecting boundary lines and property rights, and not putting on airs with subordinates. Some of these guidelines are found in the second tablet of the ''[[Šurpu]]'' incantation series.<ref name="{{Sfn|Ringgren |1974:113-115"/>|p=113–115}}

Sin, on the other hand, was expressed by the words ''hitu'' (mistake, false step), ''annu'' or ''arnu'' (rebellion), and ''qillatu'' (sin or curse),<ref name="{{Sfn|Ringgren |1974:113-115"/>|p=113–115}} with strong emphasis on the idea of rebellion, sometimes with the idea that sin is man's wishing to "live on his own terms" (ina ramanisu). Sin also was described as anything which incited the wrath of the gods. Punishment came through sickness or misfortune,<ref name="{{Sfn|Ringgren |1974:|p=116"/>}} which inevitably lead to the common reference to unknown sins, or the idea that one can transgress a divine prohibition without knowing it—psalms of lamentation rarely mention concrete sins. This idea of retribution was also applied to the nation and history as a whole. A number of examples of Mesopotamian literature show how war and natural disasters were treated as punishment from the gods, and how kings were used as a tool for deliverance.<ref>{{Sfn|Ringgren (|1974:|p=118)</ref>}}

The ancient Mesopotamians believed in an [[afterlife]] that wastook place in a landregion below ourthe worldsurface of the earth inhabited by living humans. ItThis was thisthe land[[ancient Mesopotamian underworld]], known alternatelyby asmany names including ''Arallû'', ''Ganzer'' or ''[[Irkalla|Irkallu]]'', the latter of which meant ("Great Below",). that itIt was believed everyone went to this region after death, irrespective of social status or the actions performed during lifetheir lifetime.<ref>{{Sfn|Bottéro (|2001:|p=108)</ref>}} Unlike [[Hell in Christianity|Christian Hellhell]], the Mesopotamians considered the underworld neither a punishment nor a reward.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Choksi|first1=M.|title=Ancient Mesopotamian Beliefs in the Afterlife|url=https://www.worldhistory.org/article/701/|website=[[World History Encyclopedia]]|access-date=25 June 2014|archive-date=13 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210713105044/https://www.worldhistory.org/article/701/ancient-mesopotamian-beliefs-in-the-afterlife/|url-status=live}}</ref> Nevertheless, the condition of the dead was hardly considered the same as the life previously enjoyed on earth: they were considered merely weak and powerless ghosts. The myth of Ishtar's descent into the underworld relates that "dust is their food and clay their nourishment, they see no light, where they dwell in darkness." Stories such as the Adapa myth resignedly relate that, due to a blunder, all men must die and that true everlasting life is the sole property of the gods.<ref name{{Sfn|Ringgren|1974|p="Ringgren_a" />50}}

There are no known Mesopotamian tales about the [[Eschatology|end of the world]], although it has been speculated that they believed that this would eventually occur. This is largely because [[Berossus]] wrote that the Mesopotamians believed the world to last "twelve times twelve ''sars''" in his [[Babyloniaca (Berossus)|Babyloniaca]]; with a ''sar'' being 3,600 years, this would indicate that at least some of the Mesopotamians believed that the Earth would only last 518,400 years. Berossus does not report what was thought to follow this event, however.<ref>{{Sfn|Bottéro (|2001:|p=95)</ref>}}

== Historical studyHistoriography ==

The modern study of Mesopotamia ([[Assyriology]]) is still a fairly young science, beginning only in the middle of the Nineteenth century,<ref>Scheider ({{Sfn|Schneider|2011: |p=128)</ref>}} and the study of Mesopotamian religion can be a complex and difficult subject because, by nature, their religion was governed only by usage, not by any official decision,<ref>Bottero ({{Sfn|Bottéro|2001: |p=47)</ref>}} and by nature it was neither dogmatic nor systematic. Deities, characters, and their actions within myths changed in character and importance over time, and occasionally depicted different, sometimes even contrasting images or concepts. This is further complicated by the fact that scholars are not entirely certain what role religious texts played in the Mesopotamian world.<ref>{{Sfn|Schneider (|2011:|p=38–39)</ref>}}

=== Biblical eschatologyGeneral ===

== NotesReferences ==

=== ReferencesSources ===

* [[Jean{{Cite book Bottéro|last=Bottéro, |first=Jean]] (2001).|author-link=Jean ''Bottéro |title=Religion in Ancient Mesopotamia''. Trans. by Teresa Lavender Fagan. Chicago:|date=2001 |publisher=University of Chicago Press. {{ISBN|isbn=978-0226067179}}.

* [[Jean{{Cite book Bottéro|last=Bottéro, |first=Jean]] (2001b).|author-link=Jean ''[Bottéro |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xmsUpgIgjX4C |title=Everyday Life Inin Ancient Mesopotamia]''. JHU|date=2001b |publisher=Jean Hopkins University Press. {{ISBN|isbn=978-0801868641}}.

* {{Cite book|title=Mesopotamia and the Bible|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=60fmNZQzwjYC&q=ebla|first1=Mark W.|last1=Chavalas|publisher=Continuum International Publishing Group|year=2003|isbn=978-0-567-08231-2}}.

* [[Owen{{Cite Daviesbook (historian)|last=Davies, |first=Owen]] |author-link=Owen Davies (2009historian). ''|title=Grimoires: A History of Magic Books''. New York:|date=2009 |publisher=Oxford University Press.}}

* {{Cite book|title=A Century of Biblical Archaeology |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e1x9Rs_zdG8C&q=tablets+of+ebla&pg=PA149|first1=Peter Roger Stuart|last1=Moorey| author-link =Roger Moorey|publisher=Westminster John Knox Press|year=1991|isbn=978-0-664-25392-9}}.

* {{Cite book |last=Schneider, |first=Tammi (2011). ''|title=An Introduction To Ancient Mesopotamian Religion''. Grand Rapids: William B.|date=2011 |publisher=Eerdmans Publishing Company.}}

* [[Helmer{{Cite book Ringgren|last=Ringgren, |first=Helmer]] (1974).|author-link=Helmer ''Ringgren |title=Religions of The Ancient Near East'', Translated by John Sturdy. Philadelphia:|date=1974 |publisher=The Westminster Press.}}

* {{Cite book |last=Meador, |first=Betty De Shong (2000). ''|title=Inanna, Lady of Largest Heart''. Austin:|date=2000 |publisher=University of Texas Press. {{|isbn|=978-0-292-75242-9}}