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{{Short description|
{{Distinguish|Phase (matter)}}{{For|a list of exotic states of matter|List of states of matter}}
{{pp|small=yes}}
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| image2 = Helium discharge tube.jpg
| caption2 = [[Helium]]'s orange glow in its [[plasma (physics)|plasma]] state
| image3 = Phase diagram of water simplified.svg
| caption3 = A simplified phase diagram for [[water]], showing whether solid ice, liquid water, or gaseous water vapor is the most stable at different combinations of temperature and pressure
}}
In [[physics]], a '''state of matter''' is one of the distinct forms in which [[matter]] can exist. Four states of matter are observable in everyday life: [[solid]], [[liquid]], [[gas]], and [[Plasma (physics)|plasma]]. Many intermediate states are known to exist, such as [[liquid crystal]], and some states only exist under extreme conditions, such as [[Bose–Einstein condensate]]s and [[Fermionic condensate]]s (in extreme cold), [[neutron-degenerate matter]] (in extreme density), and [[quark–gluon plasma]] (at extremely [[High-energy nuclear physics|high energy]])
Historically, the distinction is
The term
== Four
===Solid===
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A gas is usually converted to a plasma in one of two ways, either from a huge voltage difference between two points, or by exposing it to extremely high temperatures. Heating matter to high temperatures causes electrons to leave the atoms, resulting in the presence of free electrons. This creates a so-called partially ionised plasma. At very high temperatures, such as those present in stars, it is assumed that essentially all electrons are "free", and that a very high-energy plasma is essentially bare nuclei swimming in a sea of electrons. This forms the so-called fully ionised plasma.
The plasma state is often misunderstood, and although not freely existing under normal conditions on Earth, it is quite commonly generated by either [[lightning]], [[electric spark]]s, [[Fluorescent lamp|fluorescent lights]], [[Neon sign|neon lights]] or in [[Plasma display|plasma televisions]]. The [[solar corona|Sun's corona]], some types of [[flame]], and stars are all examples of illuminated matter in the plasma state. Plasma is by far the most abundant of the four fundamental states, as 99% of all [[ordinary matter]] in the universe is plasma, as it composes all [[stars]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=Sep 7, 1999 |title=Plasma, Plasma, Everywhere |url=https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/1999/ast07sep99_1
==Phase transitions==
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Forms of matter that are not composed of molecules and are organized by different forces can also be considered different states of matter. [[Superfluids]] (like [[Fermionic condensate]]) and the [[quark–gluon plasma]] are examples.
In a chemical equation, the state of matter of the chemicals may be shown as (s) for solid, (l) for liquid, and (g) for gas. An [[aqueous solution]] is denoted (aq)
:<math>\text{2 Na (s) + 2 H} _2 \text{O (l)} \rightarrow \text{H} _2 \, \text{(g) + 2 Na} ^+ \text{(aq) + 2 OH} ^- \text{(aq)}</math> Matter in the plasma state is seldom used (if at all) in chemical equations, so there is no standard symbol to denote it. In the rare equations that plasma is used it is symbolized as (p). ==Non-classical states==
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}}
[[Glass]] is a non-crystalline or [[amorphous solid]] material that exhibits a [[glass transition]] when heated towards the liquid state. Glasses can be made of quite different classes of materials: inorganic networks (such as window glass, made of [[silicate]] plus additives), metallic alloys, [[Ionic liquid|ionic melts]], [[aqueous solution]]s,
Thermodynamically, a glass is in a [[metastable state]] with respect to its crystalline counterpart. The conversion rate, however, is practically zero.
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Other types of liquid crystals are described in the main article on these states. Several types have technological importance, for example, in [[liquid crystal display]]s.
===
{{Main|Copolymer}}▼
[[File:Sbs block copolymer.jpg|thumb|right|SBS block copolymer in [[Transmission electron microscopy|TEM]]]] [[Copolymers]] can undergo microphase separation to form a diverse array of periodic nanostructures, as shown in the example of the [[Kraton (polymer)|styrene-butadiene-styrene block copolymer]] shown at right. Microphase separation can be understood by analogy to the phase separation between [[oil]] and water. Due to chemical incompatibility between the blocks, block copolymers undergo a similar phase separation. However, because the blocks are [[covalent bond|covalently bonded]] to each other, they cannot demix macroscopically as water and oil can, and so instead the blocks form [[nanometer|nanometre-sized]] structures. Depending on the relative lengths of each block and the overall block topology of the polymer, many morphologies can be obtained, each its own phase of matter.▼
[[Ionic liquid]]s also display microphase separation. The anion and cation are not necessarily compatible and would demix otherwise, but electric charge attraction prevents them from separating. Their anions and cations appear to diffuse within compartmentalized layers or micelles instead of freely as in a uniform liquid.<ref>Álvarez, V.H.; Dosil, N.; Gonzalez-Cabaleiro, R.; Mattedi, S.; Martin-Pastor, M.; Iglesias, M. & Navaza, J.M.: Brønsted Ionic Liquids for Sustainable Processes: Synthesis and Physical Properties. Journal of Chemical & Engineering Data 55 (2010), Nr. 2, S. 625–632. {{doi|10.1021/je900550v 10.1021/je900550v}}</ref>▼
== Magnetically ordered states ==
[[Transition metal]] atoms often have [[magnetic moment]]s due to the net [[Spin (physics)|spin]] of electrons that remain unpaired and do not form chemical bonds. In some solids the magnetic moments on different atoms are ordered and can form a ferromagnet, an antiferromagnet or a ferrimagnet.
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A [[quantum spin liquid]] (QSL) is a disordered state in a system of interacting quantum spins which preserves its disorder to very low temperatures, unlike other disordered states. It is not a liquid in physical sense, but a solid whose magnetic order is inherently disordered. The name "liquid" is due to an analogy with the molecular disorder in a conventional liquid. A QSL is neither a [[Ferromagnetism|ferromagnet]], where magnetic domains are parallel, nor an [[Antiferromagnetism|antiferromagnet]], where the magnetic domains are antiparallel; instead, the magnetic domains are randomly oriented. This can be realized e.g. by [[Geometrical frustration|geometrically frustrated]] magnetic moments that cannot point uniformly parallel or antiparallel. When cooling down and settling to a state, the domain must "choose" an orientation, but if the possible states are similar in energy, one will be chosen randomly. Consequently, despite strong short-range order, there is no long-range magnetic order.
==Superfluids and condensates==
▲{{Main|Copolymer}}
▲[[File:Sbs block copolymer.jpg|thumb|right|SBS block copolymer in [[Transmission electron microscopy|TEM]]]] [[Copolymers]] can undergo microphase separation to form a diverse array of periodic nanostructures, as shown in the example of the [[Kraton (polymer)|styrene-butadiene-styrene block copolymer]] shown at right. Microphase separation can be understood by analogy to the phase separation between [[oil]] and water. Due to chemical incompatibility between the blocks, block copolymers undergo a similar phase separation. However, because the blocks are [[covalent bond|covalently bonded]] to each other, they cannot demix macroscopically as water and oil can, and so instead the blocks form [[nanometer|nanometre-sized]] structures. Depending on the relative lengths of each block and the overall block topology of the polymer, many morphologies can be obtained, each its own phase of matter.
▲[[Ionic liquid]]s also display microphase separation. The anion and cation are not necessarily compatible and would demix otherwise, but electric charge attraction prevents them from separating. Their anions and cations appear to diffuse within compartmentalized layers or micelles instead of freely as in a uniform liquid.<ref>Álvarez, V.H.; Dosil, N.; Gonzalez-Cabaleiro, R.; Mattedi, S.; Martin-Pastor, M.; Iglesias, M. & Navaza, J.M.: Brønsted Ionic Liquids for Sustainable Processes: Synthesis and Physical Properties. Journal of Chemical & Engineering Data 55 (2010), Nr. 2, S. 625–632. {{doi|10.1021/je900550v 10.1021/je900550v}}</ref>
===Superconductor===
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{{main|Fermionic condensate}}
A ''fermionic condensate'' is similar to the Bose–Einstein condensate but composed of [[fermion]]s. The [[Pauli exclusion principle]] prevents fermions from entering the same quantum state, but a pair of fermions can behave as a boson, and multiple such pairs can then enter the same quantum state without restriction.
===Quantum Hall state===▼
{{main|Quantum Hall effect}}▼
A ''quantum Hall state'' gives rise to quantized [[Hall voltage]] measured in the direction perpendicular to the current flow. A ''[[Quantum spin Hall effect|quantum spin Hall state]]'' is a theoretical phase that may pave the way for the development of electronic devices that dissipate less energy and generate less heat. This is a derivation of the Quantum Hall state of matter.▼
===Photonic matter===▼
{{main|Photonic matter}}▼
Photonic matter is a phenomenon where [[photon]]s interacting with a gas develop apparent mass, and can interact with each other, even forming photonic "molecules". The source of mass is the gas, which is massive. This is in contrast to photons moving in empty space, which have no [[rest mass]], and cannot interact.▼
==High-energy states==
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===Degenerate matter===
{{Main|Degenerate matter}}
Under extremely high pressure, as in the cores of dead stars, ordinary matter undergoes a transition to a series of exotic states of matter collectively known as [[degenerate matter]], which are supported mainly by quantum mechanical effects. In physics, "degenerate" refers to two states that have the same energy and are thus interchangeable. Degenerate matter is supported by the [[Pauli exclusion principle]], which prevents two [[fermion]]ic particles from occupying the same quantum state. Unlike regular plasma, degenerate plasma expands little when heated, because there are simply no momentum states left. Consequently, degenerate stars collapse into very high densities. More massive degenerate stars are smaller, because the gravitational force increases, but pressure does not increase proportionally.
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===Quark matter===
{{Main|QCD matter}}
In regular cold matter, [[quark]]s, fundamental particles of nuclear matter, are confined by the [[strong force]] into [[hadron]]s that consist of 2–4 quarks, such as protons and neutrons. Quark matter or quantum chromodynamical (QCD) matter is a group of phases where the strong force is overcome and quarks are deconfined and free to move. Quark matter phases occur at extremely high densities or temperatures, and there are no known ways to produce them in equilibrium in the laboratory; in ordinary conditions, any quark matter formed immediately undergoes radioactive decay.
[[Strange matter]] is a type of [[quark matter]] that is suspected to exist inside some neutron stars close to the [[Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff limit]] (approximately 2–3 [[solar mass]]es), although there is no direct evidence of its existence. In strange matter, part of the energy available manifests as [[strange quark]]s, a heavier analogue of the common [[down quark]]. It may be stable at lower energy states once formed, although this is not known.
[[Quark–gluon plasma]] is a very high-temperature phase in which [[quark]]s become free and able to move independently, rather than being perpetually bound into particles, in a sea of [[gluon]]s, subatomic particles that transmit the [[strong interaction|strong force]] that binds quarks together. This is analogous to the liberation of electrons from atoms in a plasma. This state is briefly attainable in extremely high-energy heavy ion collisions in [[particle accelerator]]s, and allows scientists to observe the properties of individual quarks. Theories predicting the existence of quark–gluon plasma were developed in the late 1970s and early 1980s,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Satz|first=H.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OY8uAAAAIAAJ|title=Statistical Mechanics of Quarks and
At high densities but relatively low temperatures, quarks are theorized to form a quark liquid whose nature is presently unknown. It forms a distinct [[Color–flavor locking|color-flavor locked]] (CFL) phase at even higher densities. This phase is [[superconductive]] for color charge. These phases may occur in [[neutron star]]s but they are presently theoretical.
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===Color-glass condensate===
{{Main|Color-glass condensate}}
Color-glass condensate is a type of matter theorized to exist in atomic nuclei traveling near the speed of light. According to Einstein's theory of relativity, a high-energy nucleus appears length contracted, or compressed, along its direction of motion. As a result, the gluons inside the nucleus appear to a stationary observer as a "gluonic wall" traveling near the speed of light. At very high energies, the density of the gluons in this wall is seen to increase greatly. Unlike the quark–gluon plasma produced in the collision of such walls, the color-glass condensate describes the walls themselves, and is an intrinsic property of the particles that can only be observed under high-energy conditions such as those at RHIC and possibly at the Large Hadron Collider as well.
=== Very high energy states ===
Various theories predict new states of matter at very high energies. An unknown state has created the [[baryon asymmetry]] in the universe, but little is known about it. In [[string theory]], a [[Hagedorn temperature]] is predicted for superstrings at about 10<sup>30</sup> K, where superstrings are copiously produced. At [[Planck temperature]] (10<sup>32</sup> K), gravity becomes a significant force between individual particles. No current theory can describe these states and they cannot be produced with any foreseeable experiment. However, these states are important in [[cosmology]] because the universe may have passed through these states in the [[Big Bang]].
==Other proposed states==
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===Supersolid===
{{Main|Supersolid}}
A supersolid is a spatially ordered material (that is, a solid or crystal) with superfluid properties. Similar to a superfluid, a supersolid is able to move without friction but retains a rigid shape. Although a supersolid is a solid, it exhibits so many characteristic properties different from other solids that many argue it is another state of matter.<ref>
{{cite journal
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===String-net liquid===
{{main|String-net liquid}}
In a string-net liquid, atoms have apparently unstable arrangement, like a liquid, but are still consistent in overall pattern, like a solid. When in a normal solid state, the atoms of matter align themselves in a grid pattern, so that the spin of any electron is the opposite of the spin of all electrons touching it. But in a string-net liquid, atoms are arranged in some pattern that requires some electrons to have neighbors with the same spin. This gives rise to curious properties, as well as supporting some unusual proposals about the fundamental conditions of the universe itself.
===Superglass===
{{Main|Superglass}}
A superglass is a phase of matter characterized, at the same time, by [[superfluid]]ity and a frozen amorphous structure.
=== Chain-melted state ===
{{Main|Chain-melted state}}
Metals, like potassium, in the chain-melted state appear to be in the liquid and solid state at the same time. This is a result of being subjected to high temperature and pressure, leading to the chains in the potassium to dissolve into liquid while the crystals remain solid.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mann |first=Adam |date=2019-04-08 |title=Confirmed: New phase of matter is solid and liquid at same time |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/new-phase-matter-confirmed-solid-and-liquid-same-time-potassium-physics |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414161939/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/new-phase-matter-confirmed-solid-and-liquid-same-time-potassium-physics |url-status=dead |archive-date=14 April 2021 |access-date=2023-11-13 |website=National Geographic |language=en}}</ref>
▲===Quantum Hall state===
▲{{main|Quantum Hall effect}}
▲A ''quantum Hall state'' gives rise to quantized [[Hall voltage]] measured in the direction perpendicular to the current flow. A ''[[Quantum spin Hall effect|quantum spin Hall state]]'' is a theoretical phase that may pave the way for the development of electronic devices that dissipate less energy and generate less heat. This is a derivation of the Quantum Hall state of matter.
▲===Photonic matter===
▲{{main|Photonic matter}}
▲Photonic matter is a phenomenon where [[photon]]s interacting with a gas develop apparent mass, and can interact with each other, even forming photonic "molecules". The source of mass is the gas, which is massive. This is in contrast to photons moving in empty space, which have no [[rest mass]], and cannot interact.
==See also==
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* [[Condensed matter physics]]
* [[Cooling curve]]
* [[Phase (matter)]]▼
* [[Supercooling]]
* [[Superheating]]
==Notes and references==
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* [https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2004/01/040115074553.htm 2004-01-15, ScienceDaily: Probable Discovery Of A New, Supersolid, Phase Of Matter] Citat: "...We apparently have observed, for the first time, a solid material with the characteristics of a superfluid...but because all its particles are in the identical quantum state, it remains a solid even though its component particles are continually flowing..."
* [https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2004/01/040129073547.htm 2004-01-29, ScienceDaily: NIST/University Of Colorado Scientists Create New Form Of Matter: A Fermionic Condensate]
* [https://vega.org.uk/video/subseries/30 Short videos demonstrating of States of Matter, solids, liquids and gases by Prof. J M Murrell, University of Sussex] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230330074533/http://www.vega.org.uk/video/subseries/30 |date=30 March 2023 }}
{{State of matter|state=expanded}}
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