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[[File:2000+ year global temperature including Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age - Ed Hawkins.svg|thumb|upright=1.7| Global average temperatures show that the Little Ice Age was not a distinct planet-wide period but a regional phenomenon occurring near the end of a long temperature decline that preceded recent [[climate change|global warming]].<ref name=
The '''Little Ice Age''' ('''LIA''') was a period of regional cooling, particularly pronounced in the North Atlantic region.<ref name="Emmanuel1971">{{cite book |author=Ladurie |first=Emmanuel Le Roy |title=Times of Feast, Times of Famine: a History of Climate Since the Year 1000 |publisher=Doubleday |others=Barbara Bray |year=1971 |isbn=978-0-374-52122-6 |location=Garden City, New York |oclc=164590}}</ref> It was not a true [[ice age]] of global extent.<ref name="Was there a 'Little Ice Age' and a 'Medieval Warm Period'?"/> The term was introduced into scientific literature by [[François E. Matthes]] in 1939.<ref name="Matthes1939">{{cite journal |last1=Matthes |first1=François E. |title=Report of Committee on Glaciers, April 1939 |journal=Transactions, American Geophysical Union |date=1939 |volume=20 |issue=4 |pages=518–523 |doi=10.1029/TR020i004p00518 |bibcode=1939TrAGU..20..518M}} Matthes described glaciers in the [[Sierra Nevada (U.S.)|Sierra Nevada]] of [[California]] that he believed could not have survived the [[hypsithermal]]; his usage of "Little Ice Age" has been superseded by "[[Neoglaciation]]".</ref> The period has been conventionally defined as extending from the 16th to the 19th centuries,<ref name="Mann2003">{{cite book |author=Mann |first=Michael |title=Encyclopedia of Global Environmental Change, The Earth System: Physical and Chemical Dimensions of Global Environmental Change |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |year=2003 |editor1=MacCracken |editor-first=Michael C. |volume=1 |language=en-us |chapter=Little Ice Age |access-date=17 November 2012 |editor2=Perry |editor-first2=John S. |chapter-url=http://www.meteo.psu.edu/holocene/public_html/shared/articles/littleiceage.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.meteo.psu.edu/holocene/public_html/shared/articles/littleiceage.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Lamb1972">{{cite book |author=Lamb |first=H. H. |title=Climate: present, past and future |publisher=Methuen |year=1972 |isbn=978-0-416-11530-7 |location=London, England |page=107 |language=en-uk |chapter=The cold Little Ice Age climate of about 1550 to 1800 |citeseerx=10.1.1.408.1689}} (noted in Grove 2004: 4).</ref><ref name="NASA Glossary">{{Cite web |title=Earth observatory Glossary L–N |url=https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/glossary/l/n |access-date=17 July 2015 |publisher=NASA |place=NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Green Belt, Maryland}}</ref> but some experts prefer an alternative
▲<ref name="Was there a 'Little Ice Age' and a 'Medieval Warm Period'?"/> The term was introduced into scientific literature by [[François E. Matthes]] in 1939.<ref name="Matthes1939">{{cite journal |last1=Matthes |first1=François E. |title=Report of Committee on Glaciers, April 1939 |journal=Transactions, American Geophysical Union |date=1939 |volume=20 |issue=4 |pages=518–523 |doi=10.1029/TR020i004p00518 |bibcode=1939TrAGU..20..518M}} Matthes described glaciers in the [[Sierra Nevada (U.S.)|Sierra Nevada]] of [[California]] that he believed could not have survived the [[hypsithermal]]; his usage of "Little Ice Age" has been superseded by "[[Neoglaciation]]".</ref> The period has been conventionally defined as extending from the 16th to the 19th centuries,<ref name="Mann2003">{{cite book |author=Mann |first=Michael |title=Encyclopedia of Global Environmental Change, The Earth System: Physical and Chemical Dimensions of Global Environmental Change |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |year=2003 |editor1=MacCracken |editor-first=Michael C. |volume=1 |language=en-us |chapter=Little Ice Age |access-date=17 November 2012 |editor2=Perry |editor-first2=John S. |chapter-url=http://www.meteo.psu.edu/holocene/public_html/shared/articles/littleiceage.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.meteo.psu.edu/holocene/public_html/shared/articles/littleiceage.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Lamb1972">{{cite book |author=Lamb |first=H. H. |title=Climate: present, past and future |publisher=Methuen |year=1972 |isbn=978-0-416-11530-7 |location=London, England |page=107 |language=en-uk |chapter=The cold Little Ice Age climate of about 1550 to 1800 |citeseerx=10.1.1.408.1689}} (noted in Grove 2004: 4).</ref><ref name="NASA Glossary">{{Cite web |title=Earth observatory Glossary L–N |url=https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/glossary/l/n |access-date=17 July 2015 |publisher=NASA |place=NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Green Belt, Maryland}}</ref> but some experts prefer an alternative timespan from about 1300<ref name="miller2012" /> to about 1850.<ref>Grove, J. M., ''Little Ice Ages: Ancient and Modern,'' Routledge, London, England (2 volumes) 2004.</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1111/j.0435-3676.2005.00242.x |title=The 'little ice age': Re‐evaluation of an evolving concept |journal=Geografiska Annaler: Series A, Physical Geography |volume=87 |pages=17–36 |year=2005 |last1=Matthews |first1=John A. |last2=Briffa |first2=Keith R. |s2cid=4832081 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://archive.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg1/en/ch1s1-4-3.html|title=1.4.3 Solar Variability and the Total Solar Irradiance – AR4 WGI Chapter 1: Historical Overview of Climate Change Science|publisher=Ipcc.ch|access-date=24 June 2013}}</ref>
The [[NASA Earth Observatory]] notes three particularly cold intervals. One began about 1650, another about 1770, and the last in 1850, all of which were separated by intervals of slight warming.<ref name="NASA Glossary" /> The [[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change]] [[IPCC Third Assessment Report|Third Assessment Report]] considered that the timing and the areas affected by the LIA suggested largely independent regional climate changes, rather than a globally synchronous increased glaciation. At most, there was modest cooling of the [[Northern Hemisphere]] during the period.<ref name="Was there a 'Little Ice Age' and a 'Medieval Warm Period'?">{{cite web|publisher=UNEP/GRID-Arendal|title=Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis|url=http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/070.htm|access-date=2 August 2007|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060529044319/http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/070.htm|archive-date=29 May 2006}}</ref>
Several causes have been proposed: [[Solar activity and climate|cyclical lows in solar radiation]], heightened [[Little Ice Age volcanism|volcanic activity]], changes in the [[ocean circulation]], variations in [[Earth's orbit]] and [[axial tilt]] ([[orbital forcing]]), inherent variability in global climate, and decreases in the human population (such as from the massacres by [[Genghis Khan]], the [[Black Death]] and the [[Native American disease and epidemics#European contact|epidemics emerging in the Americas upon European contact]]<ref name="Brierley et al 2019">{{cite journal |last1=Koch |first1=Alexander |last2=Brierley |first2=Chris |last3=Maslin |first3=Mark M. |last4=Lewis |first4=Simon L. |date=1 March 2019 |title=Earth system impacts of the European arrival and Great Dying in the Americas after 1492 |journal=[[Quaternary Science Reviews]] |volume=207 |pages=13–36 |bibcode=2019QSRv..207...13K |doi=10.1016/j.quascirev.2018.12.004 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://news.mongabay.com/2011/01/how-genghis-khan-cooled-the-planet/|title=How Genghis Khan cooled the planet|date=20 January 2011|website=Mongabay Environmental News}}</ref>).
==Areas involved==
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[[File:The Frozen Thames 1677.jpg|thumb|upright=1.4|''The Frozen Thames'', 1677]]
[[Drangajökull]], Iceland's northernmost glacier, reached its maximum extent during the LIA around 1400 CE.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Harning |first=David J. |last2=Geirsdóttir |first2=Áslaug |last3=Miller |first3=Gifford H. |last4=Anderson |first4=Leif |date=15 November 2016 |title=Episodic expansion of Drangajökull, Vestfirðir, Iceland, over the last 3 ka culminating in its maximum dimension during the Little Ice Age |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0277379116304024 |journal=[[Quaternary Science Reviews]] |language=en |volume=152 |pages=118–131 |doi=10.1016/j.quascirev.2016.10.001 |access-date=5 June 2024 |via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>
The [[Baltic Sea]] froze over twice, in 1303 and 1306–1307, and years followed of "unseasonable cold, storms and rains, and a rise in the level of the Caspian Sea.”<ref>{{Cite book |last=Tuchman |first=Barbara Wertheim (1912–1989) |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/1259448710 |title=A distant mirror : the calamitous 14th century |publisher=Ballantine |year=1979 |isbn=978-0-241-97297-7 |pages=24 |language=en |oclc=1259448710}}</ref> The Little Ice Age brought colder winters to parts of Europe and North America. Farms and villages in the [[Swiss Alps]] were destroyed by encroaching glaciers during the mid-17th century.<ref name="aspects">{{cite book |author=Cowie |first=Jonathan |title=Climate change: biological and human aspects |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-521-69619-7 |page=164 |language=en}}</ref> Canals and rivers in Great Britain and the Netherlands were frequently frozen deeply enough to support ice skating and winter festivals.<ref name=aspects/> As trade needed to continue during the prolonged winter often spanning 5 months, merchants equipped their boer style boats with planks and skates (runners), hence the [[iceboat]] was born. The first [[River Thames frost fairs|River Thames frost fair]] was in 1608 and the last in 1814. Changes to the bridges and the addition of the [[Thames Embankment]] have affected the river's flow and depth and greatly diminish the possibility of further freezes.<ref>{{cite web | last=Davies | first=Caroline | title=Part of River Thames freezes amid sub-zero temperatures | website=The Guardian | date=12 February 2021 | url=http://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2021/feb/12/part-of-river-thames-freezes-amid-sub-zero-temperatures | access-date=12 February 2021}}</ref><ref name="lock1">{{Cite journal |last1=Lockwood |first1=M. |display-authors=et al. |date=April 2017 |title=Frost fairs, sunspots and the Little Ice Age |url=https://centaur.reading.ac.uk/69443/ |journal=[[Astronomy & Geophysics]] |language=en |volume=58 |issue=2 |pages=2.17–2.23 |doi=10.1093/astrogeo/atx057 |issn=2115-7251|doi-access=free }}</ref>▼
▲The [[Baltic Sea]] froze over twice, in 1303 and 1306–1307, and years followed of "unseasonable cold, storms and rains, and a rise in the level of the Caspian Sea.
[[File:Tåget över stora bält.jpg|thumb|upright=1.4|[[March Across the Belts]], 1658|left]]
In 1658, a Swedish army [[March Across the Belts|marched through Denmark and across the Great Belt]]
The winter of 1794–1795 was particularly harsh: the French invasion army under [[Pichegru]] marched on the frozen rivers of the Netherlands, and the Dutch fleet was locked in the ice in [[Den Helder]] harbour.
Sea ice surrounding [[Iceland]] extended for miles in every direction and closed harbors to shipping. The population of Iceland fell by half, but that may have been caused by [[skeletal fluorosis]] after the eruption of [[Laki]] in 1783.<ref name="Stone2004">{{cite journal |last1=Stone |first1=R. |year=2004 |title=Volcanology: Iceland's Doomsday Scenario? |journal=Science |volume=306 |issue=5700 |pages=1278–1281 |doi=10.1126/science.306.5700.1278 |pmid=15550636 |s2cid=161557686}}</ref> Iceland also suffered failures of cereal crops and people moved away from a grain-based diet.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gestgjafinn.is/english/nr/349|title=What Did They Eat? – Icelandic food from the Settlement through the Middle Ages|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120220165654/http://www.gestgjafinn.is/english/nr/349|archive-date=20 February 2012}}</ref>
After [[Greenland]]'s climate became colder and stormier around 1250, the diet of the Norse Viking settlements there steadily shifted away from agricultural sources. By around 1300, [[Pinniped|seal]] hunting provided over three quarters of their food. By 1350, there was reduced demand for their exports, and trade with Europe fell away. The last document from the settlements dates from 1412, and over the following decades, the remaining Europeans left in what seems to have been a gradual withdrawal, which was caused mainly by economic factors such as increased availability of farms in Scandinavian countries.<ref name="www.spiegel.de">{{Cite web |last=Stockinger |first=Günther |date=10 January 2012 |title=Archaeologists Uncover Clues to Why Vikings Abandoned Greenland |url=http://www.spiegel.de/international/zeitgeist/archaeologists-uncover-clues-to-why-vikings-abandoned-greenland-a-876626.html |access-date=12 January 2013 |publisher=[[Der Spiegel]] Online}}</ref> Greenland was largely cut off by ice from 1410 to the 1720s.<ref name="SVS Science Story: Ice Age">{{cite web| publisher=NASA Scientific Visualization Studio | title=SVS Science Story: Ice Age |url=http://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/stories/iceage_20011207/ | access-date=2 August 2007}}</ref>
Between 1620 and 1740, the Yzeron Basin in the [[Massif Central]] of France witnessed a phase of decreased fluvial activity. This decline in fluvial activity is believed to be linked to a multidecennial phase of droughts in the western Mediterranean.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Delile |first1=Hugo |last2=Schmitt |first2=Laurent |last3=Jacob-Rousseau |first3=Nicolas |last4=Grosprêtre |first4=Loïc |last5=Privolt |first5=Grégoire |last6=Preusser |first6=Frank |date=15 March 2016 |title=Headwater valley response to climate and land use changes during the Little Ice Age in the Massif Central (Yzeron basin, France) |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0169555X16300095 |journal=[[Geomorphology (journal)|Geomorphology]] |volume=257 |pages=179–197 |doi=10.1016/j.geomorph.2016.01.010 |bibcode=2016Geomo.257..179D |access-date=21 April 2023}}</ref>
In
[[File:Bartholomeus Johannes van Hove, Pompenburg met Hofpoort in de winter.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.4|Winter skating on the main canal of Pompenburg, [[Rotterdam]] in 1825, shortly before the minimum, by Bartholomeus Johannes van Hove]]
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''The Little Ice Age'', by the anthropologist [[Brian Fagan]] of the [[University of California at Santa Barbara]], describes the plight of European peasants from 1300 to 1850: famines, [[hypothermia]], [[bread riots]] and the rise of despotic leaders brutalizing an increasingly dispirited peasantry. In the late 17th century, agriculture had dropped off dramatically: "Alpine villagers lived on bread made from ground nutshells mixed with [[barley]] and oat flour."<ref name="Fagan">{{harvnb|Fagan|2001}}.</ref> Historian [[Wolfgang Behringer]] has linked intensive [[witch hunt|witch-hunting]] episodes in Europe to agricultural failures during the Little Ice Age.<ref name=Behringer1999/>
[[File:Vinckboons Landscape with skaters.jpg|thumb|upright=1.6|[[David Vinckboons]], ''Winter Landscape with
''The Frigid Golden Age'', by the environmental historian [[Dagomar Degroot]] of [[Georgetown University]], points out that some societies thrived, but others faltered during the Little Ice Age. In particular, the Little Ice Age transformed environments around the [[Dutch Republic]] and made them easier to exploit in commerce and conflict. The Dutch were resilient, even adaptive, in the face of weather that devastated neighboring countries. Merchants exploited harvest failures, military commanders took advantage of shifting wind patterns, and inventors developed technologies that helped them profit from the cold. The 17th-century [[Dutch Golden Age]] therefore owed much to its people's flexibility in coping with the changing climate.<ref>Dagomar Degroot, ''The Frigid Golden Age: Climate Change, the Little Ice Age, and the Dutch Republic, 1560–1720'' (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2018) {{ISBN|978-1-108-41931-4}}.{{page needed|date=July 2021}}</ref>
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[[File:Les Très Riches Heures du duc de Berry février.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|"February" from the calendar of the [[Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry]], 1412–1416]]
Early European explorers and settlers of North America reported exceptionally severe winters.
The extent of mountain glaciers had been mapped by the late 19th century. In the north and the south temperate zones, Equilibrium Line Altitude (the boundaries separating zones of net accumulation from those of net ablation) were about {{convert|100|m|ft}} lower than they were in 1975.<ref name=Broecker00/> Southwestern Alaska experienced a tamperature nadir around 135 BP,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Forbes |first=Véronique |last2=Ledger |first2=Paul M. |last3=Cretu |first3=Denisa |last4=Elias |first4=Scott |date=30 May 2020 |title=A sub-centennial, Little Ice Age climate reconstruction using beetle subfossil data from Nunalleq, southwestern Alaska |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1040618219301089 |journal=[[Quaternary International]] |language=en |volume=549 |pages=118–129 |doi=10.1016/j.quaint.2019.07.011 |access-date=18 August 2024 |via=Elsevier Science Direct|hdl=2164/14668 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> and in south-central Alaska, mountain hemlock forests severely declined.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Anderson |first=R. Scott |last2=Kaufman |first2=Darrell S. |last3=Schiff |first3=Caleb |last4=Daigle |first4=Tom |last5=Berg |first5=Edward |date=15 October 2013 |title=The impact of Little Ice Age cooling on mountain hemlock (Tsuga mertensiana) distribution in southcentral, Alaska |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1040618213004643 |journal=[[Quaternary International]] |language=en |volume=310 |pages=228 |doi=10.1016/j.quaint.2013.07.058 |access-date=18 August 2024 |via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref> In [[Glacier National Park (U.S.)|Glacier National Park]], the last episode of glacier advance came in the late 18th and the early 19th centuries.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www2.nature.nps.gov/synthesis/views/KCs/Glaciers/HTML/ET_IceAge.htm|title=Ice Ages|website=National Park Service|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050412073618/http://www2.nature.nps.gov/synthesis/views/KCs/Glaciers/HTML/ET_IceAge.htm|archive-date=12 April 2005}}</ref> In 1879, the famed naturalist [[John Muir]] found that Glacier Bay ice had retreated {{convert|48|miles}}. In [[Chesapeake Bay]], [[Maryland]], large temperature excursions were possibly related to changes in the strength of the North Atlantic [[thermohaline circulation]].<ref name="Cronin2003">{{cite journal |last1=Cronin |first1=T. M. |last2=Dwyer |first2=G. S. |last3=Kamiya |first3=T. |last4=Schwede |first4=S. |last5=Willard |first5=D. A. |year=2003 |title=Medieval Warm Period, Little Ice Age and 20th century temperature variability from Chesapeake Bay |url=https://dukespace.lib.duke.edu/dspace/bitstream/10161/6578/1/Cronin_2003_GlobalPlanetChange.pdf |url-status=live |journal=[[Global and Planetary Change]] |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=17 |bibcode=2003GPC....36...17C |doi=10.1016/S0921-8181(02)00161-3 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://dukespace.lib.duke.edu/dspace/bitstream/10161/6578/1/Cronin_2003_GlobalPlanetChange.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |hdl=10161/6578}}</ref>
Because the Little Ice Age took place during the [[European colonization of the Americas]], it discouraged many early
Historians agree that when colonists settled at [[Jamestown, Virginia|Jamestown]], it was one of the coldest periods in the last 1000 years. Drought was also a problem in North America during the Little Ice Age, and the settlers arrived in Roanoke during the largest drought of the past 800 years. Tree ring studies by the University of Arkansas discovered that many colonists arrived at the beginning of a seven-year drought. The droughts also decreased the Native American populations and led to conflict because of food scarcity. English colonists at Roanoke forced Native Americans of Ossomocomuck to share their depleted supplies with them. That led to warfare between the two groups, and Native American towns were destroyed. That cycle would repeat itself many times at Jamestown. The combination of fighting and cold weather also led to the spread of diseases. The colder weather helped the parasites brought by Europeans in mosquitoes to develop faster. That in turn led to many malaria deaths among Native Americans.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Wolfe|first=Brendan|date=2020-12-07|title=Little Ice Age and Colonial Virginia|url=https://encyclopediavirginia.org/entries/little-ice-age-and-colonial-virginia-the/|access-date=2021-05-26|website=The Encyclopedia Virginia|language=en-US}}</ref>
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===Atlantic Ocean===
In the North Atlantic, sediments accumulated since the end of the [[Last Glacial Period|last ice age]], which occurred nearly 12,000 years ago, show regular increases in the amount of coarse sediment grains deposited from icebergs melting in the now-open ocean, indicating a series of 1–2 °C (2–4 °F) <!-- Please do not use AWB on temperatures --> cooling events that recur every 1,500 years or so.<ref>Bond et al., 1997.{{full citation needed|date=February 2019}}</ref> The most recent cooling event was the Little Ice Age. The same cooling events are detected in sediments accumulating off Africa, but the cooling events appear to be larger: 3–8 °C (6–14 °F).<ref>{{cite web |title=Abrupt Climate Changes Revisited: How Serious and How Likely? |date=23 February 1998 |website=USGCRP Seminar |publisher=US Global Change Research Program |url=http://www.usgcrp.gov/usgcrp/seminars/980217DD.html |access-date=18 May 2005 |archive-date=11 June 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070611060531/http://www.usgcrp.gov/usgcrp/seminars/980217DD.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> δ<sup>18</sup>O values from [[Chironomidae|chironomid]] remains in the Azores reflect the cooling of the LIA.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Raposeiro |first=Pedro M. |last2=Ritter |first2=Catarina |last3=Abbott |first3=Mark |last4=Hernandez |first4=Armand |last5=Pimentel |first5=Adriano |last6=Lasher |first6=Everett |last7=Płóciennik |first7=Mateusz |last8=Berlajolli |first8=Violeta |last9=Kotrys |first9=Bartosz |last10=Pombal |first10=Xabier Pontevedra |last11=Souto |first11=Martin |last12=Giralt |first12=Santiago |last13=Gonçalves |first13=Vitor |date=1 May 2024 |title=Late Holocene climate dynamics in the Azores archipelago |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0277379124001185 |journal=[[Quaternary Science Reviews]] |language=en |volume=331 |pages=108617 |doi=10.1016/j.quascirev.2024.108617 |access-date=5 June 2024 |via=Elsevier Science Direct|doi-access=free }}</ref>
===Asia===
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In China, warm-weather crops such as [[orange (fruit)|oranges]] were abandoned in [[Jiangxi Province]], where they had been grown for centuries.<ref name=cdc/> Also, the two periods of most frequent [[typhoon]] strikes in [[Guangdong]] coincide with two of the coldest and driest periods in northern and central China (1660–1680, 1850–1880).<ref name="Liu2001">{{cite journal |last1=Liu |first1=Kam-biu |last2=Shen |first2=Caiming |last3=Louie |first3=Kin-Sheun |year=2001 |title=A 1,000-Year History of Typhoon Landfalls in Guangdong, Southern China, Reconstructed from Chinese Historical Documentary Records |journal=Annals of the Association of American Geographers |volume=91 |issue=3 |pages=453–464 |doi=10.1111/0004-5608.00253 |s2cid=53066209}}</ref> Scholars have argued that one of the reasons for the [[transition from Ming to Qing|fall of the Ming dynasty]] may have been the droughts and famines that were caused by the Little Ice Age.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fan |first1=Ka-wai |date=10 October 2009 |title=Climatic change and dynastic cycles in Chinese history: A review essay |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/225663921 |journal=[[Climatic Change (journal)|Climatic Change]] |volume=101 |issue=3–4 |pages=565–573 |bibcode=2010ClCh..101..565F |doi=10.1007/s10584-009-9702-3 |s2cid=153997845 |access-date=5 July 2023}}</ref>
There are debates on the start date and the periods of Little Ice Age's effects. Most scholars agree on categorizing the Little Ice Age period into three distinct cold periods: in 1458–1552, 1600–1720, and 1840–1880.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cai |first1=Wenjuan |last2=Yn |first2=Shuyan |title=The freeze disasters in the Little Ice Age of Ming and Qing Dynasties in the Guanzhong Region |journal=Journal of Arid Land Resources and Environment |publisher= College of Tourism and Environmental Sciences, Shaanxi Normal University |date=March 2009 |volume=23 |issue=3 |page=119 }}</ref> According to data from the U.S. [[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]], the eastern [[monsoon]] area of China was the earliest to experience the effects of the Little Ice Age, from 1560 to 1709. In the western region of China surrounding the [[Tibetan Plateau]], the effects of the Little Ice Age lagged behind the eastern region, with significant cold periods from 1620 to 1749.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zhang |first1=Xian |last2=Shao |first2=Xiaohua |last3=Wang |first3=Tao |date=3 May 2013 |title=Regional Climate Characteristics in China during the Little Ice Age |journal=Journal of Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology: Natural Science Edition |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=317–325}}</ref> As the
The temperature changes were unprecedented for the farming communities in China. According to [[Coching Chu]]'s 1972 study, the Little Ice Age from the end of the Ming dynasty to the start of the Qing dynasty (1650–1700) was one of the coldest periods in recorded Chinese history.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=KeZhen |first1=Zhu |title=中国近五千年来气候变迁的初步研究 |journal=[[Acta Archaeologica Sinica]] |date=January 1972 |volume=1 |issue=1 |page=25 |url=http://www.kaogu.cn/html/cn/xueshuziliao/shuzitushuguan/zuijinqikan/kgxb/}}</ref> Many major droughts during the summer months were recorded, and significant freezing events occurred during the winter months. That greatly worsened the food supply during the Ming dynasty.
This period of Little Ice Age corresponded to the period's major historical events. The [[Jurchen people]] lived in Northern China and formed a tributary state to the Ming dynasty and its [[Wanli Emperor]]. From 1573 to 1620, Manchuria experienced famine caused by extreme snowfall, which depleted agriculture production and
After the earlier defeats and the death of the Wanli Emperor, the [[Chongzhen Emperor]] took over China and continued the war effort. From 1632 to 1641, the Little Ice Age began to cause drastic climate changes in the Ming dynasty's territories. For example, rainfall in the [[Huabei]] region dropped by 11% to 47% from the historical average. Meanwhile, the [[Shaanbei]] region, along the [[Yellow River]] experienced six major floods, which ruined cities such as [[Yan'an]]. The climate factored heavily in weakening the government's control over China and accelerated the fall of the Ming dynasty. In 1644, [[Li Zicheng]] led the Later Jin's forces into Beijing, overthrew the Ming dynasty, and established the short-lived [[Shun dynasty]] which were soon overthrown by [[Qing dynasty]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Yi |first1=Shanming |title=明朝灭亡与"小冰期" |journal=Journal of Social Science of the North China University of Water Conservancy and Electric Power |date=May 2015 |volume=1 |issue=5 |page=3 |url=http://www.360doc.com/content/19/0409/13/6391637_827444582.shtml |access-date=5 May 2021}}</ref>{{failed verification|reason=No mention of Li Zicheng in source. Li also did not lead Later Jin.|date=November 2023}}
During the early years of the Qing dynasty, the Little Ice Age continued to have a significant impact on Chinese society. During the rule of the [[Kangxi Emperor]] (1661–1722), most Qing territories were still much colder than the historical average. However, the Kangxi Emperor pushed reforms and managed to increase the socio-economic recovery from the natural disasters. He benefited partly from the peacefulness of the early Qing dynasty. That essentially marked the end of the Little Ice Age in China and led to a more prosperous era of Chinese history that is known as the [[High Qing era]].<ref>Xiao, Lingbo, Xiuqi Fang, Jingyun Zheng, and Wanyi Zhao. “Famine, Migration and War: Comparison of Climate Change Impacts and Social Responses in North China between the Late Ming and Late Qing Dynasties.” The Holocene 25, no. 6 (June 2015): 900–10. {{doi|10.1177/0959683615572851}}.</ref>
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===Australia and New Zealand===
Its location in the Southern Hemisphere made Australia not experience a regional cooling like that of Europe or North America. Instead, the Australian Little Ice Age was characterized by humid, rainy climates, which were followed by drying and [[aridification]] in the 19th century.<ref name="sciencedirect.com">{{Cite journal |last1=Tibby |first1=J. |last2=Tyler |first2=J. J. |last3=Barr |first3=C. |date=2018-12-15 |title=Post little ice age drying of eastern Australia conflates understanding of early settlement impacts |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0277379118302051 |journal=Quaternary Science Reviews |series=Archives of Humans, Environments and their Interactions – papers in honour of Professor C. Neil Roberts and Professor Henry F. Lamb |volume=202 |pages=45–54 |doi=10.1016/j.quascirev.2018.10.033 |bibcode=2018QSRv..202...45T |s2cid=134005721 |issn=0277-3791}}</ref>
As studied by Tibby et al. (2018), lake records from [[Victoria (state)|Victoria]], [[New South Wales]], and [[Queensland]] suggest that conditions in the east and the south-east of Australia were wet and unusually cool from the 16th to the early 19th centuries. That corresponds with the “peak” of the global Little Ice Age from 1594 to 1722. For example,
Tibby et al. (2018) note that in eastern Australia, the paleoclimatic changes of the Little Ice Age in the late 1800s coincided with the agricultural changes resulting from European colonization. After the 1788 establishment of British colonies in the Australia, which were concentrated primarily in the eastern regions and cities like Sydney and later Melbourne and Brisbane, the British introduced new agricultural practices like [[pastoralism]].<ref name="sciencedirect.com"/> Such practices required widespread deforestation and clearance of vegetation. Pastoralism and the clearing of land are captured in works of art such as the 1833 painting by the prominent landscape artist John Glover ''Patterdale Landscape with Cattle''.
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On the west coast of the [[Southern Alps]] of New Zealand, the [[Franz Josef Glacier]] advanced rapidly during the Little Ice Age and reached its maximum extent in the early 18th century. That was one of the few cases of a glacier thrusting into a [[rainforest]].<ref>Fagan, Brian M. (2001). ''The Little Ice Age: How Climate Made History, 1300–1850''. Basic Books. {{ISBN|978-0-465-02272-4}}.</ref> Evidence suggests, corroborated by tree ring proxy data, that the glacier contributed to a {{cvt|-0.56|C-change}} temperature anomaly over the course of the Little Ice Age in New Zealand.<ref>Lorrey, Andrew; Fauchereau, Nicholas; Stanton, Craig; Pearce, Petra. “The Little Ice Age climate of New Zealand reconstructed from South Alps cirque glaciers: A synoptic type approach.” Climate Dynamics (June 2013): 11–12. {{doi|10.1007/s00382-013-1876-8}}.</ref> Based on dating of a yellow-green lichen of the ''[[Rhizocarpon]]'' subgenus, the [[Mueller Glacier]], on the eastern flank of the Southern Alps within [[Aoraki / Mount Cook National Park]], is considered to have been at its maximum extent between 1725 and 1730.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Winkler |first1=Stefan |year=2000 |title=The 'Little Ice Age' maximum in the Southern Alps, New Zealand: Preliminary results at Mueller Glacier |journal=The Holocene |volume=10 |issue=5 |pages=643–647 |bibcode=2000Holoc..10..643W |doi=10.1191/095968300666087656 |s2cid=131695554}}</ref>
===Pacific
Sea-level data for the [[Pacific
===South America===
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=== Middle East ===
The Ottoman LIA occurred from the early 14th century until the mid-19th century, with its most intense phase taking place between the 16th and 17th centuries.
The Ottoman Little Ice Age was a period of climatic cooling that occurred in the northern hemisphere from the early 14th century until the mid-19th century, with its most intense phase taking place between the 16th and 17th centuries. The term "Little Ice Age" was first coined by François E. Matthes in 1939 to describe a period of global cooling that occurred from the 16th to the 19th centuries. From the 14th to 15th century, the Ottoman Empire transformed from a small group of soldiers to a major world power.<ref name="White 1">{{Cite book |last=White |first=Sam |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511844058 |title=The Climate of Rebellion in the Early Modern Ottoman Empire |date=2011-08-15 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-00831-1 |pages=1|doi=10.1017/cbo9780511844058 }}</ref> By the end of the 16th century, the Little Ice Age began.<ref name="White 1"/> The Little Ice Age had a profound impact on the Ottoman economy, society, and culture. During February 1621, it is noted that the Bosphorus Strait in Istanbul had frozen over completely.<ref>{{Cite book |last=White |first=Sam |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511844058 |title=The Climate of Rebellion in the Early Modern Ottoman Empire |date=2011-08-15 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-00831-1 |pages=123|doi=10.1017/cbo9780511844058 }}</ref> In the years 1265, 1277 and 1297–1298 Byzantine sources describe extremely harsh cold. Also, around 1300, there were harsh winters in 1298/1299 in the Middle East.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Raphael |first=Sarah Kate |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/9789004244733 |title=Climate and Political Climate |date=2013-01-15 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-24473-3 |pages=22|doi=10.1163/9789004244733 }}</ref> This is followed by a drought which takes place in Asia Minor in 1302-1304 while there is the flooding of the Sangarious River in the summer of 1302.▼
▲
The Ottoman Empire, whose territories stretched across three continents, and its economy was based on agriculture and trade, had a diverse range of climates and ecosystems, and was greatly affected by this phenomenon.<ref>{{Citation |last=ÁGoston |first=GÁBor |title=Ottoman conquests |date=2011-11-13 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9781444338232.wbeow464 |page=545 |access-date=2023-04-26 |place=Oxford, UK |publisher=Blackwell Publishing Limited |doi=10.1002/9781444338232.wbeow464 |isbn=978-1-4051-9037-4 |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of War}}</ref> The Ottoman Empire was one of the largest and most powerful empires in the world during the Little Ice Age. The effects of the Little Ice Age on the Ottoman Empire were significant, leading to changes in agricultural practices, increased food prices, and social unrest. During the 1590s the beginning of a wave of extremely cold winters began and the middle eastern longest drought in six centuries marked the beginning of the Little Ice Age in the Middle East.<ref>White, S. (2012) ''Water on Sand: Environmental histories of the Middle East and North Africa''. Oxford University Press, p. 72.</ref> Due to the expansion of the Ottoman Empire in the late 16th century,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Itzkowitz |first=Norman |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.7208/chicago/9780226098012.001.0001 |title=Ottoman Empire and Islamic Tradition |date=1980 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-38806-9 |pages=67 |doi=10.7208/chicago/9780226098012.001.0001}}</ref> the population of the empire reached around 30 million people which led to a shortage of land and an increase in tax.<ref>{{Citation |title=The Changing ottoman Empire |date=2010 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.5040/9780755621231.ch-014 |work=Greece, the Hidden Centuries |pages=281 |access-date=2023-04-26 |publisher=I.B. Tauris & Co. Ltd|doi=10.5040/9780755621231.ch-014 |isbn=978-1-78076-238-8 }}</ref> The second half of the 16th century included inflation and rising cost in both the Middle East and Europe. The effect of this large population and lack of supplies created a strain on the Ottoman government.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gerber |first=Haim |date=September 1996 |title=An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1914. Edited by Halil Inalcik. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994. Pp. xxxix, 1026. $120.00. |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0022050700017216 |journal=The Journal of Economic History |volume=56 |issue=3 |pages=413–414 |doi=10.1017/s0022050700017216 |s2cid=154949743 |issn=0022-0507}}</ref>
The cooling climate disrupted agricultural production, leading to food shortages and famines. The Ottoman Empire did not often have a shortage of grain due to its location, close to the Danube, Nile and the Black Sea, however, once the Little Ice Age began that all changed, and grain was rare<ref name="White 32">{{Cite book |last=White |first=Sam |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511844058 |title=The Climate of Rebellion in the Early Modern Ottoman Empire |date=2011-08-15 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-00831-1 |pages=32|doi=10.1017/cbo9780511844058 }}</ref> due to the cooler temperatures which led to a shorter growing season, resulting in lower crop yields and decreased food production. The effects of the colder climate were exacerbated by extreme weather events, such as droughts, floods, and storms, which further reduced crop yields.<ref name="White 32"/> Each ancient Middle Eastern empire had a significant supply of food: the Byzantines had Anatolia and Syria, the 'Abbasids had the lower Tigris-Euphrates region, as well as Khurasan and Bukhara, and the Ottomans had Egypt.<ref name="archive.aramcoworld.com">{{Cite web |title=Saudi Aramco World : Whither the Weather |url=https://archive.aramcoworld.com/issue/197805/whither.the.weather.htm |access-date=2023-04-26 |website=archive.aramcoworld.com}}</ref> However, there was an inherent political risk in such agricultural dependency, which finally materialised. Farmers who are unable or unwilling to relocate may be driven into revolt against the established authority if weather patterns shift. Nomads
The lengthy drought as well as the cold winters led to the destruction of imperial systems which all led to a series of uprisings collectively known as the [[Celali rebellions|Celali Rebellion]], c. 1596–1610. The rebellion became the longest-lasting internal challenge to state power in the Ottoman Empire's six centuries of existence.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Climate Change Lessons from the Ottoman Empire - International Studies {{!}} Colorado State University |date=9 June 2021 |url=https://inst.colostate.edu/news/what-the-ottoman-empire-can-tell-us-about-climate-change/ |access-date=2023-04-26 |language=en-US}}</ref> The goal of the Celali Rebellion was not to overthrow the Ottoman government, instead it was an attempt to get newly appointed governorships.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Robinson |first=Nova |date=May 2019 |title=Betty Anderson, A History of the Modern Middle East: Rulers, Rebels, and Rouges (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 2016). Pp. 540. $44.95 paper. {{text|ISBN}}: 9780804783248 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0020743819000114 |journal=International Journal of Middle East Studies |volume=51 |issue=2 |pages=321–323 |doi=10.1017/s0020743819000114 |s2cid=167176658 |issn=0020-7438}}</ref> The Ottoman Empire did not fully recover from the Little Ice Age for around a hundred years, even then they were considered weakened with a large population loss.<ref>{{Cite book |last=White |first=Sam |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511844058 |title=The Climate of Rebellion in the Early Modern Ottoman Empire |date=15 August 2011 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-00831-1 |pages=2 |doi=10.1017/cbo9780511844058}}</ref>
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In the early 2000s, a slowing of [[thermohaline circulation]] was proposed as an explanation for the LIA,<ref name="Broecker00">{{cite journal |last1=Broecker |first1=Wallace S. |year=2000 |title=Was a change in thermohaline circulation responsible for the Little Ice Age? |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America]] |volume=97 |issue=4 |pages=1339–1342 |bibcode=2000PNAS...97.1339B |doi=10.1073/pnas.97.4.1339 |jstor=121471 |pmc=34299 |pmid=10677462 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=":0"/><ref>{{cite web |url=https://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2004/05mar_arctic.htm |title=A Chilling Possibility – NASA Science |publisher=Science.nasa.gov |access-date=24 June 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100317001142/http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2004/05mar_arctic.htm |archive-date=17 March 2010 }}</ref> specifically, through the weakening of the [[North Atlantic Gyre]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lapointe |first1=Francois |last2=Bradley |first2=Raymond S. |date=2021-12-17 |title=Little Ice Age abruptly triggered by intrusion of Atlantic waters into the Nordic Seas |journal=[[Science Advances]] |volume=7 |issue=51 |pages=eabi8230 |doi=10.1126/sciadv.abi8230 |issn=2375-2548 |pmc=8673760 |pmid=34910526 |bibcode=2021SciA....7.8230L }}</ref><ref name="Hopkin2006">{{cite web |author=Hopkin, Michael |date=29 November 2006 |title=Gulf Stream weakened in 'Little Ice Age' |url=http://www.bioedonline.org/news/news.cfm?art=2966 |access-date=1 February 2019 |website=BioEd Online}}</ref> The circulation could have been interrupted by the introduction of a large amount of fresh water into the North Atlantic and might have been caused by a period of warming before the LIA that is known as the [[Medieval Warm Period]].<ref name=Fagan/><ref name="Villanueva2009">{{cite news |last=Villanueva |first= John Carl |title=Little Ice Age |work= Universe Today |url=http://www.universetoday.com/guide-to-space/earth/little-ice-age/ |date=19 October 2009 |access-date=22 September 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pittenger |first1= Richard F. |last2=Gagosian |first2= Robert B. |title=Global Warming Could Have a Chilling Effect on the Military |url=http://handle.dtic.mil/100.2/ADA422382 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120531100736/http://handle.dtic.mil/100.2/ADA422382 |url-status=dead |archive-date=31 May 2012 |format=PDF |journal=Defense Horizons |volume= 33 |date=October 2003 |access-date=22 September 2010 }}</ref> Some researchers have thus classified the LIA as a [[Bond event]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Banerji |first1=Upasana S. |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/book/9780323900850/holocene-climate-change-and-environment |title=Holocene Climate Change and Environment |last2=Padmalal |first2=D. |publisher=Elsevier |year=2021 |isbn=978-0-323-90085-0 |editor-last1=Kumaran |editor-first1=Navnith |location= |pages=293–339 |chapter=12 – Bond events and monsoon variability during Holocene—Evidence from marine and continental archives |doi=10.1016/B978-0-323-90085-0.00016-4 |s2cid=244441781 |access-date=9 September 2023 |editor-last2=Damodara |editor-first2=Padmalal |chapter-url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780323900850000164}}</ref> In 2005 there was some concern that a [[shutdown of thermohaline circulation]] could happen again as a result of the present warming.<ref name="Leake2005">{{cite news| url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/article520013.ece | work=The Times | location=London | title=Britain faces big chill as ocean current slows | first=Jonathan | last=Leake | date=8 May 2005 | access-date=11 May 2010 | url-status=dead | archive-date=February 8, 2007 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070208064001/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/article520013.ece}}</ref><ref>{{Scientific American Frontiers|15| 5 |title=Hot Planet – Cold Comfort |url=https://www.pbs.org/saf/1505/index.html |network=PBS |date=16 February 2005 |transcript=Only a Little Ice Age |transcript-url=https://www.pbs.org/saf/1505/segments/1505-3.htm}}</ref>
More recent research indicates that the overall Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation may already be weaker now than it was during the LIA,<ref name="RahmstorfBox2015">{{cite journal |last1=Rahmstorf |first1=Stefan |last2=Box |first2=Jason E. |last3=Feulner |first3=Georg |last4=Mann |first4=Michael E. |last5=Robinson |first5=Alexander |last6=Rutherford |first6=Scott |last7=Schaffernicht |first7=Erik J. |year=2015 |title=Exceptional twentieth-century slowdown in Atlantic Ocean overturning circulation |url=https://eprints.ucm.es/32657/1/robinson10postprint.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160909080138/http://eprints.ucm.es/32657/1/robinson10postprint.pdf |archive-date=2016-09-09 |url-status=live |journal=[[Nature Climate Change]] |volume=5 |issue=5 |pages=475–480 |bibcode=2015NatCC...5..475R |doi=10.1038/nclimate2554 |issn=1758-678X }} {{Closed access}} [http://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/17802/Exceptional_twentiethcentury_slowdown_in_Atla.pdf PDF in UNEP Document Repository] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190712144829/http://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/17802/Exceptional_twentiethcentury_slowdown_in_Atla.pdf |date=12 July 2019 }}</ref><ref name="Thorn2018">{{Cite journal |last1=Thornalley |first1=David JR |display-authors=etal |date=11 April 2018 |title=Anomalously weak Labrador Sea convection and Atlantic overturning during the past 150 years |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-018-0007-4 |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |volume=556 |issue=7700 |pages=227–230 |doi=10.1038/s41586-018-0007-4 |pmid=29643484 |bibcode=2018Natur.556..227T |s2cid=4771341 |access-date=3 October 2022}}</ref> or perhaps even over the past millennium.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Caesar |first1=L. |last2=McCarthy |first2=G.D. |last3=Thornalley |first3=D. J. R. |last4=Cahill |first4=N. |last5=Rahmstorf |first5=S. |date=25 February 2021 |title=Current Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation weakest in last millennium |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41561-021-00699-z |journal=Nature Geoscience |volume=14 |issue=3 |pages=118–120 |doi=10.1038/s41561-021-00699-z |bibcode=2021NatGe..14..118C |s2cid=232052381 |access-date=3 October 2022}}</ref> While there is still a robust debate about the present-day AMOC strength,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kilbourne |first1=Kelly Halimeda |last2=et |first2=al. |date=17 February 2022 |title=Atlantic circulation change still uncertain |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41561-022-00896-4 |journal=[[Nature Geoscience]] |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages=165–167 |doi=10.1038/s41561-022-00896-4 |bibcode=2022NatGe..15..165K |s2cid=246901665 |access-date=3 October 2022|hdl=2117/363518 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Caesar |first1=L. |last2=McCarthy |first2=G. D. |last3=Thornalley |first3=D. J. R. |last4=Cahill |first4=N. |last5=Rahmstorf |first5=S. |date=17 February 2022 |title=Reply to: Atlantic circulation change still uncertain |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41561-022-00897-3 |journal=[[Nature Geoscience]] |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages=168–170 |bibcode=2022NatGe..15..168C |doi=10.1038/s41561-022-00897-3 |s2cid=246901654 |access-date=3 October 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Latif |first1=Mojib |last2=Sun |first2=Jing |last3=Visbeck |first3=Martin |last4=Bordbar |date=25 April 2022 |title=Natural variability has dominated Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation since 1900 |journal=[[Nature Climate Change]] |volume=12 |issue=5 |pages=455–460 |doi=10.1038/s41558-022-01342-4|bibcode=2022NatCC..12..455L |s2cid=248385988 |doi-access=free }}</ref> these findings make the link between AMOC and the LIA unlikely. However, some research instead suggests that a far more localized disruption of the [[North Atlantic Current|North Subpolar Gyre]] convection was involved in the LIA.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Arellano-Nava |first1=Beatriz |last2=Halloran |first2=Paul R. |last3=Boulton |first3=Chris A. |last4=Scourse |first4=James |last5=Butler |first5=Paul G. |last6=Reynolds |first6=David J. |last7=Lenton |first7=Timothy |date=25 August 2022 |title=Destabilisation of the Subpolar North Atlantic prior to the Little Ice Age |journal=[[Nature Communications]] |volume=13 |issue=1 |page=5008 |doi=10.1038/s41467-022-32653-x |pmid=36008418 |pmc=9411610 |bibcode=2022NatCo..13.5008A |s2cid=251842966 }}</ref> This is potentially relevant for the near future, as a minority of [[climate model]]s project a permanent collapse of this convection under some scenarios of future [[climate change]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Swingedouw |first1=Didier |last2=Bily |first2=Adrien |last3=Esquerdo |first3=Claire |last4=Borchert |first4=Leonard F. |last5=Sgubin |first5=Giovanni |last6=Mignot |first6=Juliette |last7=Menary |first7=Matthew |date=2021 |title=On the risk of abrupt changes in the North Atlantic subpolar gyre in CMIP6 models |url=https://nyaspubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/nyas.14659 |journal=[[Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences]] |volume=1504 |issue=1 |pages=187–201 |bibcode=2021NYASA1504..187S |doi=10.1111/nyas.14659 |pmid=34212391 |s2cid=235712017|hdl=10447/638022 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Armstrong McKay |first1=David |last2=Abrams |first2=Jesse |last3=Winkelmann |first3=Ricarda |last4=Sakschewski |first4=Boris |last5=Loriani |first5=Sina |last6=Fetzer |first6=Ingo |last7=Cornell |first7=Sarah |last8=Rockström |first8=Johan |last9=Staal |first9=Arie |last10=Lenton |first10=Timothy |date=9 September 2022 |title=Exceeding 1.5°C global warming could trigger multiple climate tipping points |url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abn7950 |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |language=en |volume=377 |issue=6611 |pages=eabn7950 |doi=10.1126/science.abn7950 |issn=0036-8075 |pmid=36074831 |s2cid=252161375 |hdl=10871/131584|hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Armstrong McKay |first=David |date=9 September 2022 |title=Exceeding 1.5°C global warming could trigger multiple climate tipping points – paper explainer |url=https://climatetippingpoints.info/2022/09/09/climate-tipping-points-reassessment-explainer/ |access-date=2 October 2022 |website=climatetippingpoints.info |language=en}}</ref>
===Decreased human populations===
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* {{annotated link|Year Without a Summer}}
* {{annotated link|Younger Dryas}}
{{Div col end}}
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{{global warming}}
{{Continental Glaciations}}
{{Middle Ages}}
{{Authority control}}
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