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<!-- Definition and symptoms -->
[[File:Synesthesia.svg|thumb|A person with synesthesia may associate certain letters and numbers with certain colors. Most synesthetes see characters just as others do (in whichever color actually displayed) but they may simultaneously perceive colors as associated with or evoked by each one.|upright=1.35|alt=The word "synesthesia" and digits 0–9 are portrayed as glowing in various colors. For example, the letter "S" is displayed as magenta while the letter "E" is green.]]
'''Synesthesia''' ([[American English]]) or '''synaesthesia''' ([[British English]]) is a
<!-- Cause -->
Little is known about how synesthesia develops. It has been suggested that synesthesia develops during
<!-- History -->
The earliest recorded case of synesthesia is attributed to the [[Oxford University]] academic and philosopher [[John Locke]], who, in 1690, made a report about a blind man who said he experienced the color scarlet when he heard the sound of a
== Types ==
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For example, in [[chromesthesia]] (sound to color), a ''projector'' may hear a trumpet, and see an orange triangle in space, while an ''associator'' might hear a trumpet, and think very strongly that it sounds "orange".{{Citation needed|date=November 2019}}
Synesthesia can occur between nearly any two senses or perceptual modes, and at least one synesthete, [[Solomon Shereshevsky]], experienced synesthesia that linked all five senses.<ref name="Schacter_1996">{{Cite book|title=Searching for Memory: The Brain, The Mind, And The Past| vauthors = Schacter D |author-link=Daniel Schacter|publisher=Basic Books|year=1996|isbn=978-0-465-07552-2|pages=[https://archive.org/details/searchingformemo00dani/page/81 81]|url=https://archive.org/details/searchingformemo00dani/page/81}}</ref> Types of synesthesia are indicated by using the notation {{nowrap|x → y}}, where x is the "inducer" or trigger experience, and y is the "concurrent" or additional experience. For example, perceiving letters and numbers (collectively called [[grapheme]]s) as colored would be indicated as grapheme-color synesthesia. Similarly, when synesthetes see colors and movement as a result of hearing musical tones, it would be indicated as tone → (color, movement) synesthesia.
While nearly every logically possible combination of experiences can occur, several types are more common than others.
=== Grapheme–color synesthesia ===
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The colors triggered by certain sounds, and any other synesthetic visual experiences, are referred to as ''photisms''.
According to [[Richard Cytowic]],<ref name="Cytowic_Eagleman2009" /> chromesthesia is "something like fireworks": voice, music, and assorted environmental sounds such as clattering dishes or dog barks trigger color and
Individuals rarely agree on what color a given sound is. Composers [[Franz Liszt]] and [[Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov]] famously disagreed on the colors of musical keys.
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=== Ordinal linguistic personification ===
{{Main|Ordinal linguistic personification}}
Ordinal-linguistic personification (OLP, or personification) is a form of synesthesia in which ordered sequences, such as [[ordinal number]]s, week-day names, months, and alphabetical letters are associated with personalities or genders ({{Harvnb|Simner|Hubbard|2006}}). Although this form of synesthesia was documented as early as the 1890s,<ref>{{Harvnb|Flournoy|2001}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Calkins|first=M. W.|author-link=Mary Whiton Calkins|year=1893|title=A Statistical Study of Pseudo-chromesthesia and of Mental-forms|journal=American Journal of Psychology |issue=4|volume=5|pages= 439–464|doi=10.2307/1411912|jstor=1411912}}</ref> researchers have, until recently, paid little attention to it (see [[History of synesthesia research]]). This form of synesthesia was named "OLP" in the contemporary literature by Julia Simner and colleagues<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Simner J, Hubbard EM | title = Variants of synesthesia interact in cognitive tasks: evidence for implicit associations and late connectivity in cross-talk theories | journal = Neuroscience | volume = 143 | issue = 3 | pages = 805–814 | date = December 2006 | pmid = 16996695 | doi = 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2006.08.018 | s2cid = 18922608 }}</ref> although it is now also widely
=== Misophonia ===
{{Main|Misophonia}}
[[Misophonia]] is a neurological disorder in which negative experiences (anger, fright, hatred, disgust) are triggered by specific sounds. Cytowic suggests that misophonia is related to, or perhaps a variety of, synesthesia.<ref name="isbn0-262-03296-1" /> Edelstein and her colleagues have compared misophonia to synesthesia in terms of connectivity between different brain regions as well as specific symptoms.<ref name="isbn0-262-03296-1" /> They hypothesize that "a pathological distortion of connections between the auditory cortex and limbic structures could cause a form of sound-emotion synesthesia."<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Edelstein M, Brang D, Rouw R, Ramachandran VS | title = Misophonia: physiological investigations and case descriptions | journal = Frontiers in Human Neuroscience | volume = 7 | pages = 296 | year = 2013 | pmid = 23805089 | pmc = 3691507 | doi = 10.3389/fnhum.2013.00296 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Studies suggest that individuals with misophonia have a normal hearing sensitivity level, but their [[limbic system]] and autonomic nervous system are constantly in a "heightened state of arousal" in which abnormal reactions to sounds will be more prevalent.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Schröder A, van Diepen R, Mazaheri A, Petropoulos-Petalas D, Soto de Amesti V, Vulink N, Denys D | title = Diminished n1 auditory evoked potentials to oddball stimuli in misophonia patients | journal = Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience | volume = 8 | pages = 123 | date = 2014-04-09 | pmid = 24782731 | pmc = 3988356 | doi = 10.3389/fnbeh.2014.00123 | doi-access = free }}</ref>
Newer studies suggest that, depending on its severity, misophonia could be associated with lower cognitive control when individuals are exposed to certain associations and triggers.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Daniels EC, Rodriguez A, Zabelina DL | title = Severity of misophonia symptoms is associated with worse cognitive control when exposed to misophonia trigger sounds | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 15 | issue = 1 | pages = e0227118 | date = 2020-01-16 | pmid = 31945068 | pmc = 6964854 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0227118 | bibcode = 2020PLoSO..1527118D | doi-access = free | veditors = Langguth B }}</ref>
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=== Mirror-touch synesthesia ===
{{Main|Mirror-touch synesthesia}}
This is a form of synesthesia where individuals feel the same/similar sensation as another person (such as touch). For instance, when such a synesthete observes someone being tapped on their shoulder, the synesthete involuntarily feels a tap on their own shoulder as well. People with this type of synesthesia have been shown to have higher
=== Lexical–gustatory synesthesia ===
{{Main|Lexical–gustatory synesthesia}}
This is another form of synesthesia where certain tastes are experienced when hearing words. For example, the word ''basketball'' might taste like waffles. The documentary 'Derek Tastes of Earwax' gets its name from this phenomenon, in references to pub owner James Wannerton who experiences this particular sensation whenever he hears the name spoken.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://topdocumentaryfilms.com/derek-tastes-of-ear-wax|title=Derek Tastes of Ear Wax|work=Top Documentary Films|access-date=2 February 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/sn/tvradio/programmes/horizon/derek_prog_summary.shtml|title=BBC – Science & Nature – Horizon|work=bbc.co.uk|access-date=2 February 2015}}</ref> It is estimated that 0.2% of the synesthesia population has this form of synesthesia, making it one of the rarest forms.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Encyclopedia of Neuroscience| vauthors = Simner J | chapter = Lexical-Gustatory Synesthesia |publisher = Springer Berlin Heidelberg|year = 2009|isbn = 978-3-540-23735-8|pages = 2149–2152|doi = 10.1007/978-3-540-29678-2_2766}}</ref>
=== Kinesthetic synesthesia ===
Kinesthetic synesthesia is one of the rarest documented forms of synesthesia in the world.<ref name="Types-of-Syn">{{cite web|title = Types-of-Syn|url = http://www.daysyn.com/Types-of-Syn.html|website = DaySyn.com|access-date = 2016-01-26}}</ref> This form of synesthesia is a combination of various different types of synesthesia. Features appear similar to auditory–tactile synesthesia but sensations are not isolated to individual numbers or letters but complex systems of relationships.
=== Other forms ===
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In August 2017 a research article in the journal ''[[Social Neuroscience]]'' reviewed studies with [[Functional magnetic resonance imaging|fMRI]] to determine if persons who experience [[autonomous sensory meridian response]] are experiencing a form of synesthesia. While a determination has not yet been made, there is anecdotal evidence that this may be the case, based on significant and consistent differences from the control group, in terms of functional connectivity within neural pathways. It is unclear whether this will lead to ASMR being included as a form of existing synesthesia, or if a new type will be considered.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Smith SD, Katherine Fredborg B, Kornelsen J | title = An examination of the default mode network in individuals with autonomous sensory meridian response (ASMR) | journal = Social Neuroscience | volume = 12 | issue = 4 | pages = 361–365 | date = August 2017 | pmid = 27196787 | doi = 10.1080/17470919.2016.1188851 | doi-access = free }}</ref>
== Signs and symptoms ==
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Despite the commonalities which permit the definition of the broad phenomenon of synesthesia, individual experiences vary in numerous ways. This variability was first noticed early in synesthesia research.<ref name="isbn0-543-94462-X">{{cite book | vauthors = Flournoy T |title=Des phénomènes de synopsie (Audition colorée) |publisher=Adamant Media Corporation |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-543-94462-7 }}{{page needed|date=January 2014}}</ref> Some synesthetes report that [[vowel]]s are more strongly colored, while for others [[consonant]]s are more strongly colored.<ref name="isbn0-19-516623-X" /> Self-reports, interviews, and autobiographical notes by synesthetes demonstrate a great degree of variety in types of synesthesia, the intensity of synesthetic perceptions, awareness of the perceptual discrepancies between synesthetes and non-synesthetes, and the ways synesthesia is used in work, creative processes, and daily life.<ref name="campen2007" /><ref name="dittmar2007">{{full citation needed|date=January 2014}} {{cite book | veditors = Dittmar A | date = 2007 | title = Synästhesien. Roter Faden durchs Leben? | trans-title = Synesthesia. A red thread through life? | language = German | location = Essen | publisher = Verlag Die Blaue Eule }}</ref>
Synesthetes are very likely to participate in
== Mechanism ==
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Dedicated regions of the brain are specialized for given functions. Increased cross-talk between regions specialized for different functions may account for the many types of synesthesia. For example, the additive experience of seeing color when looking at graphemes might be due to cross-activation of the grapheme-recognition area and the color area called [[Visual cortex#V4|V4]] (see figure).<ref name="ramachandran2001"/> This is supported by the fact that grapheme–color synesthetes can identify the color of a grapheme in their peripheral vision even when they cannot consciously identify the shape of the grapheme.<ref name="ramachandran2001"/>
An alternative possibility is disinhibited feedback, or a reduction in the amount of inhibition along normally existing feedback pathways.<ref name="pmid11164734">{{cite journal | vauthors = Grossenbacher PG, Lovelace CT | title = Mechanisms of synesthesia: cognitive and physiological constraints | journal = Trends in Cognitive Sciences | volume = 5 | issue = 1 | pages = 36–41 | date = January 2001 | pmid = 11164734 | doi = 10.1016/S1364-6613(00)01571-0 | s2cid = 15092606 }}</ref> Normally, excitation and inhibition are balanced. However, if normal feedback were not inhibited as usual, then signals feeding back from late stages of multi-sensory processing might influence earlier stages such that tones could activate vision. Cytowic and Eagleman find support for the disinhibition idea in the so-called acquired forms<ref name="Cytowic_Eagleman2009" /> of synesthesia that occur in non-synesthetes under certain conditions: [[temporal lobe epilepsy]],<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Neckar M, Bob P | title = Synesthetic associations and psychosensory symptoms of temporal epilepsy | journal = Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment | volume = 12 | pages = 109–112 | date = 11 January 2016 | pmid = 26811683 | pmc = 4714732 | doi = 10.2147/NDT.S95464 | doi-access = free }}</ref> head trauma, stroke, and brain tumors. They also note that it can likewise occur during stages of
A very different theoretical approach to synesthesia is that based on [[ideasthesia]]. According to this account, synesthesia is a phenomenon mediated by the extraction of the [[meaning (non-linguistic)|meaning]] of the inducing stimulus. Thus, synesthesia may be fundamentally a [[semantic]] phenomenon. Therefore, to understand neural mechanisms of synesthesia the mechanisms of semantics and the extraction of meaning need to be understood better. This is a non-trivial issue because it is not only a question of a location in the brain at which meaning is "processed" but pertains also to the question of
=== Genetics ===
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Neurologist [[Richard Cytowic]] identifies the following diagnostic criteria for synesthesia in his ''first'' edition book. However, the criteria are different in the second book:<ref name="isbn0-262-03296-1" /><ref name="isbn0-262-53255-7" /><ref name="Cytowic_Eagleman2009" />
# Synesthesia is involuntary and
# Synesthetic perceptions are spatially extended, meaning they often have a sense of "location." For example, synesthetes speak of "looking at" or "going to" a particular place to attend to the experience
# Synesthetic percepts are consistent and generic (i.e., simple rather than pictorial)
# Synesthesia is highly
# Synesthesia is laden with [[affect (psychology)|affect]]
Cytowic's early cases mainly included individuals whose synesthesia was frankly projected outside the body (e.g., on a "screen" in front of one's face). Later research showed that such stark externalization occurs in a minority of synesthetes. Refining this concept, Cytowic and [[David Eagleman|Eagleman]] differentiated between "localizers" and "non-localizers" to distinguish those synesthetes whose perceptions have a definite sense of spatial quality from those whose perceptions do not.<ref name="Cytowic_Eagleman2009" />
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{{Main|History of synesthesia research}}
The interest in colored hearing dates back to Greek antiquity when some theorists wondered whether the color (''chroia'', what we now call [[timbre]]) of music was a quantifiable quality of sound, together with pitch and duration. Additionally, one kind of musical scale (''genos'') introduced by [[Plato]]'s friend [[Archytas|Archytas of Tarentum]] in the fourth century BC was named ''chromatic''. The late sixth century BC [[Kithara|kitharist]] Lysander of Sicyon was said to have introduced a more 'colorful' style, even before the development of the ''chromatic'' scale itself. In Plato's time, the description of melody as 'colored' had become part of professional jargon, while the musical terms 'tone' and 'harmony' soon became integrated into the vocabulary of color in visual art.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://
The first medical description of "colored hearing" is in an 1812 thesis by the German physician Georg Tobias Ludwig Sachs.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Mahling F | year = 1926 | title = Das Problem der 'audition colorée': Eine historisch-kritische Untersuchung | journal = Archiv für die gesamte Psychologie | volume = 57 | pages = 165–301 }}</ref><ref name="Jewanski_2009" /><ref name="Herman_2018" /> The "father of psychophysics," [[Gustav Fechner]], reported the first empirical survey of colored letter photisms among 73 synesthetes in 1876,<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Fechner G | date = 1876 | title = Vorschule der Aesthetik | location = Leipzig | publisher = Breitkopf und Hartel | url = https://archive.org/details/vorschulederaest12fechuoft }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = von Campen C | year = 1996 | title = De verwarring der zintuigen. Artistieke en psychologische experimenten met synesthesie | journal = Psychologie & Maatschappij | volume = 20 | issue = 1| pages = 10–26 }}</ref> followed in the 1880s by [[Francis Galton]].<ref name="galton1880b" /><ref name="galton1880a">{{cite journal | vauthors = Galton F |title=Visualized Numerals |journal=Nature|volume=21 |issue= 533|pages=252–6 |year=1880 |doi= 10.1038/021252a0|bibcode=1880Natur..21..252G |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="galton1883">{{cite book | vauthors = Galton F |title=Inquiries into Human Faculty and Its Development |publisher=Macmillan |year=1883 |url=http://galton.org/books/human-faculty/ |access-date=2008-06-17}} {{page needed|date=January 2014}}</ref> [[Carl Jung]] refers to "color hearing" in his Symbols of Transformation in 1912.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Jung CG | chapter = The Transformation of Libido | title = Symbols of Transformation | location = London | orig-date = 1912 | date = 1956 | publisher = Routledge & Kegan Paul | page = 237 }}</ref>
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{{Main|Synesthesia in art}}
Other notable synesthetes come particularly from artistic professions and backgrounds. Synesthetic art historically refers to multi-sensory experiments in the genres of [[visual music]], [[music visualization]], [[audiovisual art]], [[abstract film]], and
==== Writers ====
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==== Composers ====
[[File:Mikalojus Konstantinas Ciurlionis - FINALE (I) - 1908.jpg|thumb|
Multiple composers had experienced synesthesia.
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==== Musicians ====
The producer, rapper, and fashion designer [[Kanye West]] is a prominent interdisciplinary case. In an impromptu speech he gave during an ''[[The Ellen DeGeneres Show|Ellen]]'' interview, he described his condition, saying that he sees sounds, and that everything he sonically makes is a painting.<ref>{{Citation |title=Kanye West FULL Banned Ellen Interview HD May 19 2016 | date=7 May 2018 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W58_fnZ3oGQ |access-date=2022-08-20}}</ref> Other notable synesthetes include musicians [[Billy Joel]],<ref name="Seaberg2011">{{cite book | vauthors = Seaberg M | year = 2011| title = Tasting the Universe | publisher = New Page Books | isbn = 978-1-60163-159-6}}</ref>{{rp|89, 91}} [[Andy Partridge]],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://tidal.com/magazine/article/inside-synesthesia/1-72048 |title=Chords Become Colors: Inside Synesthesia |work=Tidal |last=Enos |first=Morgan |date=9 April 2020 |access-date=11 May 2023}}</ref> [[Itzhak Perlman]],<ref name="Seaberg2011" />{{rp|53}} [[Lorde]],<ref>{{cite web | vauthors = Trendell A |title=Lorde explains the experience of having synaesthesia |url=https://www.nme.com/news/music/lorde-synaesthesia-explained-2069855 |website=NME |access-date=15 June 2021 |date=2017-05-11}}</ref> [[Billie Eilish]],<ref>{{cite web | vauthors = Nattress K |title=Billie Eilish Explains How Synesthesia Affects Her Music |url=https://www.iheart.com/content/2019-05-29-billie-eilish-explains-how-synesthesia-affects-her-music/ |website=iHeartRadio |access-date=15 June 2021 |language=en}}</ref> [[Brendon Urie]],<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-features/panic-at-the-discos-brendon-urie-band-is-outlet-for-nonchalant-chaos-188429/|title=Panic! at the Disco: Band Is 'Outlet for Nonchalant Chaos'| vauthors = Spanos B |date=2016-01-15|magazine=Rolling Stone|language=en-US|access-date=2019-11-13}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://culturacolectiva.com/music/singers-with-synesthesia-inspiration-sounds |title= 4 Singers Who Draw Inspiration From Synesthesia To Write Music |website=Cultura Colectiva|date= 23 January 2018 |language=en-US|access-date=2020-04-16}}</ref> [[Ida Maria]],<ref>{{cite news|url=http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts_and_entertainment/music/article3404605.ece |title=Times Online interview|date=24 February 2008| vauthors = Cairns D |access-date=2008-07-24|location=London|work=The Times}}</ref> [[Brian Chase]],<ref name="guardian-interview">{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/music/2009/mar/30/pop-music-yeah-yeah-yeahs|title=Emma Forrest meets New York's favourite art-punk rockers Yeah Yeah Yeahs|date=30 March 2009| vauthors = Forrest E |work=guardian.co.uk|publisher=The Guardian|access-date=2009-05-07|location=London}}</ref><ref name="blog">{{cite web|url=http://site.yeahyeahyeahs.com/blog/brian.aspx |title=Brian Chase's blog | vauthors = Chase B |work=yeahyeahyeahs.com |access-date=2009-05-07 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090125080016/http://site.yeahyeahyeahs.com/blog/brian.aspx |archive-date=25 January 2009 }}</ref> and classical pianist [[Hélène Grimaud]]. Musician [[Kristin Hersh]] sees music in colors.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://thequietus.com/articles/29947-seeing-sideways-kristin-hersh-interview|title=Strange Angels: Kristin Hersh On Music & Motherhood| vauthors = Seaman D |date=May 8, 2021|website=[[The Quietus]]|access-date=November 8, 2021}}</ref> Drummer [[Mickey Hart]] of [[The Grateful Dead]] wrote about his experiences with synaesthesia in his autobiography ''Drumming at the Edge of Magic''.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Hart M, Stevens J, Lieberman F | date = 1990 | title = Drumming at the edge of magic: a journey into the spirit of percussion | location = San Francisco, CA | publisher = Harper |page = 133 }}</ref> [[John Frusciante]], guitarist of the Red Hot Chili Peppers, talks about his experiences with synesthesia in a podcast with [[Rick Rubin]].<ref>{{Citation |title=John Frusciante of the Red Hot Chili Peppers Returns, Part 1 {{!}} Broken Record (Hosted by Rick Rubin) | date=14 October 2022 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hXFlTdM3UDc |access-date=2023-05-20 |language=en}}</ref> [[Pharrell Williams]], of the groups [[The Neptunes]] and [[N.E.R.D.]], also experiences synesthesia<ref>{{unreliable source?|date=January 2014}} It just always stuck out in my mind, and I could always see it. I don't know if that makes sense, but I could always visualize what I was hearing... Yeah, it was always like weird colors." From a Nightline interview with Pharrell</ref><ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/tasting-the-universe/201203/synesthetes-people-the-future|title = Synesthetes: "People of the Future"|date = 3 March 2012|access-date = 15 May 2014|website = Psychology Today}}</ref> and used it as the basis of the album ''[[Seeing Sounds]]''. Singer/songwriter [[Marina and the Diamonds]] experiences music → color synesthesia and reports colored days of the week.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.itv.com/lifestyle/loosewomen/videos/m/celebrityguests/marinaandthediamonds/ | title = Loose Women: Marina and the Diamonds | work = ITV Lifestyle | publisher = [[ITV Network]] | date = 27 April 2010 | access-date = 28 April 2010 }}</ref> [[Awsten Knight]] from [[Waterparks (band)|Waterparks]] has [[chromesthesia]], which influences many of the band's artistic choices.<ref>{{Citation |title=Waterparks' Awsten Can 'See' Music, So We Had Him Paint His Songs 🎨 Seeing Sounds {{!}} MTV | date=14 March 2020 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LM1Cotbi-3Q |language=en |access-date=2023-02-14}}</ref>
==== Artists without synesthesia ====
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