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[[File:Moringa oleifera pods NP.JPG|thumb|Pods of ''Moringa oleifera'' in [[Panchkhal]], [[Nepal]]]]
'''''Moringa oleifera''''' is a fast-growing, [[drought-resistant]] tree of the family Moringaceae, native to the [[Indian subcontinent]] and used extensively in South and Southeast Asia.<ref name="cabi">{{cite web |date=17 December 2019 |title=''Moringa oleifera'' (horseradish tree) |url=https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/34868
It is widely cultivated for its young [[seed pods]] and leaves, used as [[vegetables]] and for [[Traditional medicine|traditional]] [[herbal medicine]]. It is also used for [[water purification]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kalibbala|first1=H. M.|last2=Wahlberg|first2=O.|last3=Hawumba|first3=T. J.|date=1 December 2009|title=The impact of ''Moringa oleifera'' as a coagulant aid on the removal of trihalomethane (THM) precursors and iron from drinking water|journal=Water Science and Technology: Water Supply|volume=9|issue=6|pages=707–714|doi=10.2166/ws.2009.671}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Removal of natural organic matter and control of trihalomethanes formation in water treatment|last=Kalibbala |first=Herbert Mpagi |year=2012|publisher=Architecture and the Built Environment, KTH Royal Institute of Technology|isbn=9789175013237|location=Stockholm|oclc=939795543}}</ref
==Description==
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| encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica
| access-date=2015-04-25
}}</ref> that can reach a height of {{Convert|10–12|m|abbr=on}} and trunk diameter of {{Convert|
The flowers are fragrant and hermaphroditic, surrounded by five unequal, thinly veined, yellowish-white petals. The flowers are about {{Convert|1–1.5|cm|abbr=on|frac=8}} long and {{Convert|2|cm|abbr=on|frac=4}} broad. They grow on slender, hairy stalks in spreading or drooping flower clusters, which have a length of {{Convert|10–25|cm|abbr=on|frac=2}}.<ref name=parotta/>
Flowering begins within the first six months
The fruit is a hanging, three-sided, brown, {{Convert|20–45|cm|abbr=on|frac=2}} capsule, which holds dark brown, globular seeds with a diameter around 1 cm. The seeds have three whitish, papery wings and are dispersed by wind and water.<ref name=parotta/>
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The moringa tree is a host to ''[[Leveillula taurica]]'', a powdery [[mildew]], which causes damage in papaya crops in south India.{{cn|date=November 2020}} Furthermore, the [[caterpillar]]s of the [[Pyraloidea|snout moth]] ''[[Noorda blitealis]]'' feed primarily on the leaves and can cause complete leaf loss.{{cn|date=April 2023}}
=== As an invasive species ===
Although listed as an [[invasive species]] in several countries, one source reports that ''M. oleifera'' has "not been observed invading intact habitats or displacing native flora", so "should be regarded at present as a widely cultivated species with low invasive potential."<ref name="cabi" />{{Better source needed|date=May 2024}}
== Cultivation ==
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=== Fruits ===
When the plant is grown from cuttings, the first harvest can take place 6–8 months after planting. Often, the fruits are not produced in the first year, and the yield is generally low during the first few years. By year two, it produces around 300 pods, by year three around 400–500. A good tree can yield 1,000 or more pods.<ref>Booth, F.E.M.; Wickens, G.E., 1988: Non-timber Uses of Selected Arid Zone Trees and Shrubs in Africa, p.98, FAO, Rome "[http://www.fao.org/docrep/006/t0044e/T0044e16.htm]".Retrieved 20-11-2013.</ref> In India, a hectare can produce 31 tons of pods per year.<ref name=ted/> Under North Indian conditions, the fruits ripen during the summer. Sometimes, particularly in South India, flowers and fruit appear twice a year, so two harvests occur, in July to September and March to April.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1007/BF02858648 |title=Drumstick (''Moringa oleifera''): A multipurpose Indian vegetable |year=1980 |last1=Ramachandran |first1=C. |last2=Peter |first2=K. V. |last3=Gopalakrishnan |first3=P. K. |s2cid=40029228 |journal=Economic Botany |volume=34 |issue=3 |pages=276–283|bibcode=1980EcBot..34..276R }}</ref>
=== Leaves ===
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== Uses ==
''M. oleifera'' has numerous applications in cooking throughout its regional distribution. Edible parts of the plant include the whole leaves (leaflets, stalks and stems); the immature, green fruits or seed pods; the fragrant flowers; and the young seeds and roots.<ref name="Lim-v3">{{cite book|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=32rWbxUtjeMC&q=Moringa+curry&pg=PA456|title=Edible Medicinal And Non Medicinal Plants|volume=3, Fruits|chapter=Moringa oleifera|first=TK|last=Lim|pages=453–485|year=2012|publisher=Springer Netherlands|isbn=978-94-007-2534-8}}</ref>{{nutritionalvalue
=== Nutrition ===▼
| name = ''Moringa oleifera'' leaf, raw
| kcal = 64
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}}
▲=== Nutrition ===
{{nutritionalvalue
| name = ''M. oleifera'' pods, raw
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==== Fruit pods ====
[[File:Moringa oleifera drumstick pods.JPG|thumb|Drumstick vegetable pods at a market]]The young, slender fruits, commonly known as "drumsticks", are often prepared as a culinary vegetable in South Asia. They are prepared by [[parboil]]ing, commonly cut into shorter lengths, and cooked in a [[curry]] or [[soup]] until soft.<ref>{{cite book |author=Schneider, Elizabeth |title=Vegetables from Amaranth to Zucchini: The Essential Reference |publisher=HarperCollins |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-688-15260-4 |page=318}}</ref> Their taste is described as reminiscent of [[asparagus]],<ref>{{cite book |last1=Holmer |first1=R |title=SEAVEG 2012: High Value Vegetables in Southeast Asia: Production, Supply and Demand |last2=Linwattana |first2=G |last3=Nath |first3=P |last4=Keatinge |first4=JDH |publisher=World Vegetable Center |year=2013 |isbn=978-9290582007}}</ref> with a hint of [[green bean]]s, though sweeter due to the immature seeds contained inside.<ref name="npr">{{cite podcast |url=https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2015/09/21/439509739/mother-knows-best-when-it-comes-to-cooking-with-moringa |title=My Mom Cooked Moringa Before It Was A Superfood |publisher=NPR |date=21 September 2015 |access-date=2017-07-08}}</ref> The seed pods, even when cooked by boiling, remain high in vitamin C<ref name="USDA">{{cite web |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |year=2012 |title=Horseradish-tree, pods, cooked, boiled, drained, without salt. |url=http://nutritiondata.self.com/facts/vegetables-and-vegetable-products/2738/2 |access-date=6 May 2013 |website=Nutritiondata.com |publisher=Condé Nast}}</ref> (which may be degraded variably by cooking), and are also a good source of [[dietary fiber]], [[potassium]], [[magnesium]], and [[manganese]].<ref name="USDA" />▼
In India, Nepal, Sri Lanka and [[Bangladesh]], drumstick curries are commonly prepared by boiling immature pods to the desired level of tenderness in a mixture of coconut milk and spices (such as [[Poppy seeds|poppy]] or [[mustard seed]]s).<ref name="Lim-v3" /> The fruit is a common ingredient in ''[[dal]]s'' and lentil soups, such as drumstick ''dal'' and ''[[Sambar (dish)|sambar]]'', where it is pulped first, then simmered with other vegetables and spices such as turmeric and cumin. Mashed drumstick pulp commonly features in ''[[bhurta]]'', a mixture of lightly fried or curried vegetables.<ref name="Lim-v3" />▼
▲The young, slender fruits, commonly known as "drumsticks", are often prepared as a culinary vegetable in South Asia. They are prepared by [[parboil]]ing, commonly cut into shorter lengths, and cooked in a [[curry]] or [[soup]] until soft.<ref>{{cite book |author=Schneider, Elizabeth |title=Vegetables from Amaranth to Zucchini: The Essential Reference |publisher=HarperCollins |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-688-15260-4 |page=318}}</ref> Their taste is described as reminiscent of [[asparagus]],<ref>{{cite book |last1=Holmer |first1=R |title=SEAVEG 2012: High Value Vegetables in Southeast Asia: Production, Supply and Demand |last2=Linwattana |first2=G |last3=Nath |first3=P |last4=Keatinge |first4=JDH |publisher=World Vegetable Center |year=2013 |isbn=978-9290582007}}</ref> with a hint of [[green bean]]s, though sweeter due to the immature seeds contained inside.<ref name="npr">{{cite podcast |url=https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2015/09/21/439509739/mother-knows-best-when-it-comes-to-cooking-with-moringa |title=My Mom Cooked Moringa Before It Was A Superfood |publisher=NPR |date=21 September 2015 |access-date=2017-07-08}}</ref> The seed pods, even when cooked by boiling, remain high in vitamin C<ref name="USDA">{{cite web |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |year=2012 |title=Horseradish-tree, pods, cooked, boiled, drained, without salt. |url=http://nutritiondata.self.com/facts/vegetables-and-vegetable-products/2738/2 |access-date=6 May 2013 |website=Nutritiondata.com |publisher=Condé Nast}}</ref> (which may be degraded variably by cooking), and are also a good source of [[dietary fiber]], [[potassium]], [[magnesium]], and [[manganese]].<ref name="USDA" />
▲In India, Sri Lanka and [[Bangladesh]], drumstick curries are commonly prepared by boiling immature pods to the desired level of tenderness in a mixture of coconut milk and spices (such as [[Poppy seeds|poppy]] or [[mustard seed]]s).<ref name="Lim-v3" /> The fruit is a common ingredient in ''[[dal]]s'' and lentil soups, such as drumstick ''dal'' and ''[[Sambar (dish)|sambar]]'', where it is pulped first, then simmered with other vegetables and spices such as turmeric and cumin. Mashed drumstick pulp commonly features in ''[[bhurta]]'', a mixture of lightly fried or curried vegetables.<ref name="Lim-v3" />
Because the outer skin is tough and fibrous, drumsticks are often chewed to extract the juices and nutrients, with the remaining fibrous material discarded. Others describe a slightly different method of sucking out the flesh and tender seeds and discarding the tube of skin.<ref name="npr" />
==== Seed oil ====
Mature seeds yield 38–40% [[edible oil]] called [[ben oil]] from its high concentration of [[behenic acid]]. The refined oil is clear and odorless, and resists [[Rancidification|rancidity]]. The young fruits can be boiled and the oil skimmed off the water surface.<ref name=":0" /> The [[Press cake|seed cake]] remaining after oil extraction may be used as a [[fertilizer]] or as a [[flocculent]] to [[Water purification|purify water]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lea |first1=Michael |title=Bioremediation of Turbid Surface Water Using Seed Extract from the ''Moringa oleifera'' Lam. (Drumstick) Tree |journal=Current Protocols in Microbiology |year=2010 |isbn=978-0471729259 |volume=Chapter 1 |pages=Unit1G.2 |doi=10.1002/9780471729259.mc01g02s33 |pmid=20131221 |s2cid=30231607}}</ref> Moringa seed oil also has potential for use as a [[biofuel]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rashid |first1=Umer |last2=Anwar |first2=Farooq |last3=Moser |first3=Bryan R. |last4=Knothe |first4=Gerhard |year=2008 |title=''Moringa oleifera'' oil: A possible source of biodiesel |url=https://naldc-legacy.nal.usda.gov/naldc/download.xhtml?id=18521&content=PDF |journal=Bioresource Technology |volume=99 |issue=17 |pages=8175–9 |doi=10.1016/j.biortech.2008.03.066 |pmid=18474424|bibcode=2008BiTec..99.8175R }}</ref>[[File:Moringa Oleifera flower ready for cooking.jpg|thumb|Flowers prepared for cooking|200x200px]][[File:সজনেফুলের চচ্চড়ি.jpg|alt=A bowl of moringa flowers cooked in Bengali style chorchori, with hyacinth beans, eggplants, and potatoes|thumb|Moringa flowers in Bengali [[chorchori]], with additional vegetables|220x220px]]
==== Roots ====
The [[root]]s are shredded and used as a [[condiment]] with sharp flavor qualities deriving from significant content of [[polyphenols]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Atawodi |first1=S. E. |last2=Atawodi |first2=J. C. |last3=Idakwo |first3=G. A. |last4=Pfundstein |first4=B |last5=Haubner |first5=R |last6=Wurtele |first6=G |last7=Bartsch |first7=H |last8=Owen |first8=R. W. |year=2010 |title=Evaluation of the polyphenol content and antioxidant properties of methanol extracts of the leaves, stem, and root barks of ''Moringa oleifera'' Lam |journal=Journal of Medicinal Food |volume=13 |issue=3 |pages=710–6 |doi=10.1089/jmf.2009.0057 |pmid=20521992}}</ref>
'''Flowers'''
The flowers are a springtime delicacy in Bengali cuisine. Moringa flowers are typically cooked into [[chorchori]] and fritters.
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Research has examined how it might affect blood [[lipid profile]]s and [[Insulin#Release|insulin secretion]].<ref name=mskcc>{{cite web |url=https://www.mskcc.org/cancer-care/integrative-medicine/herbs/moringa-oleifera |title=Moringa oleifera|publisher=[[Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center]] |access-date=2014-02-27}}</ref> Extracts from leaves contain various [[polyphenol]]s, which are under [[basic research]] to determine their potential effects in humans.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Antioxidant activity and total phenolic content of ''Moringa oleifera'' leaves in two stages of maturity|journal = Plant Foods for Human Nutrition|date = 2009-11-11|pages = 303–311|volume = 64|issue = 4|doi = 10.1007/s11130-009-0141-0|pmid = 19904611|first1 = S.|last1 = Sreelatha|first2 = P. R.|last2 = Padma|s2cid = 8801347}}</ref> Despite considerable preliminary research to determine if moringa components have [[Biological activity|bioactive]] properties, no [[evidence-based medicine|high-quality evidence]] has been found to indicate that it has any effect on health or diseases.<ref name=mskcc/>
===Honey production===
According to the [[Department of Agriculture and Fisheries (Queensland)]], the moringa tree is useful for honey production because it blooms for a long period of the year.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.daf.qld.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0007/69262/IPA-Horseradish-Tree-Risk-Assessment.pdf|title=Horseradish tree|publisher=Invasive Plant Risk Assessment, Department of Agriculture and Fisheries, Page 16, Queensland Government|date=2016|vauthors=Csurhes S, Navie S|accessdate=15 April 2024}}</ref>
=== Other uses ===
In developing countries, moringa has the potential to improve nutrition, boost food security, foster rural development, and support sustainable landcare.<ref name="cabi" /><ref name="lostcrops">{{cite book |author=National Research Council |title=Lost Crops of Africa: Volume II: Vegetables |url=http://books.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=11763 |access-date=2008-07-15
Moringa trees have been used to combat [[malnutrition]], especially among infants and nursing mothers.<ref name="cabi" /> Since moringa thrives in arid and semiarid environments, it may provide a versatile, nutritious food source throughout the year in various geographic regions.<ref>{{cite web |date=2021 |title=Traditional crops: Moringa |url=http://www.fao.org/traditional-crops/moringa/en/ |access-date=12 April 2021 |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations]]}}</ref> Some 140 organizations worldwide have initiated moringa cultivation programs to lessen malnutrition, purify water, and produce oils for cooking.<ref name="cabi" />
''Moringa oleifera'' leaf powder was as effective as [[soap]] for [[hand washing]] when wetted in advance to enable [[antiseptic]] and [[detergent]] properties from [[phytochemicals]] in the leaves.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1186/1472-6882-14-57| pmid = 24528477| pmc = 3930822| title = Efficacy of Moringa oleifera leaf powder as a hand- washing product: A crossover controlled study among healthy volunteers| journal = BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine| volume = 14| pages = 57| year = 2014| last1 = Torondel | first1 = B. | last2 = Opare | first2 = D. | last3 = Brandberg | first3 = B. | last4 = Cobb | first4 = E. | last5 = Cairncross | first5 = S. | doi-access = free}}</ref> ''Moringa oleifera'' seeds and [[press cake]] have been implemented as [[wastewater]] conditioners for dewatering and drying [[fecal sludge]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Gold|first1=Moritz|last2=Dayer|first2=Pauline|last3=Faye|first3=Marie Christine Amie Sene|last4=Clair|first4=Guillaume|last5=Seck|first5=Alsane|last6=Niang|first6=Seydou|last7=Morgenroth|first7=Eberhard|last8=Strande|first8=Linda|date=2016-04-18|title=Locally produced natural conditioners for dewatering of faecal sludge|journal=Environmental Technology|volume=37|issue=21|pages=2802–2814|doi=10.1080/09593330.2016.1165293|pmc=5020332|pmid=26984372|bibcode=2016EnvTe..37.2802G }}</ref>
Moringa seed cake, obtained as a byproduct of pressing seeds to obtain oil, is used to filter water using flocculation to produce potable water for animals or humans.<ref>{{cite journal
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| date=February 1995
| pages=703–710
| bibcode=1995WatRe..29..703N
}}</ref><ref name="hellsing">{{cite journal
| author1=Hellsing, Maja S.
| author2=Kwaambwa, Habauka M.
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| year=2013
| doi-access=free
}}</ref> Moringa seeds contain [[protein dimer|dimeric]] [[cationic]] [[protein]]s,<ref>{{cite journal|title=A simple purification and activity assay of the coagulant protein from ''Moringa oleifera'' seed|journal=Water Res|year=2005|volume=39|issue=11|pages=2338–44|pmid=15921719|doi=10.1016/j.watres.2005.04.012|last1=Ghebremichael|first1=K. A.|last2=Gunaratna|first2=K. R.|last3=Henriksson|first3=H|last4=Brumer|first4=H|last5=Dalhammar|first5=G|bibcode=2005WatRe..39.2338G }}</ref> which absorb and neutralize colloidal charges in turbid water, causing the colloidal particles to clump together, making the suspended particles easier to remove as [[sludge]] by either settling or [[filtration]]. Moringa seed cake removes most impurities from water. This use is of particular interest for being nontoxic and sustainable compared to other materials in moringa-growing regions where drinking water is affected by [[pollutants]].<ref name="hellsing"/>
==Gallery==
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