Environmental movement in the United States: Difference between revisions

{{short description|Organized  environmental movement in the US}}

[[File:Usstamp-save-our.jpg|thumb|1970s US postage stamp block.]]

[[File:DC-Climate-March-2017-1510718 (33551761583).jpg|thumb|[[People's Climate March (2017)]].]]

The organized [[environmental movement]] is represented by a wide range of [[non-governmental organization]]s or NGOs that seek to address [[environmental issues in the United States]]. They operate on local, national, and international scales. Environmental NGOs vary widely in political views and in the ways they seek to influence the [[environmental policy of the United States]] and other governments.

The environmental movement today consists of both large national groups and also many smaller local groups with local concerns. Some resemble the old U.S. conservation movement - whose modern expression is [[The Nature Conservancy]], [[Audubon Society]] and [[National Geographic Society]] - American organizations with a worldwide influence. Increasingly that movement is organized around addressing [[climate change in the United States]] alongside interrelated issues like [[climate justice]] and broader [[environmental justice]] issues.

Native Americans are frequently categorized as "the original environmentalists", however this assertion is frequently challenged for being overly simplistic.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-02-07 |title=The Problem With The Ecological Indian Stereotype |url=https://www.pbssocal.org/shows/tending-the-wild/the-problem-with-the-ecological-indian-stereotype |access-date=2024-06-23 |website=PBS SoCal |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Abrams |first=Marc D. |title=Don't Downplay the Role of Indigenous People in Molding the Ecological Landscape |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/dont-downplay-the-role-of-indigenous-people-in-molding-the-ecological-landscape/ |access-date=2024-06-23 |website=Scientific American |language=en}}</ref> Early European settlers came to the United States brought from Europe the concept of the [[commons]]. In the colonial era, access to natural resources was allocated by individual towns, and disputes over fisheries or land use were resolved at the local level. Changing technologies, however, strained traditional ways of resolving disputes of resource use, and local governments had limited control over powerful special interests. For example, the damming of rivers for mills cut off upriver towns from fisheries; logging and clearing of forest in watersheds harmed local fisheries downstream. In New England, many farmers became uneasy as they noticed clearing of the forest changed stream flows and a decrease in bird population which helped control insects and other pests. These concerns become widely known with the publication of ''[[Man and Nature]]'' (1864) by [[George Perkins Marsh]]. The environmental impact method of analysis is generally the main mode for determining what issues the environmental movement is involved in. This model is used to determine how to proceed in situations that are detrimental to the environment by choosing the way that is least damaging and has the fewest lasting implications.<ref name="Diversity">{{Cite web |url=http://www.bc.edu/bc_org/avp/law/lwsch/journals/bcealr/28_2-3/07_TXT.htm |title=The American Environmental Movement: Surviving Through Diversity |access-date=November 23, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091212123120/http://www.bc.edu/bc_org/avp/law/lwsch/journals/bcealr/28_2-3/07_TXT.htm |archive-date=December 12, 2009 |url-status=dead |df=mdy-all }}</ref>

Conservation first became a national issue during the [[progressive era]]'s [[conservation movement]] (1890s - 1920s). The early national conservation movement shifted emphasis to scientific management which favored larger enterprises and control began to shift from local governments to the states and the federal government.(Judd) Some writers{{who|date=November 2019}} credit sportsmen, hunters and fishermen with the increasing influence of the conservation movement. In the 1870s sportsman magazines such as ''American Sportsmen'', ''Forest and Stream'', and ''[[Field and Stream]]'' are seen as leading to the growth of the conservation movement.(Reiger) This conservation movement also urged the establishment of state and national parks and forests, wildlife refuges, and national monuments intended to preserve noteworthy natural features.

Conservation groups focus primarily on an issue that's origins are rooted in general expansion. As [[Industrializationindustrialization]] became more prominent as well as the increasing trend towards [[Urbanizationurbanization]] the conservative environmental movement began. Contrary to popular belief conservation groups are not against expansion in general, instead, they are concerned with efficiency with resources and land development.<ref name="Diversity"/>

[[File:TR-Enviro.JPG|thumb|325px|The conservation policies of [[Theodore Roosevelt]].]]

[[Theodore Roosevelt]] and his close ally [[George Bird Grinnell]], were motivated by the wanton waste that was taking place at the hand of market hunting. This practice resulted in placing a large number of North American game species on the edge of extinction. Roosevelt recognized that the laissez-faire approach of the U.S. Government was too wasteful and inefficient. In any case, they noted, most of the natural resources in the western states were already owned by the federal government. The best course of action, they argued, was a long-term plan devised by national experts to maximize the long-term economic benefits of natural resources. To accomplish the mission, Roosevelt and Grinnell formed the [[Boone and Crockett Club]] in 1887. The club was made up of the best minds and influential men of the day. The [[Boone and Crockett Club]]'s contingency of conservationists, scientists, politicians, and intellectuals became Roosevelt's closest advisers during his march to preserve wildlife and habitat across North America.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cdm16013.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/p16013coll13/id/1220/rec/1|title=Documents from the February 9, 1888 meeting of the Boone and Crockett Club :: Boone and Crockett Club Records|website=cdm16013.contentdm.oclc.org|access-date=October 14, 2017}}</ref> As president, Theodore Roosevelt became a prominent [[conservation movement|conservationist]], putting the issue high on the national agenda.<ref>Douglas Brinkley, ''The Wilderness Warrior: Theodore Roosevelt and the Crusade for America'' (2009) ch 15-26</ref> He worked with all the major figures of the movement, especially his chief advisor on the matter, [[Gifford Pinchot]]. Roosevelt was deeply committed to conserving natural resources and is considered to be the nation's first [[conservation biology|conservation]] President. He encouraged the [[Newlands Reclamation Act]] of 1902 to promote federal construction of dams to irrigate small farms and placed {{cvt|230000000|acre}} under federal protection. Roosevelt set aside more Federal land for [[national park]]s and [[nature preserve]]s than all of his predecessors combined.<ref>W. Todd Benson, ''President Theodore Roosevelt's Conservations Legacy'' (2003)</ref>

[[File:Earth Day Flag.png|thumb|[[Earth Day]] flag.]]

As the public became more aware of environmental issues, concern about [[Air pollution in the United States|air pollution]], [[water pollution in the United States|water pollution]], solid waste disposal, dwindling energy resources, radiation, [[pesticide poisoning]] (particularly use of [[DDT]] as described in Carson's influential ''Silent Spring''),<ref>Cristóbal S. Berry-Cabán, "DDT and Silent Spring: Fifty years after." ''Journal of Military and Veterans’ Health'' 19 (2011): 19-24 [http://jmvh.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/12/JMVH-Vol19-No4_Cristobal.pdf online]. </ref> noise pollution, and other environmental problems engaged a broadening number of sympathizers. That public support for environmental concerns was widespread became clear in the [[Earth Day]] demonstrations of 1970.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.earthday.org/about/the-history-of-earth-day/ |title=The History of Earth Day |website=Earth Day Network |access-date=2019-04-30}}</ref>

Several books after the middle of the 20th century contributed to the rise of American environmentalism (as distinct from the longer-established conservation movement), especially among college and university students and the more literate public. One was the publication of the first textbook on [[ecology]], ''Fundamentals of Ecology,'' by [[Eugene Odum]] and [[Howard T. Odum|Howard Odum]], in 1953.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Odum|first=E.P.|date=1959|title=Oikos|journal=Oikos|volume=10|pages=1|via=JSTOR}}</ref> Another was the appearance of the Carson's 1962 best-seller ''Silent Spring.'' Her book brought about a whole new interpretation of pesticides by exposing their harmful effects in nature. From this book, many began referring to Carson as the "mother of the environmental movement".<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lear|first=Linda|date=1993|title=Rachel Carlson's "Silent Spring"|journal=Environmental History Review|volume=17|issue=2|pages=23–48|doi=10.2307/3984849|jstor=3984849|s2cid=157339090}}</ref> Another influential development was a 1965 lawsuit, ''Scenic Hudson Preservation Conference v. Federal Power Commission,'' opposing the construction of a power plant on [[Storm King Mountain (New York)|Storm King Mountain]] in [[New York (state)]], which is said{{by whom|date=August 2020}} to have given birth to modern [[United States environmental law]]. The wide popularity of ''The [[Whole Earth Catalog]]s'', starting in 1968, was quite influential among the younger, hands-on, activist generation of the 1960s and 1970s. Recently,{{when|date=August 2020}} in addition to opposing [[environmental degradation]] and protecting wilderness, an increased focus on coexisting with natural biodiversity has appeared, a strain that is apparent in the movement for [[sustainable agriculture]] and in the concept of [[Reconciliation Ecology]].{{citation needed|date=August 2020}}

In the modern wilderness preservation movement, important philosophical roles are played by the writings of [[John Muir]] who had been activist in the late 19th and early 20th century. Along with Muir perhaps most influential in the modern movement is [[Henry David Thoreau]] who published [[Walden]] in 1854. Also important was forester and ecologist [[Aldo Leopold]], one of the founders of the Wilderness Society in 1935, who wrote a classic of nature observation and ethical philosophy, ''[[A Sand County Almanac]]'', (1949).<ref>J. Baird Callicott and Michael P. Nelson, eds. ''The Great New Wilderness Debate: An Expansive Collection of Writings Defining Wilderness from John Muir to Gary Snyder'' (1998) </ref><ref> J. Baird Callicott and Robert Frodeman, eds. ''Encyclopedia of Environmental Ethics and Philosophy'' (Macmillan Reference USA, 2008)</ref>

In the 1980s, President [[Ronald Reagan]] sought to curtail the scope of environmental protection taking steps such as appointing [[James G. Watt]] who was called one of the most "blatantly anti-environmental political appointees". The major environmental groups responded with mass mailings which led to increased membership and donations. The large environmental organization increasingly relied on ties within Washington, D.C. to advance their environmental agenda. At the same time membership in environmental groups became more suburban and urban. Groups such as animal rights and the gun control lobby became linked with environmentalism while sportsmen, farmers and ranchers were no longer influential in the movement.{{citation needed|date=November 2017}}

When industry groups lobbied to weaken regulation and a backlash against environmental regulations, the so-called [[wise use movement]] gained importance and influence. The wise use movement and [[anti-environmentalism|anti-environmental]] groups were able to portray environmentalist as out of touch with mainstream values. (Larson){{citation needed|date=November 2017}}

Some people are [[environmental skepticism|skeptical of the environmental movement]] and feel that it is more deeply rooted in politics than science.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Zhou|first=Min|date=15 December 2014|title=Public environmental skepticism: A cross-national and multilevel analysis|url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0268580914558285|journal=International Sociology|language=en|volume=30|issue=1|pages=61–85|doi=10.1177/0268580914558285|s2cid=145807157|issn=0268-5809}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Björnberg|first1=Karin Edvardsson|last2=Karlsson|first2=Mikael|last3=Gilek|first3=Michael|last4=Hansson|first4=Sven Ove|date=2017-11-20|title=Climate and environmental science denial: A review of the scientific literature published in 1990–2015|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959652617317821|journal=Journal of Cleaner Production|language=en|volume=167|pages=229–241|doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.08.066|issn=0959-6526|doi-access=free}}</ref> Although there have been serious [[global warming controversy|debates about climate change]] and effects of some [[endocrine disruptors|pesticides and herbicides that mimic animal sex steroids]], science has shown that some of the claims of environmentalists have credence.<ref name=":0" />

Claims made by environmentalists may be perceived as veiled attacks on industry and globalization rather than legitimate environmental concerns.{{citation needed|date=January 2021}} Detractors note that a significant number of environmental theories and predictions have been inaccurate{{citation needed|date=October 2014}} and suggest that the regulations recommended by environmentalists will more likely harm society rather than help nature.{{citation needed|date=January 2021}} Novelist and Harvard Medical School graduate [[Michael Crichton]] appeared before the U.S. [[Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works]] on September 28, 2005, to address such concerns and recommended the employment of [[double-blind experiment]]ation in environmental research. Crichton suggested that because environmental issues are so political in nature, policymakers need neutral, conclusive data to base their decisions on, rather than conjecture and rhetoric, and double-blind experiments are the most efficient way to achieve that aim.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Crichton|first=Michael|date=28 September 2005|title=Full Committee Hearing The Role of Science in Environmental Policy-Making|url=https://www.epw.senate.gov/public/index.cfm/hearings?Id=E00DDE50-802A-23AD-436F-443DA217C01E&Statement_id=57482A1D-7902-4C4B-9809-BF1DAA973549|access-date=16 September 2020|website=U.S. Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works}}</ref>

A consistent theme acknowledged by both supporters and critics (though more commonly vocalized by critics) of the environmental movement is that we know very little about the Earth we live in. Most fields of environmental studies are relatively new, and therefore what research we have is limited and does not date far enough back for us to completely understand long-term environmental trends. This has led a number of environmentalists to support the use of the [[precautionary principle]] in policy-making, which ultimately asserts that we don't know how certain actions may affect the environment and because there is reason to believe they may cause more harm than good we should refrain from such actions.<ref>Don Mayer, "The Precautionary Principle and International Efforts to Ban DDT." ''South Carolina Environmental Law Journal'' (2000): 135+. </ref>

Historians have criticized the modern environmental movement for having romantic idealizations of [[wilderness]].<ref>Marvin Henberg, "Wilderness, myth, and American character." ''The George Wright Forum'' Vol. 11. No. 4. (1994) [http://www.georgewright.org/114henberg.pdf online]. </ref> [[William Cronon]] writes "wilderness serves as the unexamined foundation on which so many of the quasi-religious values of modern environmentalism rest." Cronon claims that "to the extent that we live in an urban-industrial civilization but at the same time pretend to ourselves that our real home is in the wilderness, to just that extent we give ourselves permission to evade responsibility for the lives we actually lead."<ref> William Cronon, ''Uncommon Ground: Rethinking the Human Place in Nature'' (1996) p. 80.</ref>

Similarly [[Michael Pollan]] has argued that the wilderness ethic leads people to dismiss areas whose wildness is less than absolute. In his book ''Second Nature,'' Pollan writes that "once a landscape is no longer 'virgin' it is typically written off as fallen, lost to nature, irredeemable."<ref>Michael Pollan, ''Second Nature: A Gardener’s Education'' (2003) p. 188 </ref>

Environmentalists becamegained much more influentialpopularity in American politics after the creation or strengthening of numerous US environmental laws, including the [[Clean Air Act (United States)|Clean Air Act]] and, [[Clean Water Act]], and the formation of the [[United States Environmental Protection Agency]] (EPA) in 1970. These successes were followed by the enactment of a whole series of laws regulating [[waste]] (including the [[Resource Conservation and Recovery Act]]),; [[Toxin|toxicToxic substances]], ([[Toxic Substances Control Act]]),; [[pesticidesPesticides]] (FIFRA: [[Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act]]),; clean-up of polluted sites ([[Superfund]]),; protection of [[endangered species]] ([[Endangered Species Act]]), and more.

Fewer environmental laws have been passed in the last decade as corporations and other [[American conservatism|conservative]] interests have increased their influence over [[Politics of the United States|American politics]].{{Citation needed|date=May 2008}}<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Christmann|first=Petra|date=2004|title=Multinational Companies and the Natural Environment: Determinants of Global Environmental Policy Standardization|journal=The Academy of Management Journal|volume=47|pages=1|via=JSTOR}}</ref> Corporate cooperation against environmental lobbyists has been organized by the [[Wise use|Wise Use]] group.{{Citation needed|date=May 2008}} At the same time, many environmentalists have been turning toward other means of persuasion, such as working with business, community, and other partners to promote [[sustainable development]]. Since the 1970s, coalitions and interests groups have directed themselves along the democrat and republican party lines.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gauchat |first1=Gordon |title=Politicization of Science in the Public Sphere |journal=American Sociological Review |date=29 March 2012 |volume=77 |issue=2 |pages=167–187 |doi=10.1177/0003122412438225|s2cid=17725502 |url=http://gateway.proquest.com/openurl?url_ver=Z39.88-2004&res_dat=xri:pqdiss&rft_val_fmt=info:ofi/fmt:kev:mtx:dissertation&rft_dat=xri:pqdiss:3476645 }}</ref>></ref>

Much environmental activism is directed towards [[conservation movement|conservation]]<ref>Perez, Alejandro Colsa, Bernadette Grafton, Paul Mohai, Rebecca Hardin, Katy Hintzen, and Sara Orvis. "Evolution of the environmental justice movement: activism, formalization and differentiation." Environmental Research Letters 10, no. 10 (2015): 105002.</ref> as well as the prevention or elimination of pollution. However, [[conservation movement]]s,; [[ecology movement]]s,; [[peace movement]]s,; [[green parties]],; [[green anarchism|green-]] and [[eco-anarchism|eco-anarchists]] often subscribe to very different ideologies, while supporting the same goals as those who call themselves "environmentalists". To outsiders, these groups or factions can appear to be indistinguishable.

Environmentalists often clash with others, particularly "corporate interests," over issues of the management of [[natural resources]], like in the case of the [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]] as a "carbon dump", the focus of [[climate change]], and [[global warming]] controversy. They usually seek to protect commonly owned or unowned resources for future generations.

{{main|Main article: [[Radical environmentalism}}]]

While most environmentalists are often mainstream and peaceful, a smallother minoritygroups are more radical in their approach. Adherents of [[radical environmentalism]] and [[greenGreen anarchism|ecological anarchism]] are involved in [[direct action]] campaigns to protect the environment. Some campaigns have employed controversial tactics including [[sabotage]], [[blockadeBlockade|blockades]]s, and [[arson]], while most use peaceful protests such as marches, [[tree- sitting]], and the like. There is substantial debate within the environmental movement as to the acceptability of these tactics, but almost all environmentalists condemn [[Violence|violent]] actions that can harm [[humans]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Taylor |first=Bron |date=December 1998 |title=Religion, violence and radical environmentalism: From earth first! to the Unabomber to the earth liberation front |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09546559808427480 |journal=Terrorism and Political Violence |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=1–42 |doi=10.1080/09546559808427480 |issn=0954-6553}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Vanderheiden |first=Steve |date=September 2005 |title=Eco-terrorism or Justified Resistance? Radical Environmentalism and the “War on Terror” |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0032329205278462 |journal=Politics & Society |language=en |volume=33 |issue=3 |pages=425–447 |doi=10.1177/0032329205278462 |issn=0032-3292}}</ref>

* {{cite book| author =Shabecoff, Philip Shabecoff| title = A Fierce Green Fire: The American Environmental Movement|year=2003| publisher = Island Press| isbn = 978-1-55963-437-3| url = https://archive.org/details/fiercegreenfiret00shab}}

* {{cite book| author = Strong, Douglas Hillman Strong| title = Dreamers & Defenders: American Conservationists| url = https://archive.org/details/dreamersdefender00stro| url-access = registration| year = 1988| publisher = University of Nebraska Press| isbn = 978-0-8032-9156-0 }}