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=== University correspondence courses ===
====United Kingdom====
[[File:SomersetHousebyAnonpublAckermann&Co1836.jpg |thumb|[[Somerset House]], home of the University of London from 1837 to 1870]]
|first= Vigneswari |last=Thanapal|title=The social mediation of multinational legal education: A case study of the University of London's undergraduate laws programme for external/international students|publisher=[[Queen Mary, University of London]]|date=January 2015|type=PhD|page=16}}</ref>
The External Programme is now known as the University of London Worldwide, and includes postgraduate and undergraduate degrees created by member institutions of the University of London.<ref name="Key Facts" />
▲With the state giving examining powers to a separate entity, the groundwork was laid for the creation of a program within the new university that would both administer examinations and award qualifications to students taking instruction at another institution or pursuing a course of self-directed study. Referred to as "People's University" by [[Charles Dickens]] because it provided access to [[higher education]] to students from less affluent backgrounds, the External Program was chartered by [[Queen Victoria]] in 1858, making the University of London the first university to offer distance learning degrees to students.<ref name="External Programme History">{{cite web |url=http://www.londonexternal.ac.uk/about_us/history.shtml |title="History", University of London External Programme Website |publisher=Londonexternal.ac.uk |date=15 July 2009 |access-date=27 April 2010}}</ref><ref name="Key Facts">{{cite web |url=http://www.londonexternal.ac.uk/about_us/facts.shtml |title="Key Facts", University of London External Programme Website |publisher=Londonexternal.ac.uk |date=15 July 2009 |access-date=27 April 2010}}</ref> Enrollment increased steadily during the late 19th century, and its example was widely copied elsewhere.<ref name="Guardian Article">{{cite web|url=http://www.guardianabroad.co.uk/education/article/283 |author=Tatum Anderson |title=History lessons at the people's university |date=16 May 2007 |publisher=Guardianabroad.co.uk |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070524102204/http://www.guardianabroad.co.uk/education/article/283 |archive-date=24 May 2007 |access-date=20 September 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref> This program is now known as the University of London International Programme and includes Postgraduate, Undergraduate, and Diploma degrees created by colleges such as the London School of Economics, Royal Holloway, and Goldsmiths.<ref name="Key Facts" />
▲=====Australia and South Africa=====
The vast distances made Australia especially active; the [[University of Queensland]] established its Department of Correspondence Studies in 1911.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1080/0158791820030207 |title=Distance education in Australian higher education – a history |journal=Distance Education |volume=3 |issue=2 |pages=255–78 |year=2009 |last1=White |first1=Michael }}</ref>
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[[File:Portrait of William Rainey Harper.jpg|thumb|[[William Rainey Harper]] encouraged the development of external university courses at the new University of Chicago in the 1890s.]]
====United States====
In the United States, only a third of the population lived in cities of 100,000 or more population in 1920; in order to reach the rest, correspondence techniques were adopted.
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{{Further|Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on education}}
[[File:8938Filipino_homeschooling_students_01.jpg|thumb|150px|right| Filipino homeschooling students – blended (printed-digital modular) distance learning with self-learning materials during the 2020 COVID-19 pandemic in [[San Miguel, Bulacan]]]]
The [[COVID-19 pandemic]] resulted in the closure of the vast majority of schools worldwide for in-person learning.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last=Arandas |first=Mohammed Fadel |last2=Salman |first2=Ali |last3=Idid |first3=Syed Arabi |last4=Loh |first4=Yoke Ling |last5=Nazir |first5=Syaira |last6=Ker |first6=Yuek Li |date=2024 |title=The influence of online distance learning and digital skills on digital literacy among university students post Covid-19. |url=https://digitalcommons.uri.edu/jmle/vol16/iss1/6 |journal=Journal of Media Literacy Education |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=79–93 |doi=10.23860/JMLE-2024-16-1-6 |issn=2167-8715}}</ref><ref name="Template_UNESCO-closures">{{Cite web|url=https://en.unesco.org/covid19/educationresponse |title=School closures caused by Coronavirus (COVID-19) |website=UNESCO |language=en|access-date=2021-01-12}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://en.unesco.org/news/290-million-students-out-school-due-covid-19-unesco-releases-first-global-numbers-and-mobilizes |title=290 million students out of school due to COVID-19: UNESCO releases first global numbers and mobilizes response |date=4 March 2020 |publisher=[[UNESCO]] |access-date=6 March 2020}}</ref> COVID-19 increased the value of distance education although its policies were implemented and formulated among several universities much earlier.<ref name=":4" /> Many schools moved to online remote learning through platforms including—but not limited to—[[Zoom (software)|Zoom]], [[Blackboard Inc.|Blackboard]], [[Cisco Webex]], [[Google Classroom]], [[Google Meet]], [[Microsoft Teams]], [[D2L]], and [[Edgenuity]].<ref name=":4" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.poconorecord.com/lifestyle/20200501/virtual-learning-gets-mixed-reviews-from-pocono-parents|title=Virtual learning gets mixed reviews from Pocono parents|date=2020-05-01|last=Hood|first=Micaela|access-date=17 May 2020|archive-date=7 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200507160538/https://www.poconorecord.com/lifestyle/20200501/virtual-learning-gets-mixed-reviews-from-pocono-parents|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.11alive.com/article/news/health/coronavirus/georgia-school-districts-digital-learning-grants-atlanta/85-3a783e3c-2642-44e9-8fa6-090012604481|title=Georgia awards $21 million in digital learning grants|date=2020-04-28|last=Raymond|first=Jonathon}}</ref>
Concerns arose over the impact of this transition on students without access to an internet-enabled device or a stable internet connection.<ref name="Aristovnik et al. 2020">{{cite journal | vauthors = Aristovnik A, Keržič D, Ravšelj D, Tomaževič N, Umek L|title = Impacts of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Life of Higher Education Students: A Global Perspective| journal = Sustainability | volume = 12 | issue = 20 | pages = 8438 | date = October 2020 | doi=10.3390/su12208438| doi-access = free }}</ref> Distanced education during the COVID-19 pandemic has interrupted synchronous learning for many students and teachers; where educators were no longer able to teach in real-time and could only switch to asynchronous instruction, this significantly and negatively affected their coping with the transition,<ref name="JelinskaParadowski2021a">{{Cite journal|last1=Jelińska|first1=Magdalena|last2=Paradowski|first2=Michał B.|date=2021|title=Teachers' engagement in and coping with emergency remote instruction during COVID-19-induced school closures: A multi-national contextual perspective|journal=Online Learning Journal|volume=25|issue=1|pages=303–328|doi=10.24059/olj.v25i1.2492|doi-access=free}}</ref> and posed various legal issues, especially in terms of copyright.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi = 10.1007/s12115-021-00584-w|title = The Right to Teach in a Hyper-Digital Age: Legal Protections for (Post-)Pandemic Concerns|year = 2021|last1 = Deflem|first1 = Mathieu|journal = Society|volume = 58|issue = 3|pages = 204–212|pmid = 34075264|pmc = 8161721}}</ref> The physical surroundings during the COVID-19 pandemic are seen by university instructors as having a detrimental effect on the quality of distance education. However, where the lecture is delivered and the type of faculty do not show any significant statistical variances in the quality of distance education.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Al-Tkhayneh |first1=Khawlah M. |last2=Altakhaineh |first2=Abdel Rahman Mitib |last3=Nser |first3=Khaled Khamis |date=2023-01-01 |title=The impact of the physical environment on the quality of distance education |url=https://doi.org/10.1108/QAE-09-2022-0163 |journal=Quality Assurance in Education |volume=31 |issue=3 |pages=504–519 |doi=10.1108/QAE-09-2022-0163 |issn=0968-4883}}</ref> The shift away from real-time instruction to asynchronous learning modes has posed significant challenges, impacting both the teaching and learning experience.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=James |first1=Trixie |last2=Toth |first2=Gabriela |last3=Tomlins |first3=Melissa |last4=Kumar |first4=Brijesh |last5=Bond |first5=Kerry |date=2021-11-02 |title=Digital Disruption in the COVID-19 Era: The Impact on Learning and Students' Ability to Cope with Study in an Unknown World |url=https://studentsuccessjournal.org/article/view |journal=Student Success |language=en |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=84–95 |doi=10.5204/ssj.1784 |issn=2205-0795}}</ref> Educators, grappling with this abrupt transition, have faced hurdles in effectively engaging students and delivering course content, leading to heightened stress and burnout among faculty members. Additionally, this shift has raised legal concerns, particularly regarding copyright issues related to the dissemination of educational materials in digital formats.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mezei |first=Péter |date=2023-06-30 |title=Digital Higher Education and Copyright Law in the Age of Pandemic - The Hungarian Experience |url=http://www.jipitec.eu/issues/jipitec-14-2-2023/5744 |journal=Jipitec |volume=14 |issue=2 |issn=2190-3387}}</ref> Post-COVID-19 pandemic, while some educational institutions went back to physical classes, others switched to blended learning or kept up their online distance learning.<ref name=":4" />
Though schools are slow to adapt to new technologies, [[COVID-19]] required schools to adapt and learn how to use new digital and online learning tools.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=Hew |first1=Khe Foon |last2=Jia |first2=Chengyuan |last3=Gonda |first3=Donn Emmanuel |last4=Bai |first4=Shurui |date=2020-12-21 |title=Transitioning to the "new normal" of learning in unpredictable times: pedagogical practices and learning performance in fully online flipped classrooms |journal=International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=57 |doi=10.1186/s41239-020-00234-x |issn=2365-9440 |pmc=7750097 |pmid=34778516 |doi-access=free }}</ref> [[Web conferencing]] has become more popular since 2007.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bower |first=Matt |date=2011-05-01 |title=Synchronous collaboration competencies in web-conferencing environments – their impact on the learning process |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/01587919.2011.565502 |journal=Distance Education |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=63–83 |doi=10.1080/01587919.2011.565502 |s2cid=17247273 |issn=0158-7919}}</ref> Researchers have found that people in [[online classes]] perform just as effectively as participants in conventional learning classes.<ref name=":1" /> The use of online learning is becoming a pathway for learners with sparse access to physical courses so they can complete their degrees.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Veletsianos |first=George |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1145122616 |title=Learning online : the student experience |date=2020 |others=Johns Hopkins University. Press |isbn=978-1-4214-3810-8 |location=Baltimore, Maryland |oclc=1145122616}}</ref> Furthermore, digital classroom technologies allow those living remotely to access learning, and it enables the student to fit learning into their schedule more easily.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Strengths and Weaknesses of Online Learning {{!}} University of Illinois Springfield |url=https://www.uis.edu/ion/resources/tutorials/overview/strengths-weaknesses |access-date=2024-04-20 |website=www.uis.edu |language=en}}</ref>▼
▲A recent study about the benefits and drawbacks of online learning found that students have had a harder time producing their own work.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{Cite journal|last1=Mukhtar|first1=Khadijah|last2=Javed|first2=Kainat|last3=Arooj|first3=Mahwish|last4=Sethi|first4=Ahsan|date=May 2020|title=Advantages, Limitations and Recommendations for online learning during COVID-19 pandemic era|journal=Pakistan Journal of Medical Sciences|volume=36|issue=COVID19–S4|pages=S27–S31|doi=10.12669/pjms.36.COVID19-S4.2785|issn=1682-024X|pmc=7306967|pmid=32582310}}</ref> The study suggests teachers should cut back on the amount of information taught and incorporate more activities during the lesson, in order for students to create their own work.<ref name="ReferenceA" /> Though schools are slow to adapt to new technologies, [[COVID-19]] required schools to adapt and learn how to use new digital and online learning tools.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=Hew |first1=Khe Foon |last2=Jia |first2=Chengyuan |last3=Gonda |first3=Donn Emmanuel |last4=Bai |first4=Shurui |date=2020-12-21 |title=Transitioning to the "new normal" of learning in unpredictable times: pedagogical practices and learning performance in fully online flipped classrooms |journal=International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=57 |doi=10.1186/s41239-020-00234-x |issn=2365-9440 |pmc=7750097 |pmid=34778516 |doi-access=free }}</ref> [[Web conferencing]] has become more popular since 2007.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bower |first=Matt |date=2011-05-01 |title=Synchronous collaboration competencies in web-conferencing environments – their impact on the learning process |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/01587919.2011.565502 |journal=Distance Education |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=63–83 |doi=10.1080/01587919.2011.565502 |s2cid=17247273 |issn=0158-7919}}</ref> Researchers have found that people in [[online classes]] perform just as effectively as participants in conventional learning classes.<ref name=":1" /> The use of online learning is becoming a pathway for learners with sparse access to physical courses so they can complete their degrees.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Veletsianos |first=George |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1145122616 |title=Learning online : the student experience |date=2020 |others=Johns Hopkins University. Press |isbn=978-1-4214-3810-8 |location=Baltimore, Maryland |oclc=1145122616}}</ref> Furthermore, digital classroom technologies allow those living remotely to access learning, and it enables the student to fit learning into their schedule more easily.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Strengths and Weaknesses of Online Learning {{!}} University of Illinois Springfield |url=https://www.uis.edu/ion/resources/tutorials/overview/strengths-weaknesses |access-date=2024-04-20 |website=www.uis.edu |language=en}}</ref>
== Technologies ==
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In asynchronous learning, participants access course materials flexibly on their schedules. Students are not required to be together at the same time. Mail correspondence, which is the oldest form of distance education, is an asynchronous delivery technology, as are [[message board]] forums, [[e-mail]], [[video]] and [[audio recording]]s, print materials, [[voicemail]], and [[fax]].<ref name="lever-duffy" />
The five characteristics of technological innovations (compatibility, observability, relative advantage, complexity, and trialability) have a significant positive relationship with the [[digital literacy]] of users. Besides, observability, trialability, and digital skill were found to have a positive significant influence on [[digital literacy]]. <ref name=":4" />
The two methods can be combined. Many courses offered by both open universities and an increasing number of campus-based institutions use periodic sessions of residential or day teaching to supplement the sessions delivered at a distance.<ref name="Burns">{{cite book |last1=Burns |first1=Mary | title= Distance Education for Teacher Training: Modes, Models and Methods | url= http://go.edc.org/07xd | access-date = 10 September 2012}}</ref> This type of mixed distance and campus-based education has recently come to be called "[[blended learning]]" or less often "hybrid learning". Many open universities use a blend of technologies and a blend of learning modalities (face-to-face, distance, and hybrid) all under the rubric of "distance learning".
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=== Radio and television ===
{{external media | width = 210px | float = right | audio1 = [http://www.wnyc.org/story/745-air-college-talk/ Air college talk.], 2:45, 2 December 1931, [[WNYC (AM)|WNYC]]<ref name="smarth">{{cite web | title = Air college talk. | publisher =
The rapid spread of film in the 1920s and radio in the 1930s led to proposals to use it for distance education.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Cuban |first=Larry |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uQeEn1vEUSQC |title=Teachers and Machines: The Classroom Use of Technology Since 1920 |date=1986-06-15 |publisher=Teachers College Press |isbn=978-0-8077-2792-8 |language=en}}</ref> By 1938, at least 200 city school systems, 25 state boards of education, and many colleges and universities broadcast educational programs for public schools.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Tyson | first1 = Levering | year = 1936 | title = Ten Years of Educational Broadcasting | journal = [[School and Society]] | volume = 44 | pages = 225–31 }}</ref> One line of thought was to use radio as a master teacher.
{{blockquote|Experts in given fields broadcast lessons for pupils within the many schoolrooms of the public school system, asking questions, suggesting readings, making assignments, and conducting tests. This mechanizes education and leaves the local teacher only the tasks of preparing for the broadcast and keeping order in the classroom.<ref>Lloyd Allen Cook. (1938). ''Community Backgrounds of Education: A Textbook and Educational Sociology'', pp 249–250</ref>}}
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