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==Description==
The harvested part of a cassava plant is the root. This is long and tapered, with an easily
<gallery class=center mode=nolines widths=180 heights=180>
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Wild populations of ''M. esculenta'' subspecies ''flabellifolia'', shown to be the progenitor of domesticated cassava, are centered in west-central Brazil, where it was likely first domesticated no more than 10,000 years ago.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Olsen|first1=K. M. |last2=Schaal |first2=B. A. |title=Evidence on the origin of cassava: phylogeography of ''Manihot esculenta'' |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America]]|volume=96 |issue=10 |pages=5586–5591 |year=1999 |pmid=10318928 |pmc=21904 |bibcode=1999PNAS...96.5586O |doi=10.1073/pnas.96.10.5586 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Forms of the modern domesticated species can also be found growing in the wild in the south of Brazil. By 4600 BC, cassava pollen appears in the [[Gulf of Mexico]] lowlands, at the [[San Andrés (Mesoamerican site)|San Andrés]] archaeological site.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1126/science.292.5520.1370 |pmid=11359011 |bibcode=2001Sci...292.1370P |title=Origin and Environmental Setting of Ancient Agriculture in the Lowlands of Mesoamerica |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |volume=292 |issue=5520 |pages=1370–1373 |last1=Pope |first1=Kevin O. |last2=Pohl |first2=Mary E. D. |last3=Jones |first3=John G. |last4=Lentz |first4=David L. |last5=von Nagy |first5=Christopher |last6=Vega |first6=Francisco J. |last7=Quitmyer |first7=Irvy R. |year=2001}}</ref> The oldest direct evidence of cassava cultivation comes from a 1,400-year-old [[Maya civilization|Maya]] site, [[Joya de Cerén]], in [[El Salvador]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Carroll |first=Rory |title=CU team discovers Mayan crop system |newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |date=23 August 2007 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2007/aug/23/1 |access-date=31 July 2019 |archive-date=31 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190731171801/https://www.theguardian.com/science/2007/aug/23/1 |url-status=live }}</ref> It became a [[staple food]] of the native populations of northern South America, southern Mesoamerica, and the [[Taíno|Taino]] people in the [[List of Caribbean islands|Caribbean islands]], who grew it using a high-yielding form of [[shifting cultivation|shifting agriculture]] by the time of European contact in 1492.<ref>{{cite web |title=Taino {{!}} History & Culture |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Taino |access-date=2020-09-24 |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |archive-date=2020-09-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200901154607/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Taino |url-status=live}}</ref> Cassava was a staple food of [[pre-Columbian]] peoples in the Americas and is often portrayed in [[Pre-Columbian art|indigenous art]]. The [[Moche (culture)|Moche]] people often depicted yuca in their ceramics.<ref>Berrin, Katherine & Larco Museum. ''The Spirit of Ancient Peru:Treasures from the [[Larco Museum|Museo Arqueológico Rafael Larco Herrera]].'' New York: [[Thames & Hudson]], 1997.</ref>
[[Spaniards]] in their early occupation of Caribbean islands did not want to eat cassava or maize, which they considered insubstantial, dangerous, and not nutritious. They much preferred foods from Spain, specifically wheat bread, olive oil, red wine, and meat, and considered maize and cassava damaging to Europeans.<ref>Earle, Rebecca (2012) ''The Body of the Conquistador: Food, Race, and the Colonial Experience in Spanish America, 1492–1700''. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 54–57, 151. {{ISBN|978-1107693296}}.</ref> The cultivation and consumption of cassava were nonetheless continued in both Portuguese and Spanish America. Mass production of cassava bread became the first Cuban industry established by the Spanish.<ref>{{cite book|author=Long, Janet |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Rn9LZ2XrIWgC&pg=PA75 |title=Conquest and food: consequences of the encounter of two worlds; page 75|publisher=UNAM|date=2003 |isbn=978-9703208524 |access-date=24 August 2020 |archive-date=20 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230420125914/https://books.google.com/books?id=Rn9LZ2XrIWgC&pg=PA75 |url-status=live}}</ref> Ships departing to Europe from Cuban ports such as [[Havana]], [[Santiago de Cuba|Santiago]], [[Bayamo]], and [[Baracoa]] carried goods to Spain, but sailors needed to be provisioned for the voyage. The Spanish also needed to replenish their boats with dried meat, water, fruit, and large amounts of cassava bread.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sjsu.edu/faculty/watkins/havana.htm |title=The Economic History of Havana, Cuba: A City So Beautiful and Important It Was Once Worth More Than All of Florida |author=Watkins, Thayer|publisher=San José State University, Department of Economics|date=2006|access-date=20 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160502042108/http://www.sjsu.edu/faculty/watkins/havana.htm |archive-date=2 May 2016}}</ref> Sailors complained that it caused them digestive problems.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Super, John C. |title=Spanish Diet in the Atlantic Crossing|journal=[[Terrae Incognitae]] |volume=16 |year=1984 |pages=60–63 |doi=10.1179/008228884791016718}}</ref>
Portuguese traders introduced cassava to Africa from Brazil in the 16th century. Around the same period, it was also introduced to Asia through [[Columbian Exchange]] by Portuguese and Spanish traders, who planted it in their colonies in Goa, Malacca, Eastern Indonesia, Timor and the Philippines.<ref name="Nweke 2005">{{cite book |last=Nweke |first=Felix I. |chapter=The cassava transformation in Africa |chapter-url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/009/a0154e/A0154E02.HTM |publisher=The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |place=Rome |year=2005 |title=A review of cassava in Africa with country case studies on Nigeria, Ghana, the United Republic of Tanzania, Uganda and Benin |series=Proceedings of the Validation Forum on the Global Cassava Development Strategy |volume=2 |access-date=1 January 2011 |archive-date=11 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190211073843/http://www.fao.org/docrep/009/a0154e/A0154E02.htm |url-status=live}}</ref> Cassava has also become an important crop in Asia. While it is a valued food staple in parts of eastern Indonesia, it is primarily cultivated for starch extraction and bio-fuel production in Thailand, Cambodia and Vietnam.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hershey |first=Clair |display-authors=et al |date=April 2000 |chapter-url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/009/y1177e/Y1177E02.htm |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |title=A review of cassava in Asia with country case studies on Thailand and Viet Nam |chapter=Cassava in Asia. Expanding the Competitive Edge in Diversified Markets |place=Rome |access-date=28 January 2018 |archive-date=7 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107231144/http://www.fao.org/docrep/009/y1177e/Y1177E02.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> Cassava is sometimes described as the "bread of the tropics"<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Adams |first1=C. |last2=Murrieta |first2=R. |last3=Siqueira |first3=A. |last4=Neves |first4=W. |last5=Sanches |first5=R. |chapter=Bread of the Land: The Invisibility of Manioc in the Amazon |title=Amazon Peasant Societies in a Changing Environment |doi=10.1007/978-1-4020-9283-1_13 |pages=281–305 |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4020-9282-4 }}</ref> but should not be confused with the tropical and equatorial [[bread tree]] ''(Encephalartos)'', the [[breadfruit]] ''(Artocarpus altilis)'' or the [[African breadfruit]] ''(Treculia africana)''. This description definitely holds in Africa and parts of South America; in Asian countries such as Vietnam fresh cassava barely features in human diets.<ref name=MotaGuttierez2019>{{cite journal |last1=Mota-Guttierez |first1=Jatziri |last2=O'Brien |first2=Gerard Michael |date=September 2019 |title=Cassava consumption and the occurrence of cyanide in cassava in Vietnam, Indonesia and Philippines |journal=Public Health Nutrition |volume=23 |issue=13 |pages=2410–2423 |doi=10.1017/S136898001900524X |doi-access=free |pmid=32438936 }}</ref>
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Several viruses are of economic importance. The [[African cassava mosaic virus]] causes the leaves of the cassava plant to wither, limiting the growth of the root.<ref>{{cite web |title=Cassava (manioc) |url=https://www.plantvillage.com/en/topics/cassava-manioc/infos/diseases_and_pests_description_uses_propagation |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150630145744/https://www.plantvillage.com/en/topics/cassava-manioc/infos/diseases_and_pests_description_uses_propagation |archive-date=30 June 2015 |access-date=29 May 2015}}</ref> An outbreak of the virus in Africa in the 1920s led to a major famine.<ref name="NYT May 2010">{{cite news |date=31 May 2010 |title=Virus ravages cassava plants in Africa |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/01/science/01cassava.html |access-date=24 February 2017 |archive-date=16 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170316113128/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/01/science/01cassava.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The virus is spread by the [[whitefly]] and by the transplanting of diseased plants into new fields. Sometime in the late-1980s, a mutation occurred in Uganda that made the virus even more harmful, causing the complete loss of leaves. This mutated virus spread at a rate of {{convert|50|mi|km|sigfig=1|order=flip|abbr=off}} per year, and as of 2005 was found throughout [[Uganda]], [[Rwanda]], [[Burundi]], the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] and the [[Republic of the Congo]].<ref>{{cite web |date=31 August 2005 |title=Hungry African nations balk at biotech cassava |url=http://www.redorbit.com/news/science/225369/hungry_african_nations_balk_at_biotech_cassava/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120303183231/http://www.redorbit.com/news/science/225369/hungry_african_nations_balk_at_biotech_cassava/ |archive-date=3 March 2012 |access-date=11 August 2008 |work=[[St. Louis Post-Dispatch]]}}</ref> Viruses are a severe production limitation in the tropics. They are the primary reason for the complete lack of yield increases in the 25 years {{as of|2021|alt=up to 2021}}.<ref name="Afedraru-2019" />
[[Cassava brown streak virus disease]] has been identified as a major threat to cultivation worldwide.<ref name="NYT May 2010" /> [[Cassava mosaic virus]] (CMV) is widespread in Africa, causing cassava mosaic disease (CMD).<ref name="Lebot-2020" /> Bredeson et al. 2016 find the ''M. esculenta'' [[cultivar]]s most widely used on that continent have [[Manihot carthaginensis subsp. glaziovii|''M. carthaginensis'' subsp. ''glaziovii'']] genes of which some appear to be CMD [[plant disease resistance gene|resistance gene]]s.<ref name="Lebot-2020">{{cite book |last=Lebot |first=Vincent |title=Tropical Root and Tuber Crops: Cassava, Sweet Potato, Yams And Aroids |publisher=CABI ([[Centre for Agriculture and Bioscience International]]) |year=2020 |isbn=978-1-78924-336-9 |publication-place=[[Wallingford, Oxfordshire]], UK; [[Boston]], USA |page=541 |oclc=1110672215}}</ref> Although the ongoing CMD [[pandemic]] affects both [[East Africa|East]] and [[Central Africa|Central]] Africa, Legg ''et al.'' found that these two areas have two distinct [[subpopulation]]s of the [[vector (epidemiology)|vector]], ''[[Bemisia tabaci]]'' whiteflies.<ref>{{ Cite book |year=2015 |publisher=Academic Press |issn=0065-3527 |author1=Legg, James P. |author2=Kumar, P. Lava |author3=Makeshkumar, T. |author4=Tripathi, Leena |author5=Ferguson, Morag |author6=Kanju, Edward |author7=Ntawuruhunga, Pheneas |author8=Cuellar, Wilmer |doi=10.1016/bs.aivir.2014.10.001 |chapter=Cassava Virus Diseases: Biology, Epidemiology, and Management |editor1=Loebenstein, Gad |editor2=Katis, Nikolaos I. |series=Control of Plant Virus Diseases: Vegetatively-Propagated Crops |title=Advances in Virus Research |volume=91 |pages=85–142 |pmid=25591878 |isbn=9780128027622}}</ref><ref name="Legg 2014">{{cite journal |last1=Legg |first1=James P. |last2=Sseruwagi |first2=Peter |last3=Boniface |first3=Simon |last4=Okao-Okuja |first4=Geoffrey |last5=Shirima |first5=Rudolph |last6=Bigirimana |first6=Simon |last7=Gashaka |first7=Gervais |last8=Herrmann |first8=Hans-Werner |last9=Jeremiah |first9=Simon |last10=Obiero |first10=Hannington |last11=Ndyetabula |first11=Innocent |last12=Tata-Hangy |first12=Willy |last13=Masembe |first13=Charles |last14=Brown |first14=Judith K. |display-authors=6 |title=Spatio-temporal patterns of genetic change amongst populations of cassava Bemisia tabaci whiteflies driving virus pandemics in East and Central Africa |journal=Virus Research |volume=186 |date=2014 |doi=10.1016/j.virusres.2013.11.018 |pages=61–75 |pmid=24291251 }}</ref>
A wide range of plant parasitic nematodes have been reported associated with cassava worldwide. These include ''[[Pratylenchus brachyurus]]'', ''[[Rotylenchulus reniformis]]'', ''[[Helicotylenchus]]'' spp., ''[[Scutellonema]]'' spp. and ''[[Root-knot nematode|Meloidogyne]]'' spp., of which ''[[Meloidogyne incognita]]'' and ''[[Meloidogyne javanica]]'' are the most widely reported and economically important.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Mc Sorley, R. |author2=Ohair, S. K. |author3=Parrado, J. L. |date=1983 |title=Nematodes of Cassava, ''Manihot esculenta'' Crantz |url=http://journals.fcla.edu/nematropica/article/view/63820/61488 |journal=Nematropica|volume=13 |pages=261–287 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160603205439/http://journals.fcla.edu/nematropica/article/view/63820/61488 |archive-date=3 June 2016 |access-date=4 May 2016}}</ref> ''Meloidogyne'' spp. feeding produces physically damaging galls with eggs inside them. Galls later merge as the females grow and enlarge, and they interfere with water and nutrient supply.<ref name="Gapasin">{{cite journal |author1=Gapasin, R. M. |date=1980 |title=Reaction of golden yellow cassava to ''Meloidogyne'' spp. Inoculation |journal=Annals of Tropical Research|volume=2 |pages=49–53}}</ref> Cassava roots become tough with age and restrict the movement of the juveniles and the egg release. It is therefore possible that extensive galling can be observed even at low densities following infection.<ref name="Coyne">{{cite journal |author1=Coyne, D. L. |date=1994 |title=Nematode pests of cassava |journal=African Crop Science Journal|volume=2 |issue=4 |pages=355–359 |url=https://www.ajol.info/index.php/acsj/article/view/135776 |access-date=22 September 2018 |archive-date=22 September 2018 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180922101847/https://www.ajol.info/index.php/acsj/article/view/135776}}</ref> Other pests and diseases can gain entry through the physical damage caused by gall formation, leading to rots. They have not been shown to cause direct damage to the enlarged storage roots, but plants can have reduced height if there was loss of enlarged root weight.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Caveness, F. E. |date=1982 |title=Root-knot nematodes as parasites of cassava |journal=IITA Research Briefs|volume=3 |issue=2 |pages=2–3}}</ref>
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=== Handling and storage ===
Cassava deteriorates after harvest, when
While alternative methods for controlling post-harvest deterioration have been proposed, such as preventing reactive oxygen species effects by using plastic bags during storage and transport, coating the roots with wax, or freezing roots, such strategies have proved to be economically or technically impractical, leading to [[plant breeding|breeding]] of cassava varieties with improved durability after harvest, achieved by different mechanisms.<ref name="gmr">{{cite journal |last1=Venturini |first1=M. T |last2=Santos |first2=L. R |last3=Vildoso |first3=C. I |last4=Santos |first4=V. S |last5=Oliveira |first5=E. J |year=2016 |title=Variation in cassava germplasm for tolerance to post-harvest physiological deterioration |journal=[[Genetics and Molecular Research]] |volume=15 |issue=2 |doi=10.4238/gmr.15027818 |pmid=27173317 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="gmr" /><ref name="cs">{{cite journal |last1=Morante |first1=N. |last2=Sánchez |first2=T. |last3=Ceballos |first3=H. |last4=Calle |first4=F. |last5=Pérez |first5=J. C. |last6=Egesi |first6=C. |last7=Cuambe |first7=C. E. |last8=Escobar |first8=A. F. |last9=Ortiz |first9=D. |last10=Chávez |first10=A. L. |last11=Fregene |first11=M. |year=2010 |title=Tolerance to Postharvest Physiological Deterioration in Cassava Roots |journal=[[Crop Science (journal)|Crop Science]]|volume=50 |issue=4 |pages=1333–1338 |doi=10.2135/cropsci2009.11.0666}}</ref> One approach used [[gamma ray]]s to try to silence a gene involved in triggering deterioration; another strategy selected for plentiful [[carotenoid]]s, [[antioxidant]]s which may help to reduce oxidization after harvest.<ref name="cs" />
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|colspan=2|<small>Source: [[FAOSTAT]] of the [[United Nations]]<ref name="faostat">{{cite web|url=http://faostat3.fao.org/browse/Q/QC/E|title=Cassava production in 2022, Crops/World Regions/Production Quantity/Year from pick lists|date=2024|publisher=UN [[Food and Agriculture Organization Corporate Statistical Database]] (FAOSTAT)|access-date=29 May 2024}}</ref></small>
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In 2022, world production of cassava root was 330 million tonnes, led by [[Nigeria]] with 18% of the total (table). Other major growers were [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] and [[Thailand]].
Cassava is the third-largest source of carbohydrates in food in the tropics, after [[rice]] and [[maize]].<ref name="FAO">{{cite web|title=Cassava|publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]] of the United Nations (FAO) |url=http://www.fao.org/ag/agp/agpc/gcds/|access-date=24 November 2011|archive-date=18 November 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161118061344/http://www.fao.org/ag/agp/agpc/gcds/}}</ref><ref name="Claude-Denis-1990">{{cite journal |author1=Fauquet Claude |author2=Fargette Denis |year=1990 |title=African Cassava Mosaic Virus: Etiology, Epidemiology, and Control |url=http://www.apsnet.org/publications/PlantDisease/BackIssues/Documents/1990Articles/PlantDisease74n06_404.pdf |journal=[[Plant Disease (journal)|Plant Disease]] |publisher=[[American Phytopathological Society]] (APS) |volume=74 |issue=6 |pages=404–411 |doi=10.1094/pd-74-0404 |access-date=10 January 2011 |archive-date=9 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170809004240/http://www.apsnet.org/publications/PlantDisease/BackIssues/Documents/1990Articles/PlantDisease74n06_404.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Afedraru-2019">{{cite web |last=Afedraru |first=Lominda |title=Uganda to launch innovative gene-edited cassava research |website=Alliance for Science |date=2019-01-31 |url=http://allianceforscience.cornell.edu/blog/2019/01/uganda-launch-innovative-gene-edited-cassava-research/ |access-date=2021-08-15 |archive-date=15 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210815171521/https://allianceforscience.cornell.edu/blog/2019/01/uganda-launch-innovative-gene-edited-cassava-research/ |url-status=live }}</ref> making it is an important [[staple food|staple]]; more than 500 million people depend on it.<ref>{{cite web|title=Dimensions of Need: An atlas of food and agriculture|publisher=United Nations [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] (FAO) |year=1995|url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/u8480e/U8480E01.htm|access-date=23 November 2011|archive-date=24 November 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161124095410/http://www.fao.org/docrep/u8480e/U8480E01.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> It offers the advantage of being exceptionally [[drought-tolerant]], and able to grow productively on poor soil. Cassava grows well within 30° of the equator, where it can be produced at up to {{convert|2000|m|ft|sigfig=1|abbr=on}} above sea level, and with {{convert|50|to|5000|mm|in|sigfig=1|abbr=on}} of rain per year. These environmental tolerances suit it to conditions across much of South America and Africa.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Cock |first=James H. |title=Cassava |journal=The Crop Productivity Symposium, IRRI, los Banos, Philippines |date=September 1980 |pages=1–33 |url=https://cgspace.cgiar.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/0bb17dbb-ef96-4ea9-9ca6-100ae47f0503/content}} reprinted as a chapter in ''Crop physiology case histories for major crops''. [[Academic Press]], 2021, pages 588-633.</ref>
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{{main|Cassava-based dishes}}
There are [[Cassava-based dishes|many ways of cooking cassava]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Opie |first=Frederick Douglass |title=Hog and Hominy: Soul Food from Africa to America |publisher=[[Columbia University Press]] |year=2008 |at=chapters 1–2}}</ref> It has to be prepared correctly to remove its toxicity.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-02-09 |title=Cassava: Benefits, toxicity, and how to prepare |url=https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/323756 |access-date=2022-03-30 |website=www.medicalnewstoday.com |archive-date=30 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220330124043/https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/323756 |url-status=live }}</ref> The root of the sweet variety is mild to the taste, like potatoes; Jewish households sometimes use it in [[cholent]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Manioc Root - Cargo Handbook - the world's largest cargo transport guidelines website |url=https://cargohandbook.com/Manioc_Root |access-date=2022-03-30 |website=cargohandbook.com |archive-date=20 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220520225044/https://www.cargohandbook.com/Manioc_Root |url-status=live }}</ref> It can be made into a flour that is used in breads, cakes and cookies. In Brazil, ''[[farofa]]'', a dry meal made from cooked powdered cassava, is roasted in butter, eaten as a side dish, or sprinkled on other food.<ref name="zeldes">{{cite web |last=Zeldes |first=Leah A. |
[[Alcoholic beverage]]s made from cassava include [[cauim]] (Brazil),<ref name="rschwan">{{cite journal |title=Yeast diversity in rice-cassava fermentations produced by the indigenous Tapirapé people of Brazil |author=Rosane F. Schwan |author2=Euziclei G. Almeida |author3=Maria Aparecida G. Souza-Dias |author4=Lene Jespersen |date=September 2007 |volume=7 |pages=966–972 |journal=FEMS Yeast Research |doi=10.1111/j.1567-1364.2007.00241.x |pmid=17697080 |issue=6 |doi-access=free }}</ref> [[kasiri]] (Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname),<ref>{{cite news |last=van Vark |first=Manon |title=Tribal cures for modern ailments, Surinam |date=28 August 1999 |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/431829.stm |quote=Their staple food is cassava, from which they make cassava bread and brew ''kasiri'', 'cassava beer'.}}</ref> [[parakari]] or kari (Venezuela, Guyana, Surinam),<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Henkel |first=Terry W. |date=2005-03-01 |title=Parakari, an indigenous fermented beverage using amylolytic Rhizopus in Guyana |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/15572536.2006.11832833 |journal=Mycologia |volume=97 |issue=1 |pages=1–11 |doi=10.1080/15572536.2006.11832833 |pmid=16389951 |s2cid=218588548 |issn=0027-5514}}</ref> and [[nihamanchi]] (South America),<ref>{{cite book |last=Howell |first=Edward |title=Enzyme Nutrition: The Food Enzyme Concept |publisher=Avery Publishing Group |year=1995 |isbn=978-0895292216 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h9EgG8O7GgIC&dq=Howell+Enzyme&pg=PP1 |page=49}}</ref>
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===Animal feed===
Cassava tubers and hay are used worldwide as animal feed. Young cassava hay is harvested at three to four month
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