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| year_leader1 = {{Circa}} 1540 BC
| leader1 = [[Kirta]] (first known)
| year_leader2 = {{Circa}}
| leader2 = [[Shattuara II]] (last)
| era = Bronze Age
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| currency =
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'''Mitanni''' ({{IPAc-en|m|ɪ|ˈ|t|æ|n|i}}; {{lang-hit|𒆳𒌷𒈪𒋫𒀭𒉌|[[KUR]] <sup>[[Cities of the ancient Near East|URU]]</sup>Mi-ta-an-ni; Mittani}} or {{lang-hit|𒈪𒀉𒋫𒉌|Mi-it-ta-ni|links=no}}), {{Circa|1550}}–1260 BC, earlier called '''Ḫabigalbat''' in old Babylonian texts, {{Circa|1600 BC}};<ref name="van Koppen, Frans, (2004)"/> '''Hanigalbat''' or '''Hani-Rabbat''' ({{lang|akk|Hanikalbat, Khanigalbat}}, {{lang-akk|𒄩𒉌𒃲𒁁|Ḫa-ni-gal-bat, Ḫa-ni-rab-bat}}) in [[Assyria]]n records, or {{lang|egy|[[Naharin]]}} in [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptian]] texts, was a [[Hurrian language|Hurrian]]-speaking state in northern [[Syria (region)|Syria]] and southeast [[Anatolia]] (modern-day [[Turkey]])<ref>{{Cite book |last=Shaw |first=Ian |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8HKDtlPuM2oC&pg=PA402&dq=&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjznaTa3cmEAxUlVPEDHT5kAVYQ6AF6BAgKEAM |title=A Dictionary of Archaeology |last2=Jameson |first2=Robert |date=2008-04-15 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0-470-75196-1 |pages=402 |language=en}}</ref> with [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] [[Indo-Aryan superstrate in Mitanni|linguistic and political influences]].{{efn|See the [[Mitanni#Indo-Aryan influences|section below]] for
The [[Hurrians]] were in the region as of the late 3rd millennium BC.<ref>Buccellati, Giorgio, and Marilyn Kelly-Buccellati, (1997). [https://ixtheo.de/Record/1787586049/Description "Urkesh: The First Hurrian Capital"], The Biblical Archaeologist, vol. 60, no. 2, 1997, pp. 77–96. '''Abstract:''' "...the sealings provided satisfying proof that Tell Mozan was the site of the third-millennium Hurrian capital city Urkesh..."</ref> A king of [[Urkesh]] with a Hurrian name, Tupkish, was found on a clay sealing dated {{Circa|2300 BC}} at Tell Mozan.<ref name="Salvini" >Salvini, Mirjo. "The earliest evidences of the Hurrians before the formation of the reign of Mittanni." Urkesh and the Hurrians Studies in Honor of Lloyd Cotsen. Urkesh/Mozan Studies Bibliotheca Mesopotamica. Malibu: Undena Publications (1998): 99-115</ref><ref>Lawler, Andrew. “Who Were the Hurrians?” Archaeology, vol. 61, no. 4, 2008, pp. 46–52</ref> The first recorded inscription of their language was of [[Tish-atal]] ({{Circa|21st century BC}}), king of [[Urkesh]].<ref>Yakubovich, I. (2011). [Review of Einführung in die hurritsche Sprache, by I. Wegner]. Journal of Near Eastern Studies, 70(2), 337–339</ref> Later on, Hurrians made up the main population of Mitanni, that was firstly known as ''Ḫabigalbat'', at Babylonia, in two texts of the late [[Old Babylonian Empire|Old Babylonian period]],<ref name="van Koppen, Frans, (2004)"/><ref name="von Dassow, Eva, (2022)"
The Egyptian official astronomer and clockmaker Amenemhet (Amen-hemet) apparently ordered to write on his tomb that he returned from the "foreign country called ''Mtn'' (''Mi-ti-ni''),"<ref>Amenemhet's memoir was published in: Borchardt, L., (1930). "Altägyptische Zeitmessung", in E. von Basserman-Jordan, ''Die Geschichte der Zeitmessung und der Ühre'', vol. I., 1930, Berlin/Leipzig, pp 60ff. (Mentioned in Astour 1972:104, footnotes 25,26) transliterating ''Mtn'' as ''Me-ta-ni'', although Alexandra von Lieven (2016: 219) mentions it as ''Mi-ti-ni''.</ref><ref>De Martino, Stefano, (2018). [https://123dok.org/document/8yd06e1z-political-cultural-relations-kingdom-subordinated-polities-southeast-anatolia.html "Political and Cultural Relations between the Kingdom of Mittani and its Subordinated Polities in Syria and Southeast Anatolia"], in: ''Changing Faces of Kingship in Syria-Palestine 1500–500 BCE'', Alter Orient und Testament 459, Ugarit Verlag, '''p. 37:''' "The earliest attestation of the toponym Mittani comes from an Egyptian source, an inscription from Thebes on the grave of a state official called Amen-hemet. The inscription refers to the Syrian military expedition this official had taken part in, which advanced as far as the country of ''Mtn'' (Mittani)...we presume that this expedition was the one led by Tuthmosis I..."</ref> but Alexandra von Lieven (2016) and Eva von Dassow (2022) consider that the expedition to Mitanni could have taken place in pharaoh [[Ahmose I]]'s reign ({{Circa|1550}}–1525 BC), actually by Amenemhet's father.<ref>von Lieven, Alexandra, (2016). [https://www.academia.edu/28449812/von%20Lieven%20Clockmaker%20Amenemhet%20pdf "The Movement of Time. News from the 'Clockmaker' Amenemhet"], in: RICH and GREAT: Studies in Honour of Anthony J. Spalinger, Faculty of Art, Charles University in Prague, '''p. 220:''' "The most likely explanation for the preceding story about Mitanni is that it is part of the background of the speaker. This could imply that perhaps Amenemhet's father had risen in rank due to some major feat accomplished during Ahmose's military campaign there."</ref><ref>von Dassow, Eva, (2022). [https://books.google.com/books?id=Hr9qEAAAQBAJ&dq=astronomer+and+clockmaker+Amenemhet&pg=PA466 "Mittani and Its Empire"], in: Karen Radner, Nadine Moeller, D. T. Potts (eds.), The Oxford History of the Ancient Near East, Volume III: From the Hyksos to the Late Second Millennium BC, Oxford University Press, '''p. 466:''' "...We owe the earliest extant mention of Mittani to the tomb autobiography of Amenemhat, the astronomer and clockmaker who refers to a campaign that may have taken place as early as Ahmose's reign in the late sixteenth century BC..."</ref> During the reign of pharaoh [[Thutmose I]] (1506–1493 BC), the names Mitanni and Naharin are among the reminiscences of several of the pharaoh's officers. One of them, Ahmose si-Abina, wrote: "...His Majesty arrived at Naharin..." Another one, Ahmose pa-Nekhbit, recorded: "...when I captured for him in the land of Naharin..."<ref>Redford, Donald B., (1979). [https://ur.booksc.me/book/27850599/77cc7d "A Gate Inscription from Karnak and Egyptian Involvement in Western Asia during the Early 18th Dynasty"], in: Journal of the American Oriental Society, vol. 99, no. 2, p. 275.</ref>▼
After the [[Battle of Megiddo (15th century BC)|Battle of Megiddo]], an officer of pharaoh [[Thutmose III]] (1479–1425 BC), in the pharaoh's 22 regnal year, reported: "That [wretched] enemy of Kadesh has come and has entered into Megiddo. He is [there] at this moment. He has gathered to him the princes of [every] foreign country [which had been] loyal to Egypt, as well as (those) as far as Naharin and M[itanni], them of Hurru, them of Kode, their horses, their armies."<ref>Wilson, John A.. "VII. Egyptian Historical Texts". The Ancient Near East: An Anthology of Texts and Pictures, edited by James B. Pritchard, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2021, pp. 226-245</ref> In several later military campaigns the [[Annals of Thutmose III]] mention Naharin, in particular those of his regnal years 33, 35, and 42.<ref>Spalinger, Anthony. “A Critical Analysis of the ‘Annals’ of Thutmose III (Stücke V-VI).” Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt, vol. 14, 1977, pp. 41–54</ref> After that time, records become more available from local sources until the empire's end in the mid-13th century BC.<ref>Leonard, Albert. “Archaeological Sources for the History of Palestine: The Late Bronze Age.” The Biblical Archaeologist, vol. 52, no. 1, 1989, pp. 4–39</ref>▼
The Mitanni Empire was a strong regional power limited by the Hittites to the north, Egyptians to the west, Kassites to the south, and later by the Assyrians to the east. At its maximum extent Mitanni ranged as far west as [[Kizzuwatna]] by the [[Taurus Mountains]], [[Tunip]] in the south, [[Arraphe]] in the east, and north to [[Lake Van]].<ref name="Dassow2014">von Dassow, Eva, (2014). "[https://www.academia.edu/7479998/Levantine_Polities_under_Mittanian_Hegemony Levantine Polities under Mittanian Hegemony]". In: Eva Cancik-Kirschbaum, Nicole Brisch and Jesper Eidem (eds.). ''Constituent, Confederate, and Conquered Space: The Emergence of the Mittani State''. pp. 11-32. </ref> Their sphere of influence is shown in Hurrian place names, personal names and the spread through Syria and the [[Levant]] of a distinct pottery type, [[Nuzi ware]].<ref>Diana L. Stein: Khabur Ware and Nuzi Ware: Their Origin, Relationship, and Significance. Malibu 1984</ref>
==
===Mitanni===
The earliest recorded form of the name of this state is {{transliteration|inc-x-mitanni|Maitanni}}, composed of a Hurrian suffix {{transliteration|xhu|-nni}} added to the Indo-Aryan stem {{transliteration|inc-x-mitanni|maita-}}, meaning "to unite" and comparable with the Sanskrit verb {{transliteration|sa|mith}} ({{lang|sa|मिथ्}}; {{lit|to unite, pair, couple, meet}}). The name {{transliteration|inc-x-mitanni|Maitanni}} thus meant the "united kingdom."{{sfn|Fournet|2010|p=11}}
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===Summary===
[[File:Cylinder seal and modern impression Nude male, griffins, monkey, lion, goat, ca 15th 14th century BC Mitanni.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Cylinder seal and modern impression: nude male, griffins, monkey, lion, goat, {{Circa|15th/14th century BC}}, Mitanni]]
▲The Egyptian official astronomer and clockmaker Amenemhet (Amen-hemet) apparently ordered to write on his tomb that he returned from the "foreign country called ''Mtn'' (''Mi-ti-ni''),"<ref>Amenemhet's memoir was published in: Borchardt, L., (1930). "Altägyptische Zeitmessung", in E. von Basserman-Jordan, ''Die Geschichte der Zeitmessung und der Ühre'', vol. I., 1930, Berlin/Leipzig, pp 60ff. (Mentioned in Astour 1972:104, footnotes 25,26) transliterating ''Mtn'' as ''Me-ta-ni'', although Alexandra von Lieven (2016: 219) mentions it as ''Mi-ti-ni''.</ref><ref>De Martino, Stefano, (2018). [https://123dok.org/document/8yd06e1z-political-cultural-relations-kingdom-subordinated-polities-southeast-anatolia.html "Political and Cultural Relations between the Kingdom of Mittani and its Subordinated Polities in Syria and Southeast Anatolia"], in: ''Changing Faces of Kingship in Syria-Palestine 1500–500 BCE'', Alter Orient und Testament 459, Ugarit Verlag, '''p. 37:''' "The earliest attestation of the toponym Mittani comes from an Egyptian source, an inscription from Thebes on the grave of a state official called Amen-hemet. The inscription refers to the Syrian military expedition this official had taken part in, which advanced as far as the country of ''Mtn'' (Mittani)...we presume that this expedition was the one led by Tuthmosis I..."</ref> but Alexandra von Lieven (2016) and Eva von Dassow (2022) consider that the expedition to Mitanni could have taken place in pharaoh [[Ahmose I]]'s reign ({{Circa|1550}}–1525 BC), actually by Amenemhet's father.<ref>von Lieven, Alexandra, (2016). [https://www.academia.edu/28449812/von%20Lieven%20Clockmaker%20Amenemhet%20pdf "The Movement of Time. News from the 'Clockmaker' Amenemhet"], in: RICH and GREAT: Studies in Honour of Anthony J. Spalinger, Faculty of Art, Charles University in Prague, '''p. 220:''' "The most likely explanation for the preceding story about Mitanni is that it is part of the background of the speaker. This could imply that perhaps Amenemhet's father had risen in rank due to some major feat accomplished during Ahmose's military campaign there."</ref><ref>von Dassow, Eva, (2022). [https://books.google.com/books?id=Hr9qEAAAQBAJ&dq=astronomer+and+clockmaker+Amenemhet&pg=PA466 "Mittani and Its Empire"], in: Karen Radner, Nadine Moeller, D. T. Potts (eds.), The Oxford History of the Ancient Near East, Volume III: From the Hyksos to the Late Second Millennium BC, Oxford University Press, '''p. 466:''' "...We owe the earliest extant mention of Mittani to the tomb autobiography of Amenemhat, the astronomer and clockmaker who refers to a campaign that may have taken place as early as Ahmose's reign in the late sixteenth century BC..."</ref> During the reign of pharaoh [[Thutmose I]] (1506–1493 BC), the names Mitanni and Naharin are among the reminiscences of several of the pharaoh's officers. One of them, Ahmose si-Abina, wrote: "...His Majesty arrived at Naharin..." Another one, Ahmose pa-Nekhbit, recorded: "...when I captured for him in the land of Naharin..."<ref>Redford, Donald B., (1979). [https://ur.booksc.me/book/27850599/77cc7d "A Gate Inscription from Karnak and Egyptian Involvement in Western Asia during the Early 18th Dynasty"], in: Journal of the American Oriental Society, vol. 99, no. 2, p. 275.</ref>
▲After the [[Battle of Megiddo (15th century BC)|Battle of Megiddo]], an officer of pharaoh [[Thutmose III]] (1479–1425 BC), in the pharaoh's 22 regnal year, reported: "That [wretched] enemy of Kadesh has come and has entered into Megiddo. He is [there] at this moment. He has gathered to him the princes of [every] foreign country [which had been] loyal to Egypt, as well as (those) as far as Naharin and M[itanni], them of Hurru, them of Kode, their horses, their armies."<ref>Wilson, John A.. "VII. Egyptian Historical Texts". The Ancient Near East: An Anthology of Texts and Pictures, edited by James B. Pritchard, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2021, pp. 226-245</ref> In several later military campaigns the [[Annals of Thutmose III]] mention Naharin, in particular those of his regnal years 33, 35, and 42.<ref>Spalinger, Anthony. “A Critical Analysis of the ‘Annals’ of Thutmose III (Stücke V-VI).” Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt, vol. 14, 1977, pp. 41–54</ref> After that time, records become more available from local sources until the empire's end in the mid-13th century BC.<ref>Leonard, Albert. “Archaeological Sources for the History of Palestine: The Late Bronze Age.” The Biblical Archaeologist, vol. 52, no. 1, 1989, pp. 4–39</ref>
The first known use (by now) of Indo-Aryan names for Mitanni rulers begins with [[Shuttarna I]] who succeeded his father Kirta on the throne.<ref name="De Martino, Stefano, (2014)">De Martino, Stefano, (2014). [https://www.degruyter.com/view/title/121842?rskey=8gWvjZ&result=17&q=topoi&tab_body=toc-62810 "The Mittani State: The Formation of the Kingdom of Mittani"], in Constituent, Confederate, and Conquered Space in Upper Mesopotamia: The Emergence of the Mittani State, De Gruyter, Berlin, Boston, p. 69.</ref> King [[Barattarna]] of Mitanni expanded the kingdom west to [[List of rulers of Aleppo|Aleppo]] and made the [[Amorites|Amorite]]<ref>Lauinger, Jacob, (2020). [http://oracc.museum.upenn.edu/aemw/alalakh/idrimi/corpus/ "Statue of Idrimi"], in The Electronic Idrimi, Open Richly Annotated Cuneiform Corpus (ORACC): "...(1) I am Idrimi, the son of Ilī-ilimma, a servant of IM, Hebat and IŠTAR, the lady of Alalah, the lady, my lady. (3) In Aleppo, the house of my father, a bad thing occurred, so we fled to the Emarites, sisters [o]f my mother, and settled at Emar. Though my older brothers lived with me, none deliberated matters as I did..." [So, Idrimi was an Amorite, son of Ilī-ilimma from Aleppo].</ref> king [[Idrimi]] of [[Alalakh]] his vassal,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Van De Mieroop|first1=Marc|title=A History of the Ancient Near East c. 3000–323BC|date=2007|publisher=Blackwell Publishing|location=Malden, MA|isbn=978-1-4051-4911-2|page=152|edition=2nd}}</ref> and five generations seems to separate this king (also known as Parattarna) from the rise of Mitanni kingdom.<ref>De Martino, Stefano, (2004). "A Tentative Chronology of the Kingdom of Mittani from its Rise to the Reign of Tusratta", in Mesopotamian Dark Age Revisited: Proceedings of an International Conference of SCIEM 2000, Vienna 8th–9th November 2002, Vienna, p. 37.</ref> The state of [[Kizzuwatna]] in the west also shifted its allegiance to Mitanni, and Assyria in the east had become largely a Mitannian vassal state by the mid-15th century BC. The nation grew stronger during the reign of [[Shaushtatar]], but the Hurrians were keen to keep the Hittites inside the Anatolian highland. Kizzuwatna in the west and [[Ishuwa]] in the north were important allies against the hostile Hittites.
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{{main|Indo-Aryan superstrate in Mitanni}}
{{see also|Maryannu}}
A number of theonyms, proper names and glosses (technical terminology) of the Mitanni are of [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] or [[Proto-Indo-Aryan language|Proto-Indo-Aryan]] origins.<ref name=Cotticelli/> Starting from [[Shuttarna I]]
Šuppiluliuma I, an event dated to the 2nd half of the 14th century BCE..."</ref> The toponym of the Mitanni capital of [[Washukanni]] is also "unanimously accepted" to have been derived from an Indo-Aryan dialect.<ref name=Cotticelli/> Annelies Kammenhuber (1968) suggested that this vocabulary was derived from the still undivided [[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian]] language,<ref>Kammenhuber, Annelies (1968). Die Arier im vorderen Orient. Heidelberg: Carl Winter Universitätsverlag. p. 238. On p. 238 she indicates they spoke a "noch ungeteiltes Indo-Iranisch".</ref><ref name=Drews>{{cite book |first=Robert |last=Drews |title=The Coming of the Greeks: Indo-European Conquests in the Aegean and the Near East |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |year=1989 |isbn=0-691-02951-2 |chapter=Chariot Warfare |page=[https://archive.org/details/comingofgreeksin00drew/page/61 61] |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LxCnDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA61 |url=https://archive.org/details/comingofgreeksin00drew/page/61 }}</ref> but [[Manfred Mayrhofer|Mayrhofer]] has shown that specifically Indo-Aryan features are present.<ref>{{cite journal |first=M. |last=Mayrhofer |title=Die Arier im Vorderen Orient – ein Mythos? |journal=Sitzungsberichte der Oesterreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften |volume=294 |issue=3 |location=Vienna |year=1974 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=M. |last=Mayrhofer |title=Etymologisches Wörterbuch des Altindoarischen |location=Heidelberg |year=1986–2000 |volume=IV }}</ref>
Since the late 20th century, the view that the Mitanni kingdom was ruled by royal house and aristocracy of Indo-Aryan origin has been prevalent among the scholars.{{efn|Including [[Christopher I. Beckwith]] (2009),<ref>{{Cite book|author-link= Christopher I. Beckwith|last=Beckwith |first=Christopher I. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5jG1eHe3y4EC&printsec=frontcover&dq= |title=Empires of the Silk Road: A History of Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the Present |date=2009 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-13589-2 |language=en|pages=39–41}}</ref> Pita Kelekna (2009),<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kelekna |first=Pita |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m09_uTLuz3UC&pg=PA95&dq=&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjTl9Sci8eEAxVZBNsEHZnRDyE4KBDoAXoECAkQAw |title=The Horse in Human History |date=2009 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-51659-4 |language=en|p=95}}</ref> [[Asko Parpola]] (2015),<ref>{{Citation |last=Parpola |first=Asko |title=The BMAC of Central Asia and the Mitanni of Syria |date=2015 |work=The Roots of Hinduism |pages=69–91 |url=https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780190226909.003.0008|publisher=Oxford University Press |doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780190226909.003.0008}}</ref> [[Elena Efimovna Kuzmina]] (2007),<ref>{{Citation |last=Kuz’Mina |first=E. E. |title=THE GENESIS OF THE INDO-ARYANS |date=2007 |work=The Origin of the Indo-Iranians |pages=321–346 |url=https://brill.com/display/book/edcoll/9789047420712/Bej.9789004160545.i-763_026.xml |access-date= |publisher=Brill |language=en |doi=10.1163/ej.9789004160545.i-763.91 |isbn=978-90-474-2071-2 |last2=Mallory |first2=J. P.}}</ref> [[Alexander Lubotsky]] (2023),<ref name="Lubotsky, Alexander 2023 p. 260">{{Citation |last=Lubotsky |first=Alexander |title=Indo-European and Indo-Iranian Wagon Terminology and the Date of the Indo-Iranian Split |date=2023 |work=The Indo-European Puzzle Revisited: Integrating Archaeology, Genetics, and Linguistics |pages=257–262 |editor-last=Willerslev |editor-first=Eske |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/indoeuropean-puzzle-revisited/indoeuropean-and-indoiranian-wagon-terminology-and-the-date-of-the-indoiranian-split/ADBF07BCD6447A00E1B5E3EE4E128FA7 |access-date= |place=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/9781009261753.021 |isbn=978-1-009-26175-3 |editor2-last=Kroonen |editor2-first=Guus |editor3-last=Kristiansen |editor3-first=Kristian}}</ref> Frans van Koppen (2017)<ref>{{Citation |last=Koppen |first=Frans van |title=The Early Kassite Period |date=2017 |work=Volume 1 Karduniaš. Babylonia under the Kassites |pages=45–92 |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9781501503566-002/html |access-date= |publisher=De Gruyter |language=en |doi=10.1515/9781501503566-002 |isbn=978-1-5015-0356-6}}</ref> and others}} Some of the recent studies such as those by Eva von Dassow (2022) and Cotticelli-Kurras and Pisaniello (2023), while
Jasper Eidem in 2014 reported on Farouk Ismail's earlier study,<ref name="Eidem">Eidem, Jasper, (2014). [https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110266412.137/html "The Kingdom of Šamšī-Adad and its Legacies"], in Eva Cancik-Kirschbaum, Nicole Brisch and Jesper Eidem (eds.), ''Constituent, Confederate, and Conquered Space: The Emergence of the Mittani State'', p. 142, and footnote 16.</ref> in reference to the word ''marijannu'' that was found in a letter from [[Tell Leilan]] in northeastern Syria dating to a period slightly before 1761 BC, which is the time when the reign of [[Zimri-Lim]] ended in the region of [[Mari, Syria|Mari]].
==Archaeology==
A concept known as "Dark Age" was applied, until recently, to the archaeological gap between the Middle and Late Bronze Age on Northern Mesopotamian sites, but Costanza Coppini considers it a "transition" instead, which can be called "Late Bronze Age 0," attested from the Tell Leilan's end caused by [[Samsu-iluna]] during his 23rd year of reign, c. 1728 BCE [Middle Chronology], to Mitanni's predominance (c. 1600-1550 BCE). These are the first traces of what, in the Late Bronze Age I, was Mitanni in historical terms, at the emergence of the third phase of [[Khabur Ware#History|Khabur ware]].<ref>Coppini, Costanza, (2022). [https://www.academia.edu/73944209/Problems%20of%20Transitions%20in%20Second%20Millennium%20BC%20Northern%20Mesopotamia%20A%20View%20from%20Tell%20Barri%20Northeastern%20Syria "Problems of Transitions in Second Millennium BC Northern Mesopotamia: A View from Tell Barri (Northeastern Syria)"], in: Studia Chaburensia 10 (2022), pp. 15, 20, 26.</ref>
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