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'''Mitanni''' ({{Circa|1550}}–1260 BC),{{efn|{{IPAc-en|m|ɪ|ˈ|t|æ|n|i}}
*{{lang-hit|𒆳𒌷𒈪𒋫𒀭𒉌|[[KUR]] <sup>[[Cities of the ancient Near East|URU]]</sup>Mi-ta-an-ni; Mittani}} or {{lang-hit|𒈪𒀉𒋫𒉌|Mi-it-ta-ni|links=no}}}} earlier called '''Ḫabigalbat''' in old Babylonian texts, {{Circa|1600 BC}};<ref name="van Koppen, Frans, (2004)"/> '''Hanigalbat''' or '''Hani-Rabbat''' in [[Assyria]]n records,{{efn|{{lang|akk|Hanikalbat, Khanigalbat}}, {{lang-akk|𒄩𒉌𒃲𒁁|Ḫa-ni-gal-bat, Ḫa-ni-rab-bat}}}} or {{lang|egy|[[Naharin]]}} in [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptian]] texts, was a [[Hurrian language|Hurrian]]-speaking state in northern [[Syria (region)|Syria]] and southeast [[Anatolia]] (modern-day [[Turkey]])<ref>{{Cite book |lastlast1=Shaw |firstfirst1=Ian |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8HKDtlPuM2oC&pg=PA402&dq=&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjznaTa3cmEAxUlVPEDHT5kAVYQ6AF6BAgKEAM |title=A Dictionary of Archaeology |last2=Jameson |first2=Robert |date=2008-04-15 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0-470-75196-1 |pages=402 |language=en}}</ref> with [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] [[Indo-Aryan superstrate in Mitanni|linguistic and political influences]].{{efn|See the [[Mitanni#Indo-Aryan influences|section below]] for debate regarding the extent of Indo-Aryan influence over Mitanni.}} Since no histories, royal annals or chronicles have yet been found in its excavated sites, knowledge about Mitanni is sparse compared to the other powers in the area, and dependent on what its neighbours commented in their texts.
 
The [[Hurrians]] were in the region as of the late 3rd millennium BC.<ref>Buccellati, Giorgio, and Marilyn Kelly-Buccellati, (1997). [https://ixtheo.de/Record/1787586049/Description "Urkesh: The First Hurrian Capital"], The Biblical Archaeologist, vol. 60, no. 2, 1997, pp. 77–96. '''Abstract:''' "...the sealings provided satisfying proof that Tell Mozan was the site of the third-millennium Hurrian capital city Urkesh..."</ref> A king of [[Urkesh]] with a Hurrian name, Tupkish, was found on a clay sealing dated {{Circa|2300 BC}} at Tell Mozan.<ref name="Salvini" >Salvini, Mirjo. "The earliest evidences of the Hurrians before the formation of the reign of Mittanni." Urkesh and the Hurrians Studies in Honor of Lloyd Cotsen. Urkesh/Mozan Studies Bibliotheca Mesopotamica. Malibu: Undena Publications (1998): 99-115</ref><ref>Lawler, Andrew. “Who Were the Hurrians?” Archaeology, vol. 61, no. 4, 2008, pp. 46–52</ref> The first recorded inscription of their language was of [[Tish-atal]] ({{Circa|21st century BC}}), king of [[Urkesh]].<ref>Yakubovich, I. (2011). [Review of Einführung in die hurritsche Sprache, by I. Wegner]. Journal of Near Eastern Studies, 70(2), 337–339</ref> Later on, Hurrians made up the main population of Mitanni, that was firstly known as ''Ḫabigalbat'', at Babylonia, in two texts of the late [[Old Babylonian Empire|Old Babylonian period]],<ref name="van Koppen, Frans, (2004)"/><ref name="von Dassow, Eva, (2022)"/> during the reign of [[Ammi-Saduqa]], ({{Circa|1638}}–1618 BC), in low middle chronology.
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Šuppiluliuma I, an event dated to the 2nd half of the 14th century BCE..."</ref> The toponym of the Mitanni capital of [[Washukanni]] is also "unanimously accepted" to have been derived from an Indo-Aryan dialect.<ref name=Cotticelli/> Annelies Kammenhuber (1968) suggested that this vocabulary was derived from the still undivided [[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian]] language,<ref>Kammenhuber, Annelies (1968). Die Arier im vorderen Orient. Heidelberg: Carl Winter Universitätsverlag. p. 238. On p. 238 she indicates they spoke a "noch ungeteiltes Indo-Iranisch".</ref><ref name=Drews>{{cite book |first=Robert |last=Drews |title=The Coming of the Greeks: Indo-European Conquests in the Aegean and the Near East |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |year=1989 |isbn=0-691-02951-2 |chapter=Chariot Warfare |page=[https://archive.org/details/comingofgreeksin00drew/page/61 61] |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LxCnDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA61 |url=https://archive.org/details/comingofgreeksin00drew/page/61 }}</ref> but [[Manfred Mayrhofer|Mayrhofer]] has shown that specifically Indo-Aryan features are present.<ref>{{cite journal |first=M. |last=Mayrhofer |title=Die Arier im Vorderen Orient &ndash; ein Mythos? |journal=Sitzungsberichte der Oesterreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften |volume=294 |issue=3 |location=Vienna |year=1974 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=M. |last=Mayrhofer |title=Etymologisches Wörterbuch des Altindoarischen |location=Heidelberg |year=1986–2000 |volume=IV }}</ref>
 
Since the late 20th century, the view that the Mitanni kingdom was ruled by royal house and aristocracy of Indo-Aryan origin has been prevalent among the scholars.{{efn|Including [[Christopher I. Beckwith]] (2009),<ref>{{Cite book|author-link= Christopher I. Beckwith|last=Beckwith |first=Christopher I. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5jG1eHe3y4EC&printsec=frontcover&dq= |title=Empires of the Silk Road: A History of Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the Present |date=2009 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-13589-2 |language=en|pages=39–41}}</ref> Pita Kelekna (2009),<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kelekna |first=Pita |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m09_uTLuz3UC&pg=PA95&dq=&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjTl9Sci8eEAxVZBNsEHZnRDyE4KBDoAXoECAkQAw |title=The Horse in Human History |date=2009 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-51659-4 |language=en|ppage=95}}</ref> [[Asko Parpola]] (2015),<ref>{{Citation |last=Parpola |first=Asko |title=The BMAC of Central Asia and the Mitanni of Syria |date=2015 |work=The Roots of Hinduism |pages=69–91 |url=https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780190226909.003.0008|publisher=Oxford University Press |doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780190226909.003.0008|isbn=978-0-19-022690-9 }}</ref> [[Elena Efimovna Kuzmina]] (2007),<ref>{{Citation |lastlast1=Kuz’Mina |firstfirst1=E. E. |title=THEChapter GENESISTwenty-Five. OFThe THEgenesis of the INDOindo-ARYANSaryans |date=2007 |work=The Origin of the Indo-Iranians |pages=321–346 |url=https://brill.com/display/book/edcoll/9789047420712/Bej.9789004160545.i-763_026.xml |access-date= |publisher=Brill |language=en |doi=10.1163/ej.9789004160545.i-763.91 |isbn=978-90-474-2071-2 |last2=Mallory |first2=J. P.}}</ref> [[Alexander Lubotsky]] (2023),<ref name="Lubotsky, Alexander 2023 p. 260">{{Citation |last=Lubotsky |first=Alexander |title=Indo-European and Indo-Iranian Wagon Terminology and the Date of the Indo-Iranian Split |date=2023 |work=The Indo-European Puzzle Revisited: Integrating Archaeology, Genetics, and Linguistics |pages=257–262 |editor-last=Willerslev |editor-first=Eske |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/indoeuropean-puzzle-revisited/indoeuropean-and-indoiranian-wagon-terminology-and-the-date-of-the-indoiranian-split/ADBF07BCD6447A00E1B5E3EE4E128FA7 |access-date= |place=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/9781009261753.021 |isbn=978-1-009-26175-3 |editor2-last=Kroonen |editor2-first=Guus |editor3-last=Kristiansen |editor3-first=Kristian}}</ref> Frans van Koppen (2017)<ref>{{Citation |last=Koppen |first=Frans van |title=The Early Kassite Period |date=2017 |work=Volume 1 Karduniaš. Babylonia under the Kassites |pages=45–92 |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9781501503566-002/html |access-date= |publisher=De Gruyter |language=en |doi=10.1515/9781501503566-002 |isbn=978-1-5015-0356-6}}</ref> and others}} Accordingly, a branch of Indo-Aryans separated from the other Indo-Iranians around the turn of second millennium BCE and migrated into [[West Asia]], hence giving rise to the Mitanni kingdom, while also adopting Hurrian language.{{sfn|Lubotsky|2023}}{{sfn|Parpola|2015|p=69–91}}{{sfn|Beckwith|2009|p=39–41}}
Some of the recent studies such as those by Eva von Dassow (2022) and Cotticelli-Kurras and Pisaniello (2023), while noting the modern identification of Mittani as Indo-Aryan and the role of Indo-Aryan speakers in establishing its dynasty, have disputed the significance of Indo-Aryan vocabulary in an otherwise Hurrian-speaking state stating that it does not indicate any Indo-Aryan origins for Mitanni kings.<ref name="von Dassow, Eva, (2022)">{{Citation |last=von Dassow |first=Eva |title=Mittani and Its Empire |date=2022 |work=The Oxford History of the Ancient Near East: Volume III |pages=455–528 |url=https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190687601.003.0029 |access-date= |publisher=Oxford University Press |doi=10.1093/oso/9780190687601.003.0029|isbn=978-0-19-068760-1 }}</ref><ref name=Cotticelli>{{Citation |lastlast1=Cotticelli-Kurras |firstfirst1=P. |title=Indo-Aryans in the Ancient Near East |date=2023 |work=Contacts of Languages and Peoples in the Hittite and Post-Hittite World |pages=332–345 |url=https://brill.com/display/book/9789004548633/BP000013.xml |publisher=Brill |language=en |doi=10.1163/9789004548633_014 |isbn=978-90-04-54863-3 |last2=Pisaniello |first2=V.|doi-access=free }}</ref> According to [[Alexander Lubotsky]] (2023), however, the military elite of Mitanni kingdom (see [[Maryannu]]) was of Aryan descent and that their language displays a clear Indo-Aryan character.<ref name="Lubotsky, Alexander 2023 p. 260"/>
 
Jasper Eidem in 2014 reported on Farouk Ismail's earlier study,<ref name="Eidem">Eidem, Jasper, (2014). [https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110266412.137/html "The Kingdom of Šamšī-Adad and its Legacies"], in Eva Cancik-Kirschbaum, Nicole Brisch and Jesper Eidem (eds.), ''Constituent, Confederate, and Conquered Space: The Emergence of the Mittani State'', p. 142, and footnote 16.</ref> in reference to the word ''marijannu'' that was found in a letter from [[Tell Leilan]] in northeastern Syria dating to a period slightly before 1761 BC, which is the time when the reign of [[Zimri-Lim]] ended in the region of [[Mari, Syria|Mari]]. Kroonen et al. (2018) consider this as an early Indo-Aryan linguistic presence in Syria two centuries prior to the formation of the Mitanni realm, as ''[[Maryannu|mariannu]]'' is generally seen as a Hurrianized form of the Indo-Aryan ''*marya'', which means 'man' or 'youth', associated to military affairs and chariots.<ref>Kroonen, Guus, Gojko Barjamovic, and Michaël Peyrot, (2018). [https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/bitstream/handle/1887/87765/Kroonen_et_al_2018.pdf "Linguistic supplement to Damgaard et al. 2018: Early Indo-European languages, Anatolian, Tocharian and Indo-Iranian"], in Zenodo 2018, p. 11.</ref>
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== Further reading ==
* {{cite book |last=Martino |first=Stefano de |chapter=The Mittanian Cuneiform Documents: The Interplay between Content, Language, Material, Format, and Sealing Practices |title=The Ancient World Revisited: Material Dimensions of Written Artefacts |editor1=Marilina Betrò |editor2=Michael Friedrich |editor3=Cécile Michel |location=Berlin, Boston |publisher=De Gruyter |date=2024 |pages=207-220207–220 |doi=10.1515/9783111360805-007|isbn=978-3-11-136080-5 }}
 
==External links==
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitanni"