Content deleted Content added
m →Etymology: ce: italics on ''libertarian'' |
No edit summary Tags: Mobile edit Mobile web edit |
||
Line 10:
'''Libertarianism''' (from {{lang-fr|libertaire}}, itself from the {{lang-la|libertas|lit=freedom}}) is a [[political philosophy]] that upholds [[liberty]] as a core value.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wolff |first1=Jonathan |title=Libertarianism |journal=[[Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy]] |date=2016 |doi=10.4324/9780415249126-S036-1 |isbn=9780415250696 |doi-access=}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vossen |first1=Bas Van Der |title=Libertarianism |journal=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Politics |date=2017 |doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.013.86 |isbn=978-0-19-022863-7 |doi-access=}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mack |first1=Eric |editor-first1=George |editor-last1=Klosko |title=Libertarianism |journal=The Oxford Handbook of the History of Political Philosophy |date=2011 |pages=673–688 |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199238804.003.0041}}</ref><ref name="Boaz">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Libertarianism|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/339321/libertarianism|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|author=Boaz, David|author-link=David Boaz|date=30 January 2009|access-date=21 February 2017|quote=[L]ibertarianism, political philosophy that takes individual liberty to be the primary political value.|archive-date=4 May 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150504222253/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/339321/libertarianism|url-status=live}}</ref> Libertarians seek to maximize [[autonomy]] and [[political freedom]], emphasizing [[equality before the law]] and [[civil rights]] to [[freedom of association]], [[freedom of speech]], [[freedom of thought]] and [[freedom of choice]].<ref name="Boaz" /><ref>{{cite book|last=Woodcock|first=George|title=Anarchism: A History of Libertarian Ideas and Movements|orig-date=1962|year=2004|publisher=Broadview Press|location=Peterborough|isbn=978-1551116297|page=16|quote=[F]or the very nature of the libertarian attitude—its rejection of dogma, its deliberate avoidance of rigidly systematic theory, and, above all, its stress on extreme freedom of choice and on the primacy of the individual judgement {{sic}}.|title-link=Anarchism (Woodcock book)}}</ref> Libertarians are often skeptical of or opposed to [[Political authority|authority]], [[State (polity)|state]] power, [[war]]fare, [[militarism]] and [[nationalism]], but some libertarians diverge on the scope of their opposition to existing [[Economic system|economic]] and [[political system]]s. Various schools of libertarian thought offer a range of views regarding the legitimate functions of state and private [[Power (social and political)|power]]. Different categorizations have been used to distinguish various forms of Libertarianism.<ref name="Long1">Long, Joseph. W (1996). "Toward a Libertarian Theory of Class". ''Social Philosophy and Policy''. '''15''' (2): 310. "When I speak of 'libertarianism' [...] I mean all three of these very different movements. It might be protested that LibCap [libertarian capitalism], LibSoc [libertarian socialism] and LibPop [libertarian populism] are too different from one another to be treated as aspects of a single point of view. But they do share a common—or at least an overlapping—intellectual ancestry."</ref><ref name="Carlson1">Carlson, Jennifer D. (2012). "Libertarianism". In Miller, Wilburn R., ed. ''The Social History of Crime and Punishment in America''. London: SAGE Publications. [https://books.google.com/books?id=tYME6Z35nyAC&q=There+exist+three+major+camps+in+libertarian+thought%3A+right-libertarianism%2C+socialist+libertarianism%2C+and+left-libertarianism%3B+the+extent+to+which+these+represent+distinct+ideologies+as+opposed+to+variations+on+a+theme+is+contested+by+scholars.&pg=PA1006 p. 1006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930075224/https://books.google.com/books?id=tYME6Z35nyAC&pg=PA1006&dq=right-libertarianism&hl=it&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjVoNT9_uvlAhWN6aQKHWZ6AUUQ6AEINjAB#v=onepage&q=There%20exist%20three%20major%20camps%20in%20libertarian%20thought%3A%20right-libertarianism%2C%20socialist%20libertarianism%2C%20and%20left-libertarianism%3B%20the%20extent%20to%20which%20these%20represent%20distinct%20ideologies%20as%20opposed%20to%20variations%20on%20a%20theme%20is%20contested%20by%20scholars.&f=false |date=30 September 2020 }}. {{ISBN|1412988764}}. "There exist three major camps in libertarian thought: right-libertarianism, socialist libertarianism, and left-libertarianism; the extent to which these represent distinct ideologies as opposed to variations on a theme is contested by scholars."</ref> Scholars distinguish libertarian views on the nature of [[Property rights (economics)|property]] and [[Capital (economics)|capital]], usually along [[Left–right political spectrum|left–right]] or [[Socialism|socialist]]–[[Capitalism|capitalist]] lines.<ref name="Francis">{{cite journal|last1=Francis|first1=Mark|title=Human Rights and Libertarians|journal=[[Australian Journal of Politics & History]]|volume=29|issue=3|pages=462–472|date=December 1983|doi=10.1111/j.1467-8497.1983.tb00212.x|issn=0004-9522}}</ref> Libertarians of various schools were influenced by [[Liberalism|liberal]] ideas.<ref name=":0" />
In the mid-19th century,<ref name="Dejacque" /> libertarianism originated as a form of [[left-wing politics]] such as [[Anti-authoritarianism|anti-authoritarian]] and [[Anti-statism|anti-state]] [[Socialism|socialists]] like [[Anarchism|anarchists]],<ref>Long, Roderick T. (2012). "The Rise of Social Anarchism". In Gaus, Gerald F.; D'Agostino, Fred, eds. ''The Routledge Companion to Social and Political Philosophy''. [https://books.google.com/books?id=advfCgAAQBAJ&dq=In+the+meantime%2C+anarchist+theories+of+a+more+communist+or+collectivist+character+had+bee+developing+as+well.+One+important+pioneer+is+French+anarcho-communists+Joseph+D%C3%A9jacque+%281821%E2%80%931864%29%2C&pg=PA223 p. 223] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930075228/https://books.google.com/books?id=advfCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA223&dq=In+the+meantime%2C+anarchist+theories+of+a+more+communist+or+collectivist+character+had+bee+developing+as+well.+One+important+pioneer+is+French+anarcho-communists+Joseph+D%C3%A9jacque+%281821%E2%80%931864%29%2C&hl=it&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiZ3vmnxsrmAhWTbsAKHQHXA5AQ6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=In%20the%20meantime%2C%20anarchist%20theories%20of%20a%20more%20communist%20or%20collectivist%20character%20had%20bee%20developing%20as%20well.%20One%20important%20pioneer%20is%20French%20anarcho-communists%20Joseph%20D%C3%A9jacque%20(1821%E2%80%931864)%2C&f=false |date=30 September 2020 }}. "In the meantime, anarchist theories of a more communist or collectivist character had been developing as well. One important pioneer is French anarcho-communist Joseph Déjacque (1821–1864), who [...] appears to have been the first thinker to adopt the term 'libertarian' for this position; hence 'libertarianism' initially denoted a communist rather than a free-market ideology."</ref> especially [[Social anarchism|social anarchists]],<ref>Long, Roderick T. (2012). "Anarchism". In Gaus, Gerald F.; D'Agostino, Fred, eds. ''The Routledge Companion to Social and Political Philosophy''. [https://books.google.com/books?id=advfCgAAQBAJ&q=In+its+oldest+sense%2C+it+is+a+synonym+either+for+anarchism+in+general+or+social+anarchism+in+particular&pg=PA223 p. 227] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930075228/https://books.google.com/books?id=advfCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA223&dq=In+the+meantime%2C+anarchist+theories+of+a+more+communist+or+collectivist+character+had+bee+developing+as+well.+One+important+pioneer+is+French+anarcho-communists+Joseph+D%C3%A9jacque+%281821%E2%80%931864%29%2C&hl=it&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiZ3vmnxsrmAhWTbsAKHQHXA5AQ6AEIKjAA#v=snippet&q=In%20its%20oldest%20sense%2C%20it%20is%20a%20synonym%20either%20for%20anarchism%20in%20general%20or%20social%20anarchism%20in%20particular&f=false |date=30 September 2020 }}. "In its oldest sense, it is a synonym either for anarchism in general or social anarchism in particular."</ref> but more generally [[Anarcho-communism|libertarian communists]]/[[Libertarian socialism#Marxist|Marxists]] and [[Libertarian socialism|libertarian socialists]].<ref name="RothbardBetrayal">{{cite book|last1=Rothbard|first1=Murray|url=https://cdn.mises.org/The%20Betrayal%20of%20the%20American%20Right_2.pdf|title=The Betrayal of the American Right|orig-date=2007|year=2009|publisher=Mises Institute|isbn=978-1610165013|page=83|quote=One gratifying aspect of our rise to some prominence is that, for the first time in my memory, we, 'our side,' had captured a crucial word from the enemy. 'Libertarians' had long been simply a polite word for left-wing anarchists, that is for anti-private property anarchists, either of the communist or syndicalist variety. But now we had taken it over.|access-date=10 November 2019|archive-date=21 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191221173352/https://cdn.mises.org/The%20Betrayal%20of%20the%20American%20Right_2.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Marshall"/> These libertarians sought to [[abolish capitalism]] and [[private ownership]] of the [[means of production]], or else to restrict their purview or effects to [[usufruct]] property norms, in favor of [[Common ownership|common]] or [[Worker cooperative|cooperative ownership]] and [[Workers' self-management|management]], viewing private property in the means of production as a barrier to freedom and liberty.{{refn|<ref name="Kropotkin">{{cite book|title=Anarchism: A Collection of Revolutionary Writings|last=Kropotkin|first=Peter|publisher=Courier Dover Publications|year=1927|isbn=978-0486119861|page=150|quote=It attacks not only capital, but also the main sources of the power of capitalism: law, authority, and the State.}}</ref><ref name="Otero">{{cite book|title=Radical Priorities|last=Otero|first=Carlos Peregrin|publisher=[[AK Press]]|others=Chomsky, Noam Chomsky|year=2003|isbn=1902593693|editor-last=Otero|editor-first=Carlos Peregrin|edition=3rd|location=Oakland, California|page=26|chapter=Introduction to Chomsky's Social Theory}}</ref><ref name="Chomsky 2003">{{cite book|title=Radical Priorities|last=Chomsky|first=Noam|publisher=[[AK Press]]|year=2003|isbn=1902593693|editor=Carlos Peregrin Otero|edition=3rd|location=Oakland, California|pages=227–228}}<!-- Verified 22 November 2011. --></ref><ref name="Carlson p. 1006">Carlson, Jennifer D. (2012). "Libertarianism". In Miller, Wilbur R. ''The Social History of Crime and Punishment in America: An Encyclopedia''. SAGE Publications. [https://books.google.com/books?id=tYME6Z35nyAC&dq=right-libertarianism&pg=PA1006 p. 1006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191221173347/https://books.google.it/books?id=tYME6Z35nyAC&pg=PA1006&dq=right-libertarianism&hl=it&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjVoNT9_uvlAhWN6aQKHWZ6AUUQ6AEINjAB |date=21 December 2019 }}. "[S]ocialist libertarians view any concentration of power into the hands of a few (whether politically or economically) as antithetical to freedom and thus advocate for the simultaneous abolition of both government and capitalism".</ref>}} While all libertarians support some level of [[individual rights]], [[Left-libertarianism|left-libertarians]] differ by supporting an [[Egalitarianism|egalitarian]] [[Redistribution of wealth|redistribution]] of natural resources.<ref name=":6" /> Left-libertarian{{refn|<ref name="Kymlicka" /><ref name="Goodway" /><ref name="Marshall p. 641" /><ref name="Spitz" /><ref name="Newman" />}} ideologies include [[Anarchism#Schools of thought|anarchist schools of thought]], alongside many other anti-[[Paternalism|paternalist]] and [[New Left]] [[schools of thought]] centered around [[economic egalitarianism]] as well as [[geolibertarianism]], [[green politics]], [[market-oriented left-libertarianism]] and the [[Steiner–Vallentyne school]].{{refn|<ref name="Kymlicka" /><ref name="Spitz" /><ref name="Routledge p. 227">"Anarchism". In Gaus, Gerald F.; D'Agostino, Fred, eds. (2012). ''The Routledge Companion to Social and Political Philosophy''. p. 227. "The term 'left-libertarianism' has at least three meanings. In its oldest sense, it is a synonym either for anarchism in general or social anarchism in particular. Later it became a term for the left or Konkinite wing of the free-market libertarian movement, and has since come to cover a range of pro-market but anti-capitalist positions, mostly individualist anarchist, including agorism and mutualism, often with an implication of sympathies (such as for radical feminism or the labor movement) not usually shared by anarcho-capitalists. In a third sense it has recently come to be applied to a position combining individual self-ownership with an egalitarian approach to natural resources; most proponents of this position are not anarchists."</ref><ref name="Vallentyne" /><ref name="Carson">Carson, Kevin (15 June 2014). [https://c4ss.org/content/28216 "What is Left-Libertarianism?"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190903175118/http://c4ss.org/content/28216 |date=3 September 2019 }}. Center for a Stateless Society. Retrieved 28 November 2019.</ref> }} After the [[Dissolution of the Soviet Union|fall of the Soviet Union]], libertarian socialism grew in popularity and influence as part of [[Anti-war movement|anti-war]], [[Anti-capitalism|anti-capitalist]] and [[Anti-globalization movement|anti-]] and [[Alter-globalization|alter-globalisation]] movements.<ref name="rupert" />{{Sfn|Hahnel|2005|pp=138–139}}
In the mid-20th century, American [[right-libertarian]]{{refn|<ref name="Goodway"/><ref name="Newman"/><ref name="Marshall p. 565"/><ref name="Carlson"/>}} proponents of [[anarcho-capitalism]] and [[Night watchman state|minarchism]] co-opted<ref name="RothbardBetrayal"/> the term ''libertarian'' to advocate ''[[laissez-faire]]'' [[capitalism]] and strong [[private property rights]] such as in land, infrastructure and natural resources.<ref>{{cite book|last=Hussain|first=Syed B.|title=Encyclopedia of Capitalism, Volume 2|year=2004|publisher=Facts on File Inc|location=New York|isbn=0816052247|page=492|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FbVZAAAAYAAJ|quote=In the modern world, political ideologies are largely defined by their attitude towards capitalism. Marxists want to overthrow it, liberals to curtail it extensively, conservatives to curtail it moderately. Those who maintain that capitalism is an excellent economic system, unfairly maligned, with little or no need for corrective government policy, are generally known as libertarians.|access-date=31 October 2015|archive-date=30 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930075322/https://books.google.com/books?id=FbVZAAAAYAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref> The latter is the dominant form of [[libertarianism in the United States]].<ref name="Carlson"/> This libertarianism, a revival of [[classical liberalism in the United States]],<ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5wDQFBFM0FMC&pg=PA4 | title=Libertarianism: For and Against | isbn=978-0-7425-4259-4 | last1=Duncan | first1=Craig | last2=Machan | first2=Tibor R. | date=2 June 2024 | publisher=Rowman & Littlefield }}</ref> occurred due to [[Modern liberalism in the United States|American liberals']] embracing [[Progressivism in the United States|progressivism]] and [[economic interventionism]] in the early 20th century after the [[Great Depression in the United States|Great Depression]] and with the [[New Deal]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://fee.org/articles/who-is-a-libertarian/|title=Who is a libertarian?|last=Russell|first=Dean|year=1955|website=[[Foundation for Economic Education]]|quote=Many of us call ourselves 'liberals.' And it is true that the word 'liberal' once described persons who respected the individual and feared the use of mass compulsions. But the leftists have now corrupted that once-proud term to identify themselves and their program of more government ownership of property and more controls over persons. As a result, those of us who believe in freedom must explain that when we call ourselves liberals, we mean liberals in the uncorrupted classical sense. At best, this is awkward and subject to misunderstanding. Here is a suggestion: Let those of us who love liberty trade-mark and reserve for our own use the good and honorable word 'libertarian'.}}</ref> Since the 1970s, right-libertarianism has spread beyond the United States,<ref name="Teles & Kenney 2007">Teles, Steven; Kenney, Daniel A. "Spreading the Word: The Diffusion of American Conservatism in Europe and Beyond". In Kopsten, Jeffrey; Steinmo, Sven, eds. (2007). [https://books.google.com/books?id=Mfy3k0BWBNAC ''Growing Apart?: America and Europe in the Twenty-First Century'']. [[Cambridge University Press]]. pp. 136–169.</ref> with [[List of libertarian political parties|right-libertarian parties]] being established in the [[United Kingdom]],<ref>{{Cite news |last=Singleton |first=Alex |date=30 May 2008 |title=How Libertarians undermine liberty |work=Daily Telegraph |url=http://blogs.telegraph.co.uk/news/alexsingleton/4341751/How_Libertarians_undermine_liberty/ |url-status=dead |access-date=10 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090625210549/http://blogs.telegraph.co.uk/news/alexsingleton/4341751/How_Libertarians_undermine_liberty/ |archive-date=25 June 2009}}</ref> [[Israel]],<ref>{{Cite news |last=Staff writer |author-link=Staff writer |date=24 March 2019 |title=Feiglin: Palestinians in Gaza had more rights under Israel |work=[[Israel Hayom]] |url=https://www.israelhayom.com/2019/03/24/today-on-the-israelections-program-moshe-feiglin/ |access-date=26 August 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Harkov |first=Lahav |date=17 March 2019 |title=The Feiglin phenomenon |url=https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/The-Feiglin-phenomenon-583567 |access-date=17 March 2019 |website=[[The Jerusalem Post]] |quote=The leader of the rising Zehut Party is attracting more than just young potheads to his libertarian platform.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Zehut |url=https://en.idi.org.il/israeli-elections-and-parties/parties/zehut/ |access-date=21 February 2019 |website=[[Israel Democracy Institute]] |quote=[...] and personal liberty. Its platform includes libertarian economic positions [...].}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Eglash |first=Ruth |date=4 April 2019 |title=A pro-pot party could tip the scales in Israel's upcoming election |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/a-pro-pot-party-could-tip-the-scales-in-israels-upcoming-election/2019/04/04/01060ec4-5617-11e9-aa83-504f086bf5d6_story.html |access-date=7 April 2019 |quote=Now you have two special-interest groups. What pulls them together is the strong libertarian, anti-state agenda that works well for both.}}</ref> [[South Africa]]<ref>Staden, Martin (2 December 2015). [http://rationalstandard.com/remembering-the-founder-of-sa-libertarianism-dr-marc-swanepoel "Remembering the Founder of SA Libertarianism, Dr. Marc Swanepoel"]. ''Rational Standard''. Retrieved 20 September 2020.</ref> and [[Argentina]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.economist.com/the-americas/2021/10/07/javier-milei-a-libertarian-may-be-elected-to-argentinas-congress|title=Javier Milei, a libertarian, may be elected to Argentina's congress|publisher=[[The Economist]]|date=7 October 2021|access-date=21 November 2023}}</ref> Minarchists advocate for [[night-watchman state]]s which maintain only those functions of government necessary to safeguard natural rights, understood in terms of self-ownership or autonomy,<ref name=":3" /> while anarcho-capitalists advocate for the replacement of all state institutions with private institutions.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Geloso |first1=Vincent |last2=Leeson |first2=Peter T. |date=2020 |title=Are Anarcho-Capitalists Insane? Medieval Icelandic Conflict Institutions in Comparative Perspective |url=https://www.cairn.info/revue-d-economie-politique-2020-6-page-957.htm |journal=Revue d'économie politique |language=en |volume=130 |issue=6 |pages=957–974 |doi=10.3917/redp.306.0115 |issn=0373-2630 |quote=Anarcho-capitalism is a variety of libertarianism according to which all government institutions can and should be replaced by private ones. |s2cid=235008718|doi-access=free}}</ref> Some right-wing variants of libertarianism, such as anarcho-capitalism, have been labeled as [[Far-right politics|''far-right'']] or [[Radical right (United States)|''radical right'']] by some scholars.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Goodwin |first=Barbara |title=Using Political Ideas |publisher=John Wiley and Sons, Inc. |year=2016 |isbn=978-1118708385 |location=Hoboken, NJ |page=151 |quote=Howewer, enough has been said to show that most anarchists have nothing in common with those libertarians of the far-right, the anarcho-capitalists [...]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Liberalism: Old and New |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0521703055 |editor-last=Paul |editor-first=Ellen F. |volume=24 |page=199 |editor-last2=Miller |editor-first2=Fred D. |editor-last3=Paul |editor-first3=Jeffrey}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=The Oxford Handbook of Political Philosophy |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2012 |isbn=978-0195376692 |editor-last=Estlund |editor-first=David |page=162}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Hammer |first=Espen |title=Encyclopedia of Philosophy and the Social Sciences |publisher=SAGE Publications |year=2013 |isbn=978-1506332611 |editor-last=Kaldis |editor-first=Byron |volume=1 |pages=558–560 |chapter=Libertarianism, Political}}</ref> Right-wing libertarian ideals are also prominent in far-right [[American militia movement]] associated with extremist anti-government ideas.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Oxford Handbook of Social Movements |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2015 |isbn=978-0191667824 |editor-last=della Porta |editor-first=Donatella |page=527 |quote=[...] these militia organizations often revived long-since discarded state militia insignia and organization names while simultaneously aligning them with contemporary far-right libertarian politics (Crothers 2004). |editor-last2=Diani |editor-first2=Mario}}</ref>
| |||