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===Ethnonym and etymology===
[[File:Tular Rasnal 1.jpg|thumb|Boundary stone from Cortona
<br>Etruscan:
According to [[Dionysius of Halicarnassus|Dionysius]] the Etruscans called themselves '''Rasenna''' (Greek '''Ῥασέννα'''), a stem from the Etruscan Rasna ('''𐌛𐌀𐌔𐌍𐌀'''),
In [[Attic Greek]], the Etruscans were known as [[Tyrrhenians]] ({{lang|grc|Τυρρηνοί}}, ''Tyrrhēnoi'', earlier {{lang|grc|Τυρσηνοί}} ''Tyrsēnoi''),<ref>{{LSJ|*turrhno/s|Τυρρηνός}}, {{LSJ|*turshno/s|Τυρσηνός|ref}}.</ref> from which the Romans derived the names ''Tyrrhēnī'', ''Tyrrhēnia'' (Etruria),<ref>{{L&S|Tyrrheni|ref}}</ref> and ''Mare Tyrrhēnum'' ([[Tyrrhenian Sea]]).<ref
The ancient Romans referred to the Etruscans as the ''Tuscī'' or ''Etruscī'' (singular ''Tuscus'').<ref>According to Félix Gaffiot's ''Dictionnaire Illustré Latin Français'', the major authors of the [[Roman Republic]] ([[Livy]], [[Cicero]], [[Horace]], and others) used the term ''Tusci''. Cognate words developed, including ''Tuscia'' and ''Tusculanensis''. ''Tuscī'' was clearly the principal term used to designate things Etruscan; ''Etruscī'' and ''Etrusia''/''Etrūria'' were used less often, mainly by Cicero and Horace, and they lack cognates.</ref><ref>According to the {{cite web |url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=etruscan&searchmode=none |title=Online Etymological Dictionary}} the English use of ''Etruscan'' dates from 1706.</ref><ref>{{L&S|Tusci|ref}}</ref> Their Roman name is the origin of the terms "[[Tuscany|Toscana]]", which refers to their heartland, and "[[Etruria]]", which can refer to their wider region. The term ''Tusci'' is thought by linguists to have been the Umbrian word for "Etruscan", based on an inscription on an [[Iguvine Tables|ancient bronze tablet]] from a nearby region.<ref>{{cite web |title='Cui bono?' The beneficiary phrases of the third Iguvine table |first=Michael |last=Weiss |location=Ithaca, New York |publisher=Cornell University |url=http://ling.cornell.edu/people/Weiss/Cuibono.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://ling.cornell.edu/people/Weiss/Cuibono.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live}}</ref> The inscription contains the phrase ''turskum ... nomen'', literally "the Tuscan name". Based on a knowledge of Umbrian grammar, linguists can infer that the base form of the word turskum is *Tursci,<ref>{{cite book |author-link=Carl Darling Buck |author=Carl Darling Buck |year=1904 |title=Introduction: A Grammar of Oscan and Umbrian |location=Boston |publisher=Gibb & Company }}</ref> which would, through [[Metathesis (linguistics)|metathesis]] and a word-initial [[epenthesis]], be likely to lead to the form, ''E-trus-ci''.<ref>{{cite book |first=Eric |last=Partridge |year=1983 |title=Origins |url=https://archive.org/details/originsshortetym0000part |url-access=registration |location=Greenwich House, New York |isbn=9780517414255 |at=under "tower"}}</ref>
As for the original meaning of the root, *Turs-, a widely cited hypothesis is that it, like the word Latin ''turris'', means "tower", and comes from the ancient Greek word for tower: {{lang|grc|τύρσις}},<ref name=B51>The Bonfantes (2003), p. 51.</ref><ref>{{LSJ|tu/rsis|τύρσις|shortref}}.</ref> likely a loan into Greek. On this hypothesis, the Tusci were called the "people who build towers"<ref name=B51 /> or "the tower builders".<ref>Partridge (1983)</ref> This proposed etymology is made the more plausible because the Etruscans preferred to build their towns on high precipices reinforced by walls. Alternatively, [[Giuliano Bonfante|Giuliano]] and [[Larissa Bonfante]] have speculated that Etruscan houses may have seemed like towers to the simple Latins.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Etruscan Language: An Introduction, Revised Edition|last1=Bonfante|first1=Giuliano|last2=Bonfante|first2=Larissa|publisher=Manchester University Press|year=2002|isbn=978-0719055409|page=51}}</ref> The proposed etymology has a long history, [[Dionysius of Halicarnassus]] having observed in the first century B. C., "[T]here is no reason that the Greeks should not have called [the Etruscans] by this name, both from their living in towers and from the name of one of their rulers."<ref name=DHI30>Book I, Section 30.</ref> In his recent ''Etymological Dictionary of Greek'', Robert Beekes claims the Greek word is a "loanword from a Mediterranean language", a hypothesis that goes back to an article by [[Paul Kretschmer]] in ''Glotta'' from 1934.<ref>Beekes, R. ''Etymological Dictionary of Greek'' Brill (2010) pp.1520-1521</ref><ref>Kretschmer,
===Origins===
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====Ancient sources====
[[File:Exekias Dionysos Staatliche Antikensammlungen 2044.jpg|thumb|The [[Dionysus Cup]], a {{Lang|grc|[[kylix]]}} painted by the Athenian [[Exekias]] ca. 530 BCE, showing the narrative of Dionysus's capture by Tyrrhenian pirates and transfiguration of them into dolphins in the seventh ''Homeric Hymn'' {{Sfn|Strauss Clay|2016|pp=32–34}}]]
[[File:Urna cineraria biconica con coperchio a elmo crestato, da pozzo cinerario a monterozzi, loc. forse fontanaccia.jpg|thumb|upright=.7|Biconical cinerary urn with crest-shaped helmet lid, 9th–8th century BC, from Monterozzi (Fontanaccia), [[Tarquinia]], [[Tarquinia National Museum|Museo archeologico nazionale]]]]
[[File:Urne cinéraire imitant une habitation traditionnelle. Attribuée à l'atelier de Vulci (Etrurie). Impasto et plaque de bronze découpée. 8e siècle av. J.-C..jpg|thumb|upright=.7|Urn in the shape of a hut, which represents the typical Etruscan house of the Villanovan phase, 8th century BC, from [[Vulci]], [[Musée d'Art et d'Histoire (Geneva)|Musée d'art et d'histoire de Genève]]]]
[[File:Etruscan pendant with swastika symbols Bolsena Italy 700 BCE to 650 BCE.jpg|thumb|right|[[Etruscan art|Etruscan]] pendant with a large equilateral cross of concentric circles flanked by four small right-facing [[swastika]]s among its symbols from [[Bolsena]], [[Italy]], 700–650 BC. [[Louvre]]]]
Literary and historical texts in the Etruscan language have not survived, and the language itself is only partially understood by modern scholars. This makes modern understanding of their society and culture heavily dependent on much later and generally disapproving Roman and Greek sources. These ancient writers differed in their theories about the origin of the Etruscan people. Some suggested they were [[Pelasgians]] who had migrated there from Greece. Others maintained that they were indigenous to central Italy and were not from Greece.
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====Archeological evidence and modern etruscology====
{{Main|Proto-Villanovan culture|Villanovan culture}}
[[File:Bronze chariot inlaid with ivory MET DP137936.jpg|thumb|[[Monteleone chariot]], one of the world's great archaeological finds, 2nd quarter of the 6th century BC]]
[[File:Putto graziani, con dedica al dio tec sans, da sanguineto al trasimeno, 200-150 ac ca..JPG|thumb|upright=.7|Putto Graziani, hollow-cast bronze on which is engraved the Etruscan inscription "To the god Tec Sans as a gift" (Tec Sans was the protectress of childhood), 3-2nd century BC, [[Rome]], [[Vatican Museums|Museo Gregoriano Etrusco]]]]
[[File:Museo guarnacci, urna degli sposi, I sec. ac. 01.JPG|thumb|right|Sarcophagus of the Spouses, about 1st century BC, [[Volterra]], Museo etrusco Guarnacci]]
The question of the origins of the Etruscans has long been a subject of interest and debate among historians. In modern times, all the evidence gathered so far by prehistoric and protohistoric archaeologists, anthropologists, and etruscologists points to an autochthonous origin of the Etruscans.<ref name=Barker/><ref name=DeGrummond2014/><ref name=Turfa2017/><ref name=Shipley2017/><ref name=Benelli2021/> There is no archaeological or linguistic evidence of a migration of the Lydians or Pelasgians into Etruria.<ref name=Wallace2010>{{cite book |last1=Wallace |first1= Rex E.|author-link1=Rex E. Wallace |display-authors= |author-mask1= |author-mask2= |author-mask3= |author-mask4= |author-mask5= |name-list-style= |translator-last1= |translator-first1= |translator-link1= |translator-last2= |translator-first2= |translator-link2= |display-translators= |translator-mask1= |translator-mask2= |year=2010 |orig-year= |chapter=Italy, Languages of |script-chapter= |trans-chapter= |chapter-url= |chapter-format= |editor1-last=Gagarin |editor1-first=Michael |display-editors= |title=The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome |script-title= |trans-title= |url= |url-status= |url-access= |format= |type= |series= |language=English |volume= |edition= |location=Oxford, UK |publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=97–102 |no-pp= |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1093/acref/9780195170726.001.0001 |isbn=9780195170726|quote=Etruscan origins lie in the distant past. Despite the claim by Herodotus, who wrote that Etruscans migrated to Italy from Lydia in the eastern Mediterranean, there is no material or linguistic evidence to support this. Etruscan material culture developed in an unbroken chain from Bronze Age antecedents. As for linguistic relationships, Lydian is an Indo-European language. Lemnian, which is attested by a few inscriptions discovered near Kamania on the island of Lemnos, was a dialect of Etruscan introduced to the island by commercial adventurers. Linguistic similarities connecting Etruscan with Raetic, a language spoken in the sub-Alpine regions of northeastern Italy, further militate against the idea of eastern origins. |mode= }}</ref><ref name=Turfa2017/><ref name=DeGrummond2014/><ref name=Shipley2017/><ref name=Benelli2021/> Modern [[etruscology|etruscologists]] and archeologists, such as [[Massimo Pallottino]] (1947), have shown that early historians' assumptions and assertions on the subject were groundless.<ref name=Pallottino1947>{{cite book |last1=Pallottino |first1=Massimo |author-link1=Massimo Pallottino |title=L'origine degli Etruschi |language=it |location= Rome|publisher= Tumminelli |date=1947 }}</ref> In 2000, the etruscologist [[Dominique Briquel]] explained in detail why he believes that ancient Greek historians' accounts on Etruscan origins should not even count as historical documents.<ref name=Briquel2000>{{cite book |last1=Briquel |first1=Dominique |author-link1=Dominique Briquel |year=2000 |chapter=Le origini degli Etruschi: una questione dibattuta sin dall’antichità |editor1-last=Torelli |editor1-first=Mario |editor1-link=Mario Torelli|title= Gli Etruschi|language= it|location=Milan |publisher= Bompiani|pages=43–51 }}</ref> He argues that the ancient story of the Etruscans' 'Lydian origins' was a deliberate, politically motivated fabrication, and that ancient Greeks inferred a connection between the Tyrrhenians and the Pelasgians solely on the basis of certain Greek and local traditions and on the mere fact that there had been trade between the Etruscans and Greeks.<ref name=Hornblower2014>{{cite book |editor1-last=Hornblower |editor1-first=Simon |editor2-last=Spawforth |editor2-first=Antony |editor3-last= Eidinow |editor3-first=Esther |title=The Oxford Companion to Classical Civilization |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=0awiBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA292|series=Oxford Companions |language=en |edition=2 |location=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |date=2014 |pages=291–292 |isbn=9780191016752 |quote=Briquel's convincing demonstration that the famous story of an exodus, led by Tyrrhenus from Lydia to Italy, was a deliberate political fabrication created in the Hellenized milieu of the court at Sardis in the early 6th cent. BCE. }}</ref><ref name=Briquel2013>{{cite book |last1=Briquel |first1=Dominique |year=2013 |chapter=Etruscan Origins and the Ancient Authors |editor1-last=Turfa |editor1-first= Jean|title= The Etruscan World |language=en |location=London and New York |publisher=Routledge Taylor & Francis Group |pages= 36–56|isbn=978-0-415-67308-2 }}</ref> He noted that, even if these stories include historical facts suggesting contact, such contact is more plausibly traceable to cultural exchange than to migration.<ref name=Briquel1990>{{cite journal |last1=Briquel |first1=Dominique |author-link1=Dominique Briquel |year=1990 |title=Le problème des origines étrusques |journal= Lalies |series=Sessions de linguistique et de littérature |language=fr |location=Paris|publisher= Presses de l'Ecole Normale Supérieure|publication-date=1992 |pages=7–35 }}</ref>
Several archaeologists specializing in [[Prehistory]] and [[Protohistory]], who have analyzed Bronze Age and Iron Age remains that were excavated in the territory of historical Etruria have pointed out that no evidence has been found, related either to [[material culture]] or to [[social practices]], that can support a migration theory.<ref name=Bartoloni2014>{{cite book |last1=Bartoloni |first1=Gilda |year=2014 |chapter=Gli artigiani metallurghi e il processo formativo nelle "Origini" degli Etruschi |title=" Origines " : percorsi di ricerca sulle identità etniche nell'Italia antica |series=Mélanges de l'École française de Rome: Antiquité|language=it|volume=126-2 |location=Rome |publisher= École française de Rome|publication-date=2014 |isbn=978-2-7283-1138-5}}</ref> The most marked and radical change that has been archaeologically attested in the area is the adoption, starting in about the 12th century BC, of the funeral rite of incineration in terracotta urns, which is a Continental European practice, derived from the [[Urnfield culture]]; there is nothing about it that suggests an ethnic contribution from [[Asia Minor]] or the [[Near East]].<ref name=Bartoloni2014/>
A 2012 survey of the previous 30 years' archaeological findings, based on excavations of the major Etruscan cities, showed a continuity of culture from the last phase of the Bronze Age (13th–11th century BC) to the Iron Age (10th–9th century BC). This is evidence that the Etruscan civilization, which emerged around 900 BC, was built by people whose ancestors had inhabited that region for at least the previous 200 years.<ref name=Bagnasco2012>{{cite book |last1=Bagnasco Gianni |first1=Giovanna |chapter=Origine degli Etruschi |editor1-last=Bartoloni |editor1-first=Gilda |title=Introduzione all'Etruscologia |language=it |location=Milan |publisher=Ulrico Hoepli Editore |pages=47–81 }}</ref> Based on this cultural continuity, there is now a consensus among archeologists that Proto-Etruscan culture developed, during the last phase of the Bronze Age, from the indigenous [[Proto-Villanovan culture]], and that the subsequent Iron Age [[Villanovan culture]] is most accurately described as an early phase of the Etruscan civilization.<ref name=Moser1996/> It is possible that there were contacts between northern-central Italy and the [[Mycenaeans|Mycenaean world]] at the end of the Bronze Age. However contacts between the inhabitants of Etruria and inhabitants of [[Greece]], [[Aegean Sea]] Islands, Asia Minor, and the Near East are attested only centuries later, when Etruscan civilization was already flourishing and Etruscan [[ethnogenesis]] was well established. The first of these attested contacts relate to the [[Magna Grecia|Greek colonies in Southern Italy]] and [[Phoenician–Punic Sardinia|Phoenician-Punic]] colonies in [[Sardinia]], and the consequent [[orientalizing period]].<ref name=Stoddart>{{cite book |last1=Stoddart |first1=Simon |author-link1=Simon Stoddart |year=1989 |chapter=Divergent trajectories in central Italy 1200–500 BC |editor1-last=Champion |editor1-first=Timothy C. |title=Centre and Periphery – Comparative Studies in Archaeology |language=en |location= London and New York|publisher=Taylor & Francis |publication-date= 2005|pages=89–102 }}</ref>
One of the most common mistakes for a long time, even among some scholars of the past, has been to associate the later [[Orientalizing period]] of Etruscan civilization with the question of its origins. Orientalization was an artistic and cultural phenomenon that spread among the Greeks themselves, and throughout much of the central and western Mediterranean, not only in Etruria.<ref name=Burkert1992>{{cite book |last1=Burkert|first1= Walter |year=1992 |orig-date= |chapter=|script-chapter= |trans-chapter= |chapter-url= |chapter-url-access= |chapter-format= |title=The Orientalizing Revolution: Near Eastern Influence on Greek Culture in the Early Archaic Age |script-title= |trans-title= |series=Enciclopedia del Mediterraneo |language=English |volume= |edition= |location=London |publisher=Thames and Hudson |page= |pages= |at= |no-pp= |arxiv= |asin= |asin-tld= |bibcode= |bibcode-access= |biorxiv= |citeseerx= |doi= |doi-access= |eissn= |hdl= |hdl-access= |isbn= |ismn= |issn= |jfm= |jstor= |jstor-access= |lccn= |mr= |oclc= |ol= |ol-access= |osti= |osti-access= |pmc= |pmid= |rfc= |sbn= |ssrn= |s2cid= |s2cid-access= |zbl= |id= |access-date= |via= |quote= |script-quote= |trans-quote= |quote-page= |quote-pages= |mode= }}</ref> Orientalizing period in the Etruscans was due, as has been amply demonstrated by archeologists, to contacts with the Greeks and the Eastern Mediterranean and not to mass migrations.<ref name=d'agostino2003>{{cite book |last1=d'Agostino|first1= Bruno |year=2003 |orig-date= |chapter=Teorie sull'origine degli Etruschi |script-chapter= |trans-chapter= |chapter-url= |chapter-url-access= |chapter-format= |title= Gli Etruschi |script-title= |trans-title= |series=Enciclopedia del Mediterraneo |language=Italian |volume=26 |edition= |location=Milan |publisher=Jaca Book |pages=10–19 |no-pp= |arxiv= |asin= |asin-tld= |bibcode= |bibcode-access= |biorxiv= |citeseerx= |doi= |doi-access= |eissn= |hdl= |hdl-access= |isbn= |ismn= |issn= |jfm= |jstor= |jstor-access= |lccn= |mr= |oclc= |ol= |ol-access= |osti= |osti-access= |pmc= |pmid= |rfc= |sbn= |ssrn= |s2cid= |s2cid-access= |zbl= |id= |access-date= |via= |quote= |script-quote= |trans-quote= |quote-page= |quote-pages= |mode= }}</ref> The facial features (the profile, almond-shaped eyes, large nose) in the frescoes and sculptures, and the depiction of reddish-brown men and light-skinned women, influenced by archaic Greek art, followed the artistic traditions from the Eastern Mediterranean, that had spread even among the Greeks themselves, and to a lesser extent also to other several civilizations in the central and western Mediterranean up to the [[Iberian Peninsula]]. Actually, many of the tombs of the Late Orientalizing and Archaic periods, such as the [[Tomb of the Augurs]], the [[Tomb of the Triclinium]] or the [[Tomb of the Leopards]], as well as other tombs from the archaic period in the [[Monterozzi necropolis]] in [[Tarquinia]], were painted by Greek painters or, in any case, foreigner artists. These images have, therefore, a very limited value for a realistic representation of the Etruscan population.<ref name=deGrummond2014>{{cite book |last1=de Grummond |first1=Nancy Thomson |year=2014 |chapter=Ethnicity and the Etruscans |title=Companion to Ethnicity in the Ancient Mediterranean |language=en |location=Chichester, Uk |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |pages= 413–414 |quote= The facial features, however, are not likely to constitute a true portrait, but rather partake of a formula for representing the male in Etruria in Archaic art. It has been observed that the formula used—with the face in profile, showing almond-shaped eyes, a large nose, and a domed up profile of the top of the head—has its parallels in images from the eastern Mediterranean. But these features may show only artistic conventions and are therefore of limited value for determining ethnicity. }}</ref> It was only from the end of the 4th century BC that evidence of physiognomic portraits began to be found in Etruscan art and Etruscan portraiture became more realistic.<ref name=Bandinelli1984>{{cite book |last1=Bianchi Bandinelli |first1=Ranuccio |author-link1=Ranuccio Bianchi Bandinelli |year=1984 |chapter=Il problema del ritratto |title=L'arte classica |language=it |location=Roma |publisher= [[Editori Riuniti]]}}</ref>
====Genetic research====
There have been numerous biological studies on the Etruscan origins, the oldest of which dates back to the 1950s when research was still based on blood tests of modern samples, and DNA analysis (including the analysis of ancient samples) was not yet possible.<ref name=Ciba1959>{{cite book |last1=A Ciba Foundation Symposium |author-link1= |year=1959 |orig-year=1958 |chapter= |script-chapter= |trans-chapter= |chapter-url= |chapter-format= |editor1-last= Wolstenholme|editor1-first= Gordon|editor1-link= Gordon Wolstenholme |editor2-last=O'Connor |editor2-first=Cecilia M.|title=Medical Biology and Etruscan Origins |script-title= |trans-title= |url= |format= |type= |series= |language= English|volume= |edition= |location=London |publisher=J & A Churchill Ltd |page= |pages= |at= |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |isbn= 978-0-470-71493-5|issn= |jfm= |jstor= |lccn= |mr= |oclc= |ol= |osti= |pmc= |pmid= |rfc= |ssrn= |zbl= |id= |access-date= |quote= |mode= }}</ref><ref name=Perkins2017>{{cite book |last=Perkins |first=Phil |editor-last=Naso |editor-first=Alessandro |title=Etruscology |location=Berlin |publisher=De Gruyter |date=2017 |pages=109–118 |chapter=Chapter 8: DNA and Etruscan identity |isbn=978-1934078495 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uk8_DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA109 }}</ref><ref name=Perkins2009>{{cite book |last= Perkins |first=Phil |editor-last1=Perkins |editor-first1=Phil|editor-last2=Swaddling |editor-first2=Judith |title=Etruscan by Definition: Papers in Honour of Sybille Haynes|publisher=The British Museum Research Publications |id=173 |location=London |date=2009 |pages=95–111 |chapter=DNA and Etruscan identity |isbn=978-0861591732}}</ref> It is only in very recent years, with the development of [[archaeogenetics]], that comprehensive studies containing the [[whole genome sequencing]] of Etruscan samples have been published, including [[autosomal DNA]] and [[Y-DNA]], autosomal DNA being the "most valuable to understand what really happened in an individual's history", as stated by geneticist [[David Reich (geneticist)|David Reich]], whereas previously studies were based only on [[mitochondrial DNA]] analysis, which contains less and limited information.<ref name=Reich2018>{{cite book |last1=Reich |first1=David |author-link1=David Reich (geneticist) |year=2018 |orig-year= |chapter=Ancient DNA Opens the Floodgates |script-chapter= |trans-chapter= |chapter-url= |chapter-format= |title= Who We Are and How We Got Here: Ancient DNA and the New Science of the Human Past|script-title= |trans-title= |url= |format= |type= |series= |language=English |volume= |edition= |location= Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=53–59 |doi= |isbn=9780198821250 |issn= |jfm= |jstor= |lccn= |mr= |oclc= |ol= |osti= |pmc= |pmid= |rfc= |ssrn= |zbl= |id= |access-date= |quote=“But mitochondrial DNA only records information on the entirely female line, a tiny fraction of the many tens of thousands of lineages that have contributed to any person’s genome. To understand what really happened in an individual’s history, it is incomparably more valuable to examine all ancestral lineages together.” |mode= }}</ref>
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===Periodization of Etruscan civilization===
{{main|Villanovan culture}}
The Etruscan civilization begins with the early Iron Age [[Villanovan culture]], regarded as the oldest phase, that occupied a large area of northern and central Italy during the Iron Age.<ref name=Neri/><ref name=Bartolonivillanoviana/><ref name=Torellicolonna2000/><ref name=Torellibriquel2000/><ref name=Torellibartoloni2000/> The Etruscans themselves dated the origin of the Etruscan nation to a date corresponding to the 11th or 10th century BC.<ref name=Bartolonivillanoviana/><ref name="BartoloniTreccani">[[Gilda Bartoloni]], "La cultura villanoviana", in ''Enciclopedia dell'Arte Antica'', Treccani, Rome 1997, vol. VII, p. 1173 e s 1970, p. 922. (Italian)</ref> The Villanovan culture emerges with the phenomenon of regionalization from the late Bronze Age culture called "[[Proto-Villanovan culture|Proto-Villanovan]]", part of the central European [[Urnfield culture|Urnfield culture system]]. In the last Villanovan phase, called the recent phase (about 770–730 BC), the Etruscans established relations of a certain consistency with the first [[Magna Grecia|Greek immigrants in southern Italy]] (in [[Ischia|Pithecusa]] and then in [[Cuma (Italy)|Cuma]]), so much so as to initially absorb techniques and figurative models and soon more properly cultural models, with the introduction, for example, of writing, of a new way of banqueting, of a heroic funerary ideology, that is, a new aristocratic way of life, such as to profoundly change the physiognomy of Etruscan society.<ref name=BartoloniTreccani/> Thus, thanks to the growing number of contacts with the Greeks, the Etruscans entered what is called the [[orientalizing period|Orientalizing phase]]. In this phase, there was a heavy influence in Greece, most of Italy and some areas of Spain, from the most advanced areas of the [[Aegean Sea|eastern Mediterranean]] and the [[ancient Near East]].<ref>[[Walter Burkert]], ''The Orientalizing Revolution: Near Eastern Influence on Greek Culture in the Early Archaic Age'', 1992.</ref> Also directly Phoenician, or otherwise Near Eastern, craftsmen, merchants and artists contributed to the spread in southern Europe of Near Eastern cultural and artistic motifs. The last three phases of Etruscan civilization are called, respectively, Archaic, Classical and Hellenistic, which roughly correspond to the homonymous phases of the ancient Greek civilization.
====Chronology====
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The Etruscans, like the contemporary cultures of [[Ancient Greece]] and [[Ancient Rome]], had a significant military tradition. In addition to marking the rank and power of certain individuals, warfare was a considerable economic advantage to Etruscan civilization. Like many ancient societies, the Etruscans conducted campaigns during summer months, raiding neighboring areas, attempting to gain territory and combating [[piracy]] as a means of acquiring valuable resources, such as land, prestige, goods, and slaves. It is likely that individuals taken in battle would be ransomed back to their families and clans at high cost. Prisoners could also potentially be sacrificed on tombs to honor fallen leaders of Etruscan society, not unlike the sacrifices made by [[Achilles]] for [[Patroclus|Patrocles]].<ref name="bookone">{{cite book|first=Mario |last=Torelli |title=The Etruscans |publisher=Rizzoli International Publications |year=2000|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref name="booktwo">{{cite book |first=Trevor |last=Dupey |title=The Harper Encyclopedia of Military History |publisher=Rizzoli Harper Collins Publisher |df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref name="bookthree">{{cite book|author=Dora Jane Hamblin |title=The Etruscans |year=1975 |url=https://archive.org/details/etruscans00hamb |url-access=registration |publisher=Time Life Books }}</ref>
* 550 BC:
* 540 BC: [[:de:Schlacht von Alalia|naval victory at Alalia]]
* 524 BC: Defeat at [[Cumae|Cyme]] against the Greeks
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The Etruscan musical instruments seen in frescoes and bas-reliefs are different types of pipes, such as the [[aulos|plagiaulos]] (the pipes of [[Pan (mythology)|Pan]] or [[Syrinx]]), the alabaster pipe and the famous double pipes, accompanied on percussion instruments such as the [[Tintinnabulum (Ancient Rome)|tintinnabulum]], [[Timpani|tympanum]] and [[crotales]], and later by stringed instruments like the [[lyre]] and [[kithara]].
===Language
{{Main|Etruscan language|Tyrsenian languages}}
[[File:Perugia, Museo archeologico Nazionale dell'Umbria, cippo di Perugia.jpg|thumb|right|170px|[[Cippus Perusinus]]. 3rd–2nd century BC, San Marco near [[Perugia]]]]
Etruscans left around 13,000 [[epigraphy|inscriptions]] which have been found so far, only a small minority of which are of significant length. Attested from 700 BC to AD 50, the relation of Etruscan to other languages has been a source of long-running speculation and study. The Etruscans are believed to have spoken a [[Pre-Indo-European languages|Pre-Indo-European]]<ref>[[Massimo Pallottino]], ''La langue étrusque Problèmes et perspectives'', 1978.</ref><ref>Mauro Cristofani, ''Introduction to the study of the Etruscan'', Leo S. Olschki, 1991.</ref><ref>Romolo A. Staccioli, ''The "mystery" of the Etruscan language'', Newton & Compton publishers, Rome, 1977.</ref> and [[Paleo-European languages|Paleo-European language]],<ref name=Haarmann2014>{{cite book |last1=Haarmann |first1=Harald |author-link1=Harald Haarmann |year=2014 |chapter=Ethnicity and Language in the Ancient Mediterranean |editor1-last= McInerney|editor1-first= Jeremy |title=A Companion to Ethnicity in the Ancient Mediterranean |language=en |location=Chichester, UK |publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Inc |publication-date=2014 |pages=17–33 |doi=10.1002/9781118834312.ch2 |isbn= 9781444337341}}</ref> and the majority consensus is that Etruscan is related only to other members of what is called the [[Tyrsenian languages|Tyrsenian language family]], which in itself is an [[language isolate|isolate family]], that is unrelated directly to other known language groups. Since [[Helmut Rix|Rix]] (1998), it is widely accepted that the Tyrsenian family groups [[Raetic language|Raetic]] and [[Lemnian language|Lemnian]] are related to Etruscan.<ref name="Rix-2008" />
===Literature===
[[File:Lanena_knjiga_(Liber_linteus_Zagrebiensis).jpg|thumb|right|220px|Samples of Etruscan script, from the [[Liber linteus]]]]
Etruscan texts, written in a space of seven centuries, use a form of the [[Greek alphabet]] due to close contact between the Etruscans and the Greek colonies at [[Ischia|Pithecusae]] and [[Cumae]] in the 8th century BC (until it was no longer used, at the beginning of the 1st century AD). Etruscan inscriptions disappeared from [[Chiusi]], [[Perugia]] and [[Arezzo]] around this time. Only a few fragments survive, religious and especially funeral texts, most of which are late (from the 4th century BC). In addition to the original texts that have survived to this day, there are a large number of quotations and allusions from classical authors. In the 1st century BC, [[Diodorus Siculus]] wrote that literary culture was one of the great achievements of the Etruscans. Little is known of it and even what is known of their language is due to the repetition of the same few words in the many inscriptions found (by way of the modern epitaphs) contrasted in bilingual or trilingual texts with Latin and [[Punic language|Punic]]. Out of the aforementioned genres, is just one such Volnio (Volnius) cited in classical sources mentioned.<ref>[[Varro]], ''De lingua Latina'', 5.55.</ref> With a few exceptions, such as the [[Liber Linteus]], the [[Thesaurus Linguae Etruscae|only written records in the Etruscan language]] that remain are inscriptions, mainly funerary. The language is written in the [[Etruscan alphabet]], a script related to the early [[Euboean alphabet|Euboean Greek alphabet]].<ref>{{cite book |last1= Maras|first1=Daniele F. |year=2015 |chapter=Etruscan and Italic Literacy and the Case of Rome |editor1-last= Bloome |editor1-first=W. Martin |title=A Companion to Ancient Education |language=en |location=Chichester, UK |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |page= 202}}</ref> Many thousand inscriptions in Etruscan are known, mostly [[epitaph]]s, and a few [[Thesaurus Linguae Etruscae|very short texts]] have survived, which are mainly religious. Etruscan imaginative literature is evidenced only in references by later Roman authors, but it is evident from their visual art that the Greek myths were well-known.<ref>{{cite book |last1= Nielsen |first1=Marjatta |last2=Rathje |first2=Annette |chapter=Artumes in Etruria—the Borrowed Goddess |editor1-last=Fischer-Hansen |editor1-first=Tobias |editor2-last= Poulsen|editor2-first=Birte |title=From Artemis to Diana: The Goddess of Man and Beast |language=en|location=Copenhagen |publisher=Museum Tusculanum Press |page=261 |quote= A massive Greek impact is clear especially in the coastal territory, which has led many to believe that the Etruscans were entirely Hellenized. Countless depictions show that Greek myths were, indeed, adopted and well-known to the Etruscans.}}</ref>
With the founding of [[wikt:Πιθηκοῦσαι|Pithekussai]] on [[Ischia]] and Kyme (lat. [[Cumae]]) in [[Campania]] in the course of the [[Greek colonization|Greek colonization]], the Etruscans came under the influence of the [[Greek culture|Greek culture]] in the 8th century BC. The Etruscans adopted an [[alphabet]] from the western Greek colonists that came from their homeland, the Euboean [[Chalkis]]. This alphabet from Cumae is therefore also called Euboean<ref>Larissa Bonfante, Giuliano Bonfante: ''The Etruscan Language: An Introduction.'' p. 14.</ref> or Chalcidian<ref>Friedhelm Prayon: ''The Etruscans. History, religion, art.'' p. 38.</ref> Alphabet. The oldest written records of the Etruscans date from around 700 BC.<ref>Larissa Bonfante, Giuliano Bonfante: ''The Etruscan Language: An Introduction.'' p. 56.</ref>
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