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==Etymology==
Being a society of independent city states, the Phoenicians apparently did not have a term to denote the land of Phoenicia as a whole;<ref>Department of Ancient Near Eastern Art. "The Phoenicians (1500–300
Obelisks at [[Karnak]] contain references to a "land of ''[[wikt:fnḫw|fnḫw]]''", ''fnḫw'' being the plural form of ''fnḫ'', the Ancient Egyptian word for "carpenter". This "land of carpenters" is generally identified as Phoenicia, given that Phoenicia played a central role in the lumber trade of the Levant.<ref>James P. Allen (2010) ''Middle Egyptian: An Introduction to the Language and Culture of Hieroglyphs'', 2nd edition, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-51796-6, p. 345.</ref> Now an exonym, ''fnḫw'' was evidently borrowed into Greek as {{lang|grc|φοῖνιξ}} ''{{lang|grc-Latn|phoînix}}'', which meant variably "Phoenician person", "[[Tyrian purple]], [[crimson]]" or "[[date palm]]." [[Homer]] used it with each of these meanings.<ref>{{cite web |title=Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, φοῖνιξ |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0057:entry=foi=nic |access-date=2017-02-03 |website=www.perseus.tufts.edu}}</ref> The word is already attested in [[Mycenaean Greek]] Linear B from the 2nd millennium BC, as ''po-ni-ki-jo''. In those records, it means "crimson" or "palm tree" and does not denote a group of people.{{sfnp|Quinn|2017|page=48}} The name ''Phoenicians'', like [[Latin]] ''{{lang|la|Poenī}}'' (adj. ''{{lang|la|poenicus}}'', later ''{{lang|la|pūnicus}}''), comes from [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] {{lang|grc|Φοινίκη}} (''{{lang|grc-Latn|Phoiníkē}}''). ''[[Poenulus]]'', a Latin comedic play written in the early 2nd century BC, appears to preserve a [[Punic]] term for "Phoenicians", which may be reconstructed as *''Pōnnīm''.<ref>Naveh, Joseph. ''Israel Exploration Journal'', vol. 51, no. 1, 2001, pp. 113–15. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/27926965. Accessed 27 Aug. 2022.</ref>
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Since little has survived of Phoenician records or [[Phoenician-Punic literature|literature]], most of what is known about their origins and history comes from the accounts of other civilizations and inferences from their material culture excavated throughout the Mediterranean. The scholarly consensus is that the Phoenicians' period of greatest prominence was 1200 BC to the end of the Persian period (332 BC).<ref>{{Harvnb|Jigoulov|2021|p=13}}</ref>
It is debated whether Phoenicians were actually distinct from the broader group of Semitic-speaking peoples known as [[Canaan]]ites.<ref name="John C. Scott CCR">{{cite journal |last=Scott |first=John C |date=2018 |title=The Phoenicians and the Formation of the Western World |url=https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/ccr/vol78/iss78/4 |journal=Comparative Civilizations Review |volume=78 |issue=78}}</ref>{{sfnp|Quinn|2017|pages=24, 204}} Historian Robert Drews believes the term "Canaanites" corresponds to the ethnic group referred to as "Phoenicians" by the ancient Greeks;<ref>{{cite journal |last=Drews |first=Robert |date=1998 |title=Canaanites and Philistines |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/030908929802308104 |journal=Journal for the Study of the Old Testament |volume=23 |issue=81 |pages=39–61 |doi=10.1177/030908929802308104 |s2cid=144074940}}</ref> archaeologist Jonathan N. Tubb argues that "[[Ammon]]ites, [[Moabites]], [[Israelites]], and Phoenicians undoubtedly achieved their own cultural identities, and yet ethnically they were all Canaanites", "the same people who settled in farming villages in the region in the 8th millennium BC."<ref name="JonTubb">{{cite book |last=Tubb |first=Johnathan N. |url=https://archive.org/details/canaanites00tubb |title=Canaanites |publisher=University of Oklahoma Press |year=1998 |isbn=9780806131085 |series=British Museum People of the Past |access-date=9 October 2018 |url-access=registration}}</ref>{{rp|13–14}} Brian R. Doak states that scholars use "Phoenicians" as a short-hand for "Canaanites living in a set of cities along the northern Levantine coast who shared a language and material culture in the Iron I–II period and who also developed an organized system of colonies in the western Mediterranean world
The Phoenician [[Early Bronze Age]] is largely unknown.<ref name="Jig2021_18">{{harvnb|Jigoulov|2021|p=18}}</ref> The two most important sites are [[Byblos]] and Sidon-Dakerman (near Sidon), although, as of 2021, well over a hundred sites remain to be excavated, while others that have been are yet to be fully analysed.<ref name="Jig2021_18" /> The [[Middle Bronze Age]] was a generally peaceful time of increasing population, trade, and prosperity, though there was competition for natural resources.<ref name="Jig2021_20" /> In the [[Late Bronze Age]], rivalry between Egypt, the Mittani, the Hittites, and Assyria had a significant impact on Phoenician cities.<ref name="Jig2021_20">{{harvnb|Jigoulov|2021|pp=18–9}}</ref>
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{{Cite book |first=Joseph |last=Naveh |year=1987 |chapter=Proto-Canaanite, Archaic Greek, and the Script of the Aramaic Text on the Tell Fakhariyah Statue |editor1-last=Miller |title=Ancient Israelite Religion |publisher=Fortress Press |display-editors=etal |isbn=0-8006-0831-3 |chapter-url-access=registration |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/ancientisraelite00unse }}. {{harvp|Coulmas|1996}}.</ref>
The fourth-century BC Greek historian [[Herodotus]] claimed that the Phoenicians had migrated from the [[Erythraean Sea]] around 2750 BC and the first-century AD geographer [[Strabo]] reports a claim that they came from Tylos and Arad ([[Bahrain]] and [[Muharraq]]).<ref>Herodotos ''Histories'' 1.1, 2.44 & 7.89; Strabo, ''Geography'' 16.3.4.</ref><ref name="Bowersock">{{cite book |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2hmbc9evgB0C&pg=PA401 |title=Bahrain Through The Ages – the Archaeology |publisher=Routledge |year=1986 |isbn=0-7103-0112-X |chapter=Tylos and Tyre. Bahrain in the Graeco-Roman World |editor-last2=Rice |editor-first2=Michael |author=Bowersock, G.W. |editor-last1=Khalifa |editor-first1=Haya Ali |pages=401–2 }}</ref><ref name="Rice">{{cite book|title=The Archaeology of the Arabian Gulf|publisher=Routledge|year=1994|isbn=0-415-03268-7 |author=Rice, Michael|page=20}}</ref><ref name="Donkin">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=leHFqMQ9mw8C&pg=PA48 |title=Beyond Price: Pearls and Pearl-fishing : Origins to the Age of Discoveries, Volume 224 |page=48 |author=R. A. Donkin|isbn=0-87169-224-4 |year=1998 |publisher=American Philosophical Society }}</ref> Some archaeologists working on the [[Persian Gulf]] have accepted these traditions and suggest a migration connected with the collapse of the [[Dilmun civilization]]
===Emergence during the Late Bronze Age (1479–1200 BC)===
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Early into the [[Iron Age]], the Phoenicians established ports, warehouses, markets, and settlement all across the Mediterranean and up to the southern Black Sea. Colonies were established on [[Cyprus]], [[Sardinia]], the [[Balearic Islands]], [[Sicily]], and [[Malta]], as well as the coasts of North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula.<ref>{{cite book|last=Barnes|first=William H.|title=Studies in the Chronology of the Divided Monarchy of Israel|location=Atlanta|publisher=Scholars Press|year=1991|pages=29–55}}</ref> Phoenician [[hacksilver]] dated to this period bears lead isotope ratios matching ores in Sardinia and Spain, indicating the extent of Phoenician trade networks.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Chamorro|first1=Javier G.|date=1987|title=Survey of Archaeological Research on Tartessos|journal=American Journal of Archaeology|volume=91|issue=2|pages=197–232|doi=10.2307/505217|jstor=505217|s2cid=191378720 }}</ref>
By the tenth century BC, Tyre rose to become the richest and most powerful Phoenician city-state, particularly during the reign of [[Hiram I]] (
During the rule of the priest [[Ithobaal I|Ithobaal]] (887–856 BC), Tyre expanded its territory as far north as Beirut and into part of Cyprus; this unusual act of aggression was the closest the Phoenicians ever came to forming a unitary territorial state. Once his realm reached its largest territorial extent, Ithobaal declared himself "King of the Sidonians," a title that would be used by his successors and mentioned in both Greek and Jewish accounts.<ref name=":02">{{cite book|chapter=The Phoenicians: A Captivating Guide to the History of Phoenicia and the Impact Made by One of the Greatest Trading Civilizations of the Ancient World|title=Captivating History|year=2019|isbn=9781647482053|last1=History|first1=Captivating|publisher=Captivating History }}</ref>
The Late Iron Age saw the height of Phoenician shipping, mercantile, and cultural activity, particularly between 750 and 650 BC. The Phoenician influence was visible in the "orientalization" of Greek cultural and artistic conventions.<ref name="John C. Scott CCR" /> Among their most popular goods were fine textiles, typically dyed with [[Tyrian purple]]. Homer's ''[[Iliad]]
===Foundation of Carthage===
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{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book |last=Aubet |first=Maria Eugenia |author-link=María Eugenia Aubet |year=2001 |title=The Phoenicians and the West: Politics, Colonies and Trade |translator-last=Turton |translator-first=Mary |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-79543-2}} See [https://web.archive.org/web/20180522021430/http://bmcr.brynmawr.edu/2003/2003-12-17.html Review by Roger Wright], University of Liverpool.
* Bondi, S. F. 1988. "The Course of History
* {{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofcomp00bran/page/n5 |editor-last=Brandon |editor-first=S.G.F. |year=1970 |title=Dictionary of Comparative Religion |location=New York City |publisher=Charles Scribner's Son |isbn=9780684310091}}
* {{cite book |last1=Charles-Picard |first1=Gilbert |last2=Picard |first2=Colette |author1-link=Gilbert Charles-Picard |author2-link=Colette Picard |year=1968 |trans-title=The Life and Death of Carthage |location=New York City |publisher=Taplinger |title=(Original French ed.: ''{{lang|fr|Vie et mort de Carthage}}'' Paris: Hatchette 1968)}}
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