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==== Foreign relations ====
Algiers' refusal to follow Ottoman foreign policy led European powers to negotiate treaties with it directly on trade, [[tribute]] and slave [[ransom]]s,{{Sfn|Maameri|2008|pp=108–142}} recognizing Algerian autonomy despite its formal subordination to the Ottomans.{{Sfn|Koskenniemi|Walter|Fonseca|2017|p=203-204}} Algiers used privateering as a [[foreign policy]] tool, playing its European counterparts against one other,{{sfn|Kaddache|2003|p=416}}{{sfn|Spencer|1976|p=118}}{{efn|name="Spencer quote"}} hunting merchant ships and prompting European states to conclude peace treaties and obtain [[Mediterranean pass]]es to secure lucrative [[cabotage]] business at the expense of their Continental rivals.{{Sfn|Panzac|2020|pp=22–25}}{{Sfn|Maameri|2008|pp=108–142}}▼
This conferred on Algerian rulers internal [[Legitimacy (political)|legitimacy]] as "champions of [[jihad]]" and, according to early modern European authors, international respect for their Regency's legal [[sovereignty]] as an established government, despite still being a "nest of Pirates".{{Sfn|Panzac|2005|p=9}}{{Sfn|Pitts|2018|p=111}}{{Sfn|Koskenniemi|Walter|Fonseca|2017|p=205}} Dutch jurist [[Hugo Grotius]] (1583–1645) noted that "Algiers exercised the ''[[jus ad bellum]]'' of a sovereign power through its corsairs".{{Sfn|Koskenniemi|Walter|Fonseca|2017|p=205}} Historian Daniel Panzac stressed:{{Sfn|Panzac|2005|p=9}}▼
{{Multiimage
| image1 = Treaty with Algiers 1662.jpg
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| caption1 = Treaty of peace and trade with England, signed 23 April 1662
}}
▲Algiers' refusal to follow Ottoman foreign policy led European powers to negotiate treaties with it directly on trade, [[tribute]] and slave [[ransom]]s,{{Sfn|Maameri|2008|pp=108–142}} recognizing Algerian autonomy despite its formal subordination to the Ottomans.{{Sfn|Koskenniemi|Walter|Fonseca|2017|p=203-204}} Algiers used privateering as a [[foreign policy]] tool, playing its European counterparts against one other,{{sfn|Kaddache|2003|p=416}}{{sfn|Spencer|1976|p=118}}{{efn|name="Spencer quote"}} hunting merchant ships and prompting European states to conclude peace treaties and obtain [[Mediterranean pass]]es to secure lucrative [[cabotage]] business at the expense of their Continental rivals.{{Sfn|Panzac|2020|pp=22–25}}{{Sfn|Maameri|2008|pp=108–142}}
▲This conferred on Algerian rulers internal [[Legitimacy (political)|legitimacy]] as "champions of [[jihad]]" and, according to early modern European authors, international respect for their Regency's legal [[sovereignty]] as an established government, despite still being a "nest of Pirates".{{Sfn|Panzac|2005|p=9}}{{Sfn|Pitts|2018|p=111}}{{Sfn|Koskenniemi|Walter|Fonseca|2017|p=205}} Dutch jurist [[Hugo Grotius]] (1583–1645) noted that "Algiers exercised the ''[[jus ad bellum]]'' of a sovereign power through its corsairs".{{Sfn|Koskenniemi|Walter|Fonseca|2017|p=205}} Historian Daniel Panzac stressed:{{Sfn|Panzac|2005|p=9}}
{{Blockquote|text=Indeed, privateering was based on two fundamental principles: it was one of the forms of war practiced by the Maghreb against the Christian states, which conferred upon it a dimension that was at one and the same time legitimate and religious; and it was exercised in a framework defined by a state strong enough to enact its rules and control their application.}}
Algiers first established relations with France in 1617,{{Sfn|Panzac|2005|p=40}} with a treaty signed in 1619,{{sfn|Rouard De Card|1906|pp=11–15}} and another in 1628.{{sfn|Panzac|2005|p=28}}{{sfn|Julien|1970|p=312}} These mostly concerned the French Bastion and the rights of French merchants in Algiers.{{sfn|Plantet|1894|p=3}}{{sfn|Rouard De Card|1906|p=15}} But the Bastion was razed a second time by Ali Bitchin in 1637,{{sfn|Julien|1970|p=313}} as armed incidents between French and Algerian vessels were frequent. Nonetheless, a treaty in 1640 allowed France to regain its North African commercial establishments.{{sfn|Julien|1970|p=313}}{{sfn|de Grammont|1879–1885}}
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