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3) The measurement of loyalty—especially for customers is multi-faceted. Customer loyalty includes a variety of outcomes—intentions and behaviors associated with repurchase,<ref>Blut, Markus and Frennea, Carly and Mittal, Vikas and Mothersbaugh, David L., How Procedural, Financial and Relational Switching Costs Affect Customer Satisfaction, Repurchase Intentions, and Repurchase Behavior: A Meta-Analysis (January 20, 2015). International Journal of Research in Marketing, Forthcoming. Available at SSRN: http://ssrn.com/abstract=2553402</ref><ref>Vikas Mittal and Wagner Kamakura. (2001) "Satisfaction, Repurchase Intent, and Repurchase Behavior: Investigating the Moderating Effect of Customer Characteristics". Journal of Marketing Research, 38(1): 131-142. Available at SSRN: http://ssrn.com/abstract=2344925</ref> word-of-mouth,<ref>Zhang, Yinlong and Feick, Lawrence and Mittal, Vikas, How Males and Females Differ in Their Likelihood of Transmitting Negative Word of Mouth (2014). Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. 40, April 2014. Available at SSRN: http://ssrn.com/abstract=2425685</ref><ref>Anderson, Eugene W. "Customer satisfaction and word of mouth." Journal of service research 1, no. 1 (1998): 5-17.</ref> complaint behaviors,<ref>Mittal, Vikas and Huppertz, John W. and Khare, Adwait, Customer Complaining: The Role of Tie Strength and Information Control (October 10, 2008). Journal of Retailing, 84(2), 195-204, June 2008. Available at SSRN: http://ssrn.com/abstract=2338719</ref><ref>Fornell, Claes, and Birger Wernerfelt. "Defensive marketing strategy by customer complaint management: a theoretical analysis." Journal of Marketing research (1987): 337-346.</ref> share-of-wallet or the relative proportion of purchasing from a single firm relative to customer's total purchasing,<ref>Cooil, Bruce, et al. "A longitudinal analysis of customer satisfaction and share of wallet: Investigating the moderating effect of customer characteristics." Journal of Marketing 71.1 (2007): 67-83.</ref> and likelihood to recommend.<ref>Ryu, Gangseog, and Lawrence Feick. "A penny for your thoughts: Referral reward programs and referral likelihood." Journal of Marketing 71, no. 1 (2007): 84-94.</ref><ref>Mittal, Vikas and Kumar, Pankaj and Tsiros, Michael, Attribute-Level Performance, Satisfaction, and Behavioral Intentions Over Time: A Consumption-System Approach (April 1, 1999). Journal of Marketing, 63, April 1999, 88-101. Available at SSRN: http://ssrn.com/abstract=2345366</ref>
== Commitment-loyalty model==
The customer commitment approach to loyalty is based on the idea that customers with higher commitment toward the brand are also more likely to be loyal toward the brand. Earlier models of customer commitment conceptualized it as a unidimensional construct (e.g., Garbarino and Johnson 1999; Moorman et al. 1992).<ref>Moorman, Christine, Gerald Zaltman, and Rohit Deshpandé (1992), “Relationships Between Providers and Users of Market Research: The Dynamics of Trust Within and Between Organizations,” Journal of Marketing Research, 29 (August), 314-328.</ref>
* Affective commitment
* Normative commitment
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* Forced commitment
* Habitual commitment
The association of these five types of commitment and customer loyalty intentions was tested in two large samples, including an international sample. In both samples, affective commitment had the strongest impact on customer loyalty
==Data collection==
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