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Zuowang instructions can be seen in classic Taoist texts from [[Before the Common Era|before the common era]], such as the [[Zhuangzi (book)|Zhuangzi]]. The term appears in the title of an influential manual from the [[Tang dynasty]] (618-907), the [[Zuowanglun]] and continues to inform Daoist contemplative practice today.<ref>Kohn, 2010, p. 1.</ref>
==Terminology==
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=== Dao De Jing ===
Some passages from the [[Tao Te Ching|Dao De Jing]] give further support and context to the practice of Daoist apophatic meditation. Chapter 12 states that one should control the senses since overindulgence leads to loss: "The five colors will cause the eyes to go blind, the five tones will cause the ears to be deaf, the five flavors will cause the palate to be spoiled".<ref>Kohn, 2010, p. 29</ref>
The practitioner is also said to leave the outside world behind them: “Cut off contacts, shut the doors, and to the end of life there will be peace without toil” (ch. 52, 56), it likewise says one should "abandon learning" and be "like an infant". The practice is said to be one of “decreasing and again decreasing” (ch. 48).<ref>Kohn, 2010, p. 29</ref>
The Tao Te Ching also notes that the sense of self and body is the source of our vexations: “The body-self is the reason why I have terrible vexations. If I did not have a body-self, what trouble would I have?" (ch. 13).<ref>Kohn, 2010, p. 29</ref>
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=== Neiye ===
The “[[Neiye]]” 內業 (In- ward Training) is another important source for the early practice of Daoist sitting meditation. It appears as part of the ''Xinshu'' 心術 (the Techniques of the Heart-mind), chapters of the [[Guanzi (text)|Guanzi]]. It describes a method leading to oblivion/forgetfulness which is based on alignment of the body and its [[Qi]] (subtle breath). This text describes the practice of refining one's Qi through preparatory practices like moderation in diet, withdrawal from sense stimulation, and proper physical posture.<ref>Kohn, 2010, p. 30</ref> It discusses a contemplative process involving a "fourfold alignment": 1. Aligning the body (''zhengxing'' 正形) 2. Aligning the four limbs (''zheng siti'' 正四體): “Four limbs firm and fixed” 3. Aligning the qi (''zhengqi'' 正氣) 4. Aligning the heart-mind (''zhengxin'' 正心).<ref>Komjathy, Louis. ''Daoist Meditation: Theory, Method, Application'' (lecture) transcript prepared and edited by Aranyelixír Kiadó (Budapest, Hungary), revised, supplemented and approved by Louis Komjathy, September 2014. https://www.academia.edu/8829935/Louis_Komjathy_Daoist_Meditation_Theory_Method_Application</ref> Through an upright posture and deep breaths, one creates a sense of quiet within and a well ordered mind, which allows for Qi to develop and their mind to become clear and serene.<ref>Kohn, 2010, p. 30</ref>
===Huainanzi===
The (c. 139 BCE) philosophical compendium ''[[Huainanzi]]'' includes another version of the anecdote about Yan Hui explaining ''zuowang'' to his teacher Confucius.
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== Tang dynasty ==
[[File:Huimingjing 05 pic.PNG|thumb|200px|Illustration to chapter 5 of Liu Huayan's Huimingjing, showing a Taoist meditator in [[Lotus position|Full Lotus Posture]] (a Buddhist influence). ]]According to Livia Kohn, further development of the practice of ''zuowang''
=== Zuowanglun tradition ===
The [[Shangqing School]] (上清, Supreme Clarity) began during the [[Jin Dynasty (265-420)|Western Jin]] dynasty, and their texts are also a source for the practice of ''zuowang''. The most influential ''zuowang'' text of this tradition is Sima Chengzhen's (647–735) ''[[Zuowanglun]]'' 坐忘論 ("Essay on Sitting and Forgetting", [[Daozang|DZ]] 1036). This text was very influential and according to Kohn, was central to a Daoist school of meditation associated with Sima Chengzhen and located in the [[Tiantai Mountain|Tiantai]] range. This tradition was also influenced by Buddhist meditation as practiced in the [[Tiantai|Tiantai school]].<ref>Kohn, 2010, p. 59.</ref>
The text has survived in two editions: one in [[Zhang Junfang (writer)|Zhang Junfang]]'s ''[[Yunji Qiqian]]'' 雲笈七籤 and [[Xu Song (Qing dynasty)|Xu Song]]'s ''Quan Tangwen'' 全唐文, and another in the ''[[Daozang]]''. A shorter ''Zuowanglun'' copy was inscribed on a [[stele]] erected on [[Mount Wangwu]] in 829.<ref>Kohn, 2010, p. 8</ref> Other relevant texts from [[Tang dynasty|Tang Dynasty]] masters (such as Sun Simiao and Wu Yun) associated with the [[Zuowanglun]] tradition include the ''Dingguan jing'' 定觀經 (Scripture on Stability and Observation, [[Daozang|DZ]] 400), the ''Cunshen lianqi ming'' 存神鍊氣 銘 (Inscription on Visualizing Spirit and Refining Qi, DZ 834), the ''Neiguan jing'' 內觀經 (Scripture of Inner Observation, DZ 641) and the ''Tianyinzi'' 天隱子 (Book of the Master of Heavenly Seclusion, DZ 1026). According to Kohn, The ''Tianyizi'' was widely published, and is still used among [[qigong]] practitioners today.<ref>Kohn, 2010, p. 9</ref> According to Kohn (2008b:1310), the [[Zuowanglun]] outlines seven steps in the progress of ''zuowang'' meditation:
#"Respect and Faith" (''Jingxin'' 敬信) - trusting in Dao and having respect for the teaching and process taught by the masters. Sun Simiao associates this with prudence and morality rooted in “awe and care” (youwei 憂畏). Basic moral integrity includes controlling emotions, letting go of possessions and being honest.
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#"Realizing the Dao" (''Dedao'' 得道) - Wisdom of the Dao is fully achieved, Dao subsumes all knowledge, self concepts, etc and the adept transcends everything and is freed from all worldly limitations. According to Kohn, "this is liberation (shenjie 神解) and attainment of 'spirit pervasion' (shentong 神通), which means the emitting of a bright radiance and attainment of supernatural powers."<ref>Kohn, 2010, p. 101.</ref>
As Kohn notes, the texts of this tradition make it clear that the progress through these stages happens gradually.
=== Twofold Mystery and Northern celestial masters ===
One influential text from this period is the ''Xisheng jing,'' a text associated with the Daoist monastery of Louguan, a center of the [[The Northern Celestial Masters|Northern Celestial Masters]] located in the [[Zhongnan Mountains|Zhongnan mountains]]. This work is widely cited and commented upon and describes meditation in terms of "reaching emptiness and nonbeing, peace and tranquility".<ref>Kohn, 2010, p. 34</ref> In his commentary on the Xinsheng Jing, Wei Jie states:<blockquote>The more advanced religious practice leading toward Dao is meditation. The practitioner concentrates his internal qi and visualizes the body divinities. Sensory impressions cease. Cravings for outer things diminish. The result is complete oblivion. On the outside become oblivious of all seeing and hearing and in due course all desires to see and hear will cease. On the inside become completely oblivious of thinking and tasting, and in due course all craving for language and food will end. When all without and within has ceased, one can be serene and obscure. In such a state one will return to the state when there were no beings.<ref>Kohn, 2010, p.36</ref></blockquote>
On ''zuowang'', Twofold mystery commentator Cheng Xuanying’s states:<blockquote>Even though auditory perception belongs to the ears and visual power is a function of the eyes, they ultimately depend on the mind. Once one has awakened to the fact that the body does not really exist, that the myriad states of the mind are empty, then one can smash up one’s body, drive out intellect and do away with understanding.<ref>Kohn, 2010, p. 36.</ref></blockquote>According to Livia Kohn:<blockquote>Twofold Mystery thus envisions the mystical process in two steps, described as double forgetting (jianwang 兼忘). Practitioners must first discard all concepts of being, then proceed to discard all ideas of nonbeing. These two are, moreover, identified as mental projections (jing 境), i.e., illusory mental imaginations that are projected outward and create an apparent reality of “being;” and active wisdom (zhi 智) or mind as such (xin 心), the inherent function of active consciousness which signifies “nonbeing” (Robinet 1977, 245). “Forgetting” both means the reorganization of ordinary consciousness to absolute consciousness and again from absolute consciousness to no consciousness at all in complete oblivion. Yet the sagely state is not nothingness but the “embodiment of the Dao of Middle Oneness,” a state of radiance and surging activity.<ref>Kohn, 2010, p. 37.</ref></blockquote>Furthermore, Kohn states that this tradition was influenced by Buddhist [[Madhyamaka]] thought and meditative praxis. The ''Daojiao yishu'' 道教義樞 (The Pivotal Meaning of Daoist Teaching, DZ 1129) for example, adopts and integrates many Buddhist ideas. In this work, ''zuowang'' is listed as one of several meditative practices, which include meditation on deities and inhaling [[Qi]].
== Medieval Daoism and Quanzhen school==
During the [[Song dynasty|Song dynasty (960–1279)]], few passages used the term ''zuowang,'' and Daoist meditation texts shift in focus on what it means to attain the Dao. Song dynasty Daoist traditions emphasized ecstatic excursions to other worlds to commune with deities and internal alchemy transformations while using ''zuowang'' to indicate preparatory or secondary meditation practices.
One later Daoist tradition which practiced similar forms of apophatic meditation was the [[Quanzhen School|Quanzhen]] (Complete Perfection) school, which remains to this day a major Daoist school in China. Quanzhen was founded by [[Wang Chongyang]] (1113–1170) and his direct disciples.
In its practice of mental training, which focuses on stabilizing or settling the [[Xin (concept)|heartmind]], Quanzhen took some inspiration from [[Chan Buddhism]] and taught that one must be aware during all of one's situations and life activities. This can be seen in the following passage of [[Wang Chongyang]]:<blockquote>Now, to “have a sit” (dazuo, to practice meditation) does not refer to the act of assuming the proper posture and closing the eyes. Such is but false sitting. [To practice] true sitting you must throughout the twelve [double-] hours, whether staying, going, sitting, or lying, throughout all your motion and stillness, make your mind be like Mt. Tai—unmoving and unwavering. Grasp and cut off the four gates of your eyes, ears, mouth, and nose. Do not allow outer scenery to enter in. If there is any stirring of thought even the size of a silk thread or a single fine fur, it cannot be called “quiet sitting.” One who is able to be like this already has his/her name recorded in the ranks of the immortals, even though his/her body resides in the dusty world. He/she need not travel afar to consult another person. In other words, the wise sage (the Real Nature with its intuitive wisdom) is in his/her very own body. In a hundred years his/her merit will be full; shedding his/her shell, he/she ascends to Realization. The single pill of cinnabar is completed, and his/her spirit wanders the eight surfaces. </blockquote><blockquote>Now, in speaking of the ways of the mind: Always serenely the mind is kept motionless. Darkly, silently, you do not look at the myriad objects. Dimly, murkily, without an inside nor an outside, you have no thoughts even the size of a silk thread or a single fine fur. This is the stability of mind; it should not be subdued. If you follow your surroundings and give rise to thoughts, stumbling and falling while seeking now the head and now the tail, this is called the disorderly mind. You must cut if off immediately, and you must not follow its whims. It damages and destroys your Tao-virtue and it diminishes your Nature and Life. Whether staying, going, sitting, or lying down, you must diligently subdue it. What you hear, see, know, and understand is but a disease and [an] ailment to you.<ref>Eskildsen, 2015, p. 25-26</ref></blockquote>Likewise, one of Wang's main disciples, Ma Yu, teaches:<blockquote>You should reform your misdeeds, but this is not [only] to be done through seated meditation. You should keep your mind stable for a long time. Going, staying, sitting, and lying down (i.e., all daily activities—a phrase common in Chan discourse) are the practice of the Tao. Gentlemen, quit giving rise to thoughts! Quickly seek out your Nature and Life. If you can just clear your mind and abandon your desires, you will be a Divine Immortal. Acknowledge nothing else and stop having doubts! These are proper and true words. You only need to be constantly clear and constantly pure. Practice this diligently.<ref>Eskildsen, 2015, p. 27</ref></blockquote>Another similar meditation practice taught by Wang was based on focusing one's attention on the lower belly, an area known as the Ocean of Qi: "With your mind think of your spirit residing lengthily in your [Lower] Elixir Field, embracing and guarding the primal qi, without letting it get scattered and lost. This is the Method of Embracing the One." <ref>Eskildsen, 2015, p. 36</ref>
==Modern interpretations==
Schools of [[East Asian Buddhism]] adopted ''zuowang'' practices, notably Chinese [[Chinese Chán|Chan]], [[Japanese Zen]], and Tibetan [[Dzogchen]].
<blockquote>Through its practice, adepts eliminate all sensory perception and the conscious mind as inherently dualistic and potentially misleading, avoiding the use of the sensory apparatus in attaining higher states. Practitioners thus strive to access what they call pure experience or "sitting in oblivion of everything" by letting go of all ordinary perception while strengthening intuition, the potency of the inborn, natural mind-a pure reflection of original cosmos in human beings. Posture and body control become essential; all analytical, dualistic thinking as well as connection to deities are radically overcome. (Kohn 2010:6) </blockquote>
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Eva Wong, author and Quanzhen practitioner, says:
<blockquote>''Zuowang'' is a dropping of conceptions. When we drop conceptions, what we have is the natural emergence of the natural self, the natural celestial mind, which has been with us all the time. It is only because of our conceptions that we can't experience it. So when we practice ''zuowang'', we are simply saying that here is a method where we can begin to drop conceptions. (Shi 2007:8)</blockquote>Louis Komjathy, Daoist studies scholar and ordained Daoist priest states:<blockquote>Apophatic meditation focuses on emptiness and stillness. It is contentless, non-conceptual, and non-dualistic. One simply empties the heart-mind of all emotional and intellectual content...</blockquote><blockquote>...First, one withdraws from sensory engagement with the phenomenal world. Then one empties the heart-mind of intellectual and emotional content. Finally, one enters the state of cosmological integration, wherein qi, subtle breath or one’s vital force, is the primary layer of being that one listens to. This condition is described as “unity” (yi 一), “emptiness” (kong 空 or xu 虚), and “identification” (tong 同/通). As the Dao is Stillness from the Daoist prospective, by entering one’s own interior silence one returns to one’s innate nature, which is the Dao.
==Modern research==
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