Rupununi uprising: Difference between revisions
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The '''Rupununi Uprising''' was a [[secessionist]] [[insurrection]] in [[Guyana]] that began on 2 January 1969. It was recognized as the largest threat to [[Guyana|Guyana's]] national security |
The '''Rupununi Uprising''' was a [[secessionist]] [[insurrection]] in [[Guyana]] that began on 2 January 1969. It was recognized as the largest threat to [[Guyana|Guyana's]] national security since the territorial dispute with Venezuela over the [[Guayana Esequiba]]. Occurring less than two years after Guyana’s independence from the [[United Kingdom]], it constituted the country’s earliest and most severe test of statehood and social solidarity. The uprising was ultimately dispersed by the [[Guyana Defence Force]]. |
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== Background == |
== Background == |
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| ⚫ | [[Valerie Hart]], who was a [[The United Force|United Force]] politician and was married to a successful rancher,<ref name=":42">{{Cite book|last=Ishmael|first=Odeen|title=The Trail of Diplomacy: The Guyana-Venezuela Border Issue|year=2013|isbn=9781493126552}}</ref> was present at the First Conference of Amerindians Leaders, named the "Cabacaburi Congress" in 1968. This Conference presented demands to Prime Minister [[Forbes Burnham]] who represented the community of around 40,000 indigenous people of the [[Rupununi]] district.<ref>Amerindian News Georgetown: vol 2, No 3, May 15th 1968.</ref> |
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Venezuelan support for acquiring the Guayana Esequiba grew fifty years after Venezuela and the United Kingdom signed the [[Venezuelan crisis of 1895|1897 Arbitration Treaty]], with an 1899 decision ruling in favor of the United Kingdom keeping the majority of Guayana Esequiba.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Ince|first=Basil A.|date=1970|title=The Venezuela-Guyana Boundary Dispute in the United Nations|journal=[[Caribbean Studies (journal)|Caribbean Studies]]|volume=9|issue=4|pages=5-26}}</ref> In 1949, Venezuela's secretary of their counsel during the arbitration, Severo Mallet-Prevost, left a posthumous note alleging that political deals had been made to favor the United Kingdom's claims.<ref name=":5" /> |
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In the 1950s, Venezuelan media lead grassroots movements demanding the acquisition of Guayana Esequiba.<ref name=":5" /> Under the dictatorship of [[Marcos Pérez Jiménez]], the Venezuelan government began plans to invade Guayana Esequiba.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|title=Latin America and Caribbean Contemporary Record: 1982-1983, Volume 2|last=Hopkins|first=Jack W.|publisher=Holmes & Meier Publishers|year=1984|isbn=9780841909618}}</ref> President Pérez Jiménez anticipated the invasion of Guyana in 1958, but was overthrown in the [[1958 Venezuelan coup d'état]] prior to this.<ref name=":3" /> |
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After being elected in 1964, Venezuelan president [[Raúl Leoni]] made several territorial disputes against Guyana, claiming land for Venezuela.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":0" /> At the time, Venezuela used diplomatic, economic and military pressure against Guyana in order to acquire the Essequibo territory.<ref name=":5" /> Diplomatic action included Venezuela blocking Guyana's entry into the [[Organization of American States]] and its attempt to prevent Guyana from signing the [[Treaty of Tlatelolco]].<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":4">{{Cite book|title=Latin American Foreign Policies: An Analysis|url=https://archive.org/details/latinamericanfor0000davi|url-access=limited|last=Davis|first=Harold Eugene|last2=Wilson|first2=Larman Curtis|publisher=[[Johns Hopkins University Press]]|year=1975|isbn=9780801816956|pages=[https://archive.org/details/latinamericanfor0000davi/page/191 191]-196}}</ref> Economically, nations were threatened by Venezuela that [[economic sanctions]] would be enforced against them if they attempted to assist Guyana with developing the Essequibo region.<ref name=":5" /> The Venezuelan government also warned foreign corporations that any land use agreements with Guyana would be treated as void if Venezuela gained control of the territory.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":4" /> Guyana described Venezuela's actions as "economic aggression".<ref name=":0" /> |
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By 1966, Venezuela began to educate elementary school students that Guayana Esequiba belonged to Venezuela, promoting the idea to younger generations.<ref name=":5" /> Five months after Guyana's independence from the [[United Kingdom]], Venezuela moved to occupy [[Ankoko Island]] from Guyana in October 1966, with Venezuelan troops building military installations and an airstrip on the island.<ref name=":3" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://guyanachronicle.com/2018/04/06/guyana-wants-icj-to-order-venezuela-off-ankoko|title=Guyana wants ICJ to order Venezuela off Ankoko|date=6 April 2018|website=The Guyana Chronicle|access-date=2020-01-17}}</ref> The Guyanese government disputed the occupation of the island by Venezuela, though President Leoni's government forcefully denied Guyana's protests.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=http://www.lapatilla.com/site/2011/09/26/raul-leoni-paro-en-seco-a-guyana-en-la-isla-anacoco-documento/|title=Raúl Leoni paró en seco a Guyana en la Isla Anacoco (documento)|date=26 September 2011|website=[[La Patilla]]|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111202054932/http://www.lapatilla.com/site/2011/09/26/raul-leoni-paro-en-seco-a-guyana-en-la-isla-anacoco-documento/|archive-date=2011-12-02|access-date=17 January 2020}}</ref> |
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Venezuelan actions to acquire Guyanese territory intensified in 1968, with militarization occurring on the Guyana-Venezuela border at the time.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":5" /> Days after leaving a subcommittee discussing Guyana-Venezuela border disputes on 4 July 1968, President Leoni declared an [[annexation]] of {{Convert|9|mi|km|abbr=}} of coastline in the Essequibo on 9 July 1968, stating that the [[Venezuelan Navy]] would enforce the area.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":0" /> |
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| ⚫ | Following the controversial [[1968 Guyanese general election]], Valerie Hart declared herself president of the "Republic of the Rupununi", claiming control of the Rupununi region of Guyana.<ref name=":42" /> The rebels were primarily wealthy ranch owners of European descent that were supported by Amerindians, who were mainly ranch employees.<ref name=":42" /> |
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== Events == |
== Events == |
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=== Tensions === |
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| ⚫ | [[Valerie Hart]], who was a [[The United Force|United Force]] politician and was married to a successful rancher,<ref name=":42">{{Cite book|title=The Trail of Diplomacy: The Guyana-Venezuela Border Issue |
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| ⚫ | Following the controversial [[1968 Guyanese general election]], Valerie Hart declared herself president of the "Republic of the Rupununi", claiming control of the Rupununi region of Guyana.<ref name=":42" /> The rebels were primarily wealthy ranch owners of European descent that were supported by Amerindians, who were mainly ranch employees.<ref name=":42" /> |
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=== Preparation === |
=== Preparation === |
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Some scholars, including Harold Eugene Davis and Pedro González, have argued that Venezuela supported and sponsored the Rupununi rebels and their secession movement.<ref name=":4" |
Some scholars, including Harold Eugene Davis and Pedro González, have argued that Venezuela supported and sponsored the Rupununi rebels and their secession movement.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Davis|first=Harold Eugene|url=https://archive.org/details/latinamericanfor0000davi|title=Latin American Foreign Policies: An Analysis|last2=Wilson|first2=Larman Curtis|publisher=[[Johns Hopkins University Press]]|year=1975|isbn=9780801816956|pages=[https://archive.org/details/latinamericanfor0000davi/page/191 191]-196|url-access=limited}}</ref><ref name=":22">{{Cite book|last=González|first=Pedro|title=La Reclamación de la Guayana Esequiba|year=1991|location=Caracas|pages=14, 45-47}}</ref> According to González, Venezuelan president [[Raúl Leoni]] supported the uprising during the final months of his presidency.<ref name=":22" /> In an effort to receive support from [[Venezuela]], Hart and her rebels stated that they would grant Venezuela control of Guyana's disputed [[Guayana Esequiba]] territory in exchange for assistance.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|title=La Reclamación de la Guayana Esequiba|last=González|first=Pedro|year=1991|location=Caracas|pages=14, 45-47}}</ref> |
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At a 23 December 1968 meeting, ranchers finalized plans of a separated Rupununi state.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=The Venezuela-Guyana Border Dispute: Britain's Colonial Legacy In Latin America|last=Braveboy-Wagner|first=Jacqueline Anne|publisher=[[Routledge]]|year=2019|isbn=9781000306897}}</ref> According to [[Odeen Ishmael]], a Guyanese diplomat, about 40 rebels were transported to [[Santa Elena de Uairén]] in Venezuela by aircraft on 24 December 1968 days after the Guyanese general election,<ref name=":42" /><ref name=":0" /> and that following their arrival, the [[Venezuelan Army]] flew the Rupununi rebels to one of their facilities on 25 December 1968 where they armed with [[automatic rifles]] and [[bazooka|bazookas]] and trained for seven days.<ref name=":42" /> |
At a 23 December 1968 meeting, ranchers finalized plans of a separated Rupununi state.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=The Venezuela-Guyana Border Dispute: Britain's Colonial Legacy In Latin America|last=Braveboy-Wagner|first=Jacqueline Anne|publisher=[[Routledge]]|year=2019|isbn=9781000306897}}</ref> According to [[Odeen Ishmael]], a Guyanese diplomat, about 40 rebels were transported to [[Santa Elena de Uairén]] in Venezuela by aircraft on 24 December 1968 days after the Guyanese general election,<ref name=":42" /><ref name=":0" /> and that following their arrival, the [[Venezuelan Army]] flew the Rupununi rebels to one of their facilities on 25 December 1968 where they armed with [[automatic rifles]] and [[bazooka|bazookas]] and trained for seven days.<ref name=":42" /> |
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=== Reactions === |
=== Reactions === |
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According to professor Basil Ince in 1970, "Venezuela, to signify that it has come of age, is behaving in a blatantly imperialist fashion", writing that "Venezuela's expansionist activity has caused general concern for the peace and security of the Western Hemisphere" and that Caribbean and Latin American countries were "anxious" for a peaceful resolution and the respect for treaties.<ref name=":5" /> Ince expressed the importance that many boundaries within Latin America were formed through treaties, arguing that Venezuela rejecting "the Arbitral Award of 1899 ... would be tantamount to opening a Pandora's Box in Latin America" and that "The gravity of the situation is even more apparent when it is realized that Venezuela is attempting, by force, what has already been settled by a treaty".<ref name=":5" /> |
According to professor Basil Ince in 1970, "Venezuela, to signify that it has come of age, is behaving in a blatantly imperialist fashion", writing that "Venezuela's expansionist activity has caused general concern for the peace and security of the Western Hemisphere" and that Caribbean and Latin American countries were "anxious" for a peaceful resolution and the respect for treaties.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Ince|first=Basil A.|date=1970|title=The Venezuela-Guyana Boundary Dispute in the United Nations|journal=[[Caribbean Studies (journal)|Caribbean Studies]]|volume=9|issue=4|pages=5-26}}</ref> Ince expressed the importance that many boundaries within Latin America were formed through treaties, arguing that Venezuela rejecting "the Arbitral Award of 1899 ... would be tantamount to opening a Pandora's Box in Latin America" and that "The gravity of the situation is even more apparent when it is realized that Venezuela is attempting, by force, what has already been settled by a treaty".<ref name=":5" /> |
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== References == |
== References == |
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Revision as of 12:50, 13 March 2021
| Rupununi Uprising | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
 South of the Guayana Esequiba | |||||||
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| Belligerents | |||||||
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Rupununi separatists Support:
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| Commanders and leaders | |||||||
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Valerie Hart Averrel John Melville | |||||||
| Strength | |||||||
| 200 soldiers[1] | 120–300 rebels[2][3] | ||||||
| Casualties and losses | |||||||
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The Rupununi Uprising was a secessionist insurrection in Guyana that began on 2 January 1969. It was recognized as the largest threat to Guyana's national security since the territorial dispute with Venezuela over the Guayana Esequiba. Occurring less than two years after Guyana’s independence from the United Kingdom, it constituted the country’s earliest and most severe test of statehood and social solidarity. The uprising was ultimately dispersed by the Guyana Defence Force.
Background
Valerie Hart, who was a United Force politician and was married to a successful rancher,[6] was present at the First Conference of Amerindians Leaders, named the "Cabacaburi Congress" in 1968. This Conference presented demands to Prime Minister Forbes Burnham who represented the community of around 40,000 indigenous people of the Rupununi district.[7]
Following the controversial 1968 Guyanese general election, Valerie Hart declared herself president of the "Republic of the Rupununi", claiming control of the Rupununi region of Guyana.[6] The rebels were primarily wealthy ranch owners of European descent that were supported by Amerindians, who were mainly ranch employees.[6]
Events
Preparation
Some scholars, including Harold Eugene Davis and Pedro González, have argued that Venezuela supported and sponsored the Rupununi rebels and their secession movement.[8][9] According to González, Venezuelan president Raúl Leoni supported the uprising during the final months of his presidency.[9] In an effort to receive support from Venezuela, Hart and her rebels stated that they would grant Venezuela control of Guyana's disputed Guayana Esequiba territory in exchange for assistance.[10]
At a 23 December 1968 meeting, ranchers finalized plans of a separated Rupununi state.[11] According to Odeen Ishmael, a Guyanese diplomat, about 40 rebels were transported to Santa Elena de Uairén in Venezuela by aircraft on 24 December 1968 days after the Guyanese general election,[6][11] and that following their arrival, the Venezuelan Army flew the Rupununi rebels to one of their facilities on 25 December 1968 where they armed with automatic rifles and bazookas and trained for seven days.[6]
Attack
Ishmael states that on 2 January 1969, rebels flew in a Douglas C-47 Skytrain operated by Venezuelan personnel to Pirara, Guyana, north of Lethem, the main city of the Rupununi region,[6] and that Valerie Hart, the rebel leader, flew to Caracas aboard the Douglas C-47 Skytrain's returning flight.[6] Rebels began their attacks on Lethem in the morning, killing five police officers and two civilians while also destroying buildings belonging to the Guyanese government with bazooka fire.[6] The rebels locked citizens in their homes and blocked airfields in Lethem, Annai Good Hope, Karanambo and Karasabai, attempting to block staging areas for Guyanese troops.[11]
Counterattack
News about the insurrection reached Georgetown by midday prompting the deployment of policemen and soldiers of the Guyana Defence Force (GDF).[11] GDF troops arrived at an open airstrip 5 miles (8.0 km) away from Lethem.[11] As troops approached, the rebels quickly fled and the uprising ended.[11] About thirty of the rebels were arrested following the uprising.[6] Members of the failed uprising fled to Venezuela for protection after their plans unravelled, with Hart and her rebels being granted Venezuelan citizenship by birth since, according to the Venezuelan government, they were recognized as being born in "the Reclamation Zone", a term widely used by Venezuela.[9][12]
Allegations that Guyanese forces had attacked and possibly killed Amerindians in the region were reported by indigenous groups.[6] Bishop of Georgetown R. Lester Guilly traveled to the area and stated "I am happy to say that I am quite satisfied that there have been no atrocities".[6] Opposition leader Cheddi Jagan attempted to send two of his Amerindian personnel to the region in order to observe possible atrocities, but they were held at the airfield Lethem by GDF troops and flown back to Georgetown.[6]
Aftermath
At a press conference in Caracas on 8 January 1969, Hart, speaking through Venezuelan government-provided interpreters, stated "If Venezuela does not intervene right now with troops they would have in their hands a situation similar to the Bay of Pigs".[6] The Guyanese government sent a letter to Venezuela on 8 January 1969.[11] The letter condemned the "hypocrisy" of the Venezuelan government for attempting to "interfere" in Guyanese affairs, expressing "disgust" at Venezuela's acts to "advance its spurious territorial claim under the cover of subversion and terrorism".[11] Venezuelan Minister of Internal Affairs Reinaldo Leandro Mora admitted publicly that Guyanese individuals received military training in Venezuela under the direction of their parents.[11]
In early-March 1969, 160 Amerindian leaders gathered with Guyanese Prime Minister Forbes Burnham, expressing their loyalty and condemned Venezuela for "instigating" insurrection in Rupununi.[11] When it was apparent that the uprising movement had failed, the Venezuelan government refused to further assist with the uprising[6] and all support ended with the inauguration of Rafael Caldera on 11 March 1969.[9] In his final address to the Congress of Venezuela, President Leoni criticized the Government of Guyana for "cruelly smashing" the rebels.[11]
Venezuelan maps produced since 1970 show the entire area from the eastern bank of the Essequibo, including the islands in the river, as Venezuelan territory. On some maps, the western Essequibo region is called the "Zone in Reclamation".[6]
Reactions
According to professor Basil Ince in 1970, "Venezuela, to signify that it has come of age, is behaving in a blatantly imperialist fashion", writing that "Venezuela's expansionist activity has caused general concern for the peace and security of the Western Hemisphere" and that Caribbean and Latin American countries were "anxious" for a peaceful resolution and the respect for treaties.[13] Ince expressed the importance that many boundaries within Latin America were formed through treaties, arguing that Venezuela rejecting "the Arbitral Award of 1899 ... would be tantamount to opening a Pandora's Box in Latin America" and that "The gravity of the situation is even more apparent when it is realized that Venezuela is attempting, by force, what has already been settled by a treaty".[13]
References
- ^ [1], La insurrección de Rupununi.
- ^ [2], The Trail of Diplomacy: The Guyana-Venezuela Border Issue (Volume Two).
- ^ Ishmael, Dr. Odeen. "The Trail of Diplomacy - A Documentary History of the Guyana-Venezuela Border Issue"
- ^ [3], The Rupununi Revolt.
- ^ [4], The Trail of Diplomacy: The Guyana-Venezuela Border Issue (Volume Two).
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Ishmael, Odeen (2013). The Trail of Diplomacy: The Guyana-Venezuela Border Issue. ISBN 9781493126552.
- ^ Amerindian News Georgetown: vol 2, No 3, May 15th 1968.
- ^ Davis, Harold Eugene; Wilson, Larman Curtis (1975). Latin American Foreign Policies: An Analysis. Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 191-196. ISBN 9780801816956.
- ^ a b c d González, Pedro (1991). La Reclamación de la Guayana Esequiba. Caracas. pp. 14, 45–47.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ González, Pedro (1991). La Reclamación de la Guayana Esequiba. Caracas. pp. 14, 45–47.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Braveboy-Wagner, Jacqueline Anne (2019). The Venezuela-Guyana Border Dispute: Britain's Colonial Legacy In Latin America. Routledge. ISBN 9781000306897.
- ^ Briceño Monzón, Claudio A.; Olivar, José Alberto; Buttó, Luis Alberto (2016). La Cuestión Esequibo: Memoria y Soberanía. Caracas, Venezuela: Universidad Metropolitana. p. 145.
- ^ a b Ince, Basil A. (1970). "The Venezuela-Guyana Boundary Dispute in the United Nations". Caribbean Studies. 9 (4): 5–26.