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The soils of the [[Enderta (woreda)|Inderta]] woreda (district) in [[Tigray Region|Tigray]] ([[Ethiopia]]) reflect its longstanding agricultural history, highly seasonal rainfall regime, relatively low temperatures, overall dominance of limestone and dolerite lithologies and steep slopes. Outstanding features in the soilscape are wide plains with Vertisols.<ref name="plosone">{{cite journal |last1= |first1= |title=Understanding spatial patterns of soils for sustainable agriculture in northern Ethiopia’s tropical mountains. |journal=PLoS ONE |date=2019 |volume=14 |issue=10 |pages=e0224041 |url=https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0224041}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1= Hunting Technical Services |title= Central Tigre Development Study – Tigre Province Ethiopia, Working Paper I: Soils and land classification. |publisher= Hunting Technical Services Ltd. |location= Hemel Hempstead (U.K.)}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=IAO | title= Land evaluation in Enderta District - Tigray Region, Ethiopia.|date=2008 | publisher= Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Istituto Agronomico per l'Oltremare |location= Firenze, Italy }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=IAO | title= Land evaluation in the May Gabat watershed Enderta-Hintalo Wejirat Districts (Northern Ethiopia).|date=2014 | publisher= Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Istituto Agronomico per l'Oltremare |location= Firenze, Italy }}</ref>
The '''soils of the [[Enderta (woreda)|Inderta]] woreda''' (district) in [[Tigray Region|Tigray]] ([[Ethiopia]]) reflect its longstanding agricultural history, highly seasonal rainfall regime, relatively low temperatures, overall dominance of limestone and dolerite lithologies and steep slopes. Outstanding features in the soilscape are wide plains with Vertisols.<ref name="plosone">{{cite journal |last1= Nyssen|first1= Jan|last2= Tielens|first2= Sander|last3= Gebreyohannes|first3= Tesfamichael|last4= Araya|first4= Tigist|last5= Teka|first5= Kassa|last6= Van De Wauw|first6= Johan|last7= Degeyndt|first7= Karen|last8= Descheemaeker|first8= Katrien|last9= Amare|first9= Kassa|last10= Haile|first10= Mitiku|last11= Zenebe|first11= Amanuel|last12= Munro|first12= Neil|last13= Walraevens|first13= Kristine|last14= Gebrehiwot|first14= Kindeya|last15= Poesen|first15= Jean|last16= Frankl|first16= Amaury|last17= Tsegay|first17= Alemtsehay|last18= Deckers|first18= Jozef|title=Understanding spatial patterns of soils for sustainable agriculture in northern Ethiopia's tropical mountains. |journal=PLOS ONE |date=2019 |volume=14 |issue=10 |pages=e0224041 |doi= 10.1371/journal.pone.0224041|pmid= 31639144|pmc= 6804989|bibcode= 2019PLoSO..1424041N|doi-access= free}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1= Hunting Technical Services |title= Central Tigre Development Study – Tigre Province Ethiopia, Working Paper I: Soils and land classification. |publisher= Hunting Technical Services Ltd. |location= Hemel Hempstead (U.K.)}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=IAO | title= Land evaluation in Enderta District - Tigray Region, Ethiopia.|date=2008 | publisher= Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Istituto Agronomico per l'Oltremare |location= Firenze, Italy }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=IAO | title= Land evaluation in the [[May Gabat]] watershed Enderta-Hintalo Wejirat Districts (Northern Ethiopia).|date=2014 | publisher= Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Istituto Agronomico per l'Oltremare |location= Firenze, Italy }}</ref>


== Factors contributing to soil diversity ==
== Factors contributing to soil diversity ==
=== Climate ===
=== Climate ===
Annual rainfall depth is very variable with an average of around 600&nbsp;mm.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jacob |first1=M. and colleagues |title= Assessing spatio-temporal rainfall variability in a tropical mountain area (Ethiopia) using NOAAs Rainfall Estimates. |journal= International Journal of Remote Sensing |date=2013 |volume=34 |issue=23 |pages=8305–8321 |url= https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01431161.2013.837230}}</ref> Most rains fall during the main rainy season, which typically extends from June to September.
Annual rainfall depth is very variable with an average of around 600&nbsp;mm.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jacob |first1=M. and colleagues |title= Assessing spatio-temporal rainfall variability in a tropical mountain area (Ethiopia) using NOAAs Rainfall Estimates. |journal= International Journal of Remote Sensing |date=2013 |volume=34 |issue=23 |pages=8305–8321 |doi=10.1080/01431161.2013.837230 |bibcode=2013IJRS...34.8319J |s2cid=140560276 |url=https://biblio.ugent.be/publication/4252226 |hdl=1854/LU-4252226 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Most rains fall during the main rainy season, which typically extends from June to September.
Mean temperature in woreda town [[Qwiha|Kwiha]] is 20&nbsp;°C, oscillating between average daily minimum of 11.3&nbsp;°C and maximum of 28.4&nbsp;°C. The contrasts between day and night air temperatures are much larger than seasonal contrasts.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Jacob |first1=M. and colleagues |title=Dogu’a Tembien’s Tropical Mountain Climate. In: Geo-trekking in Ethiopia's Tropical Mountains — The Dogu'a Tembien District |date=2019 |publisher=SpringerNature |isbn=978-3-030-04954-6 |url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-04955-3_3}}</ref>
Mean temperature in woreda town [[Qwiha|Kwiha]] is 20&nbsp;°C, oscillating between average daily minimum of 11.3&nbsp;°C and maximum of 28.4&nbsp;°C. The contrasts between day and night air temperatures are much larger than seasonal contrasts.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Jacob |first1=M. and colleagues |title=Dogu'a Tembien's Tropical Mountain Climate. In: Geo-trekking in Ethiopia's Tropical Mountains — The Dogu'a Tembien District |date=2019 |publisher=SpringerNature |isbn=978-3-030-04954-6 |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-04955-3_3 |s2cid=199105560 }}</ref>


=== Geology===
=== Geology===
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* Mekelle [[Dolerite]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=Tefera |first1=M. |last2=Chernet |first2=T. |last3=Haro |first3=W. |title=Geological Map of Ethiopia (1:2,000,000). |publisher=Ethiopian Institute of Geological Survey |location=Addis Ababa, Ethiopia}}</ref>
* Mekelle [[Dolerite]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=Tefera |first1=M. |last2=Chernet |first2=T. |last3=Haro |first3=W. |title=Geological Map of Ethiopia (1:2,000,000). |publisher=Ethiopian Institute of Geological Survey |location=Addis Ababa, Ethiopia}}</ref>
* [[Antalo Limestone]]
* [[Antalo Limestone]]
* [[Quaternary]] [[alluvium]] and freshwater [[tufa]]<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Moeyersons |first1=J. and colleagues |title=Age and backfill/overfill stratigraphy of two tufa dams, Tigray Highlands, Ethiopia: Evidence for Late Pleistocene and Holocene wet conditions. |journal=Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology |date=2006 |volume=230 |issue=1–2 |pages=162–178 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0031018205004281}}</ref>
* [[Quaternary]] [[alluvium]] and freshwater [[tufa]]<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Moeyersons |first1=J. and colleagues |title=Age and backfill/overfill stratigraphy of two tufa dams, Tigray Highlands, Ethiopia: Evidence for Late Pleistocene and Holocene wet conditions. |journal=Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology |date=2006 |volume=230 |issue=1–2 |pages=162–178 |bibcode=2006PPP...230..165M |doi=10.1016/j.palaeo.2005.07.013 }}</ref>


=== Topography ===
=== Topography ===
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=== Environmental changes ===
=== Environmental changes ===
Soil degradation in this district became important when humans started deforestation almost 5000 years ago.<ref name=''esr''>{{cite journal |last1= |first1= |title= Human impact on the environment in the Ethiopian and Eritrean highlands - a state of the art. |journal= Earth-Science Reviews |date=2004 |volume=64 |issue=3–4 |pages=273–320 |url= https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0012825203000783}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Blond |first1=N. and colleagues |title= Terrasses alluviales et terrasses agricoles. Première approche des comblements sédimentaires et de leurs aménagements agricoles depuis 5000 av. n. è. à Wakarida (Éthiopie). |journal= Géomorphologie: Relief, Processus, Environnement |date=2018 |volume=24 |issue=3 |pages=277–300 |url= https://journals.openedition.org/geomorphologie/12258}}</ref> Depending on land use history, locations have been exposed in varying degrees to such land degradation.
[[Soil retrogression and degradation|Soil degradation]] in this district became important when humans started deforestation almost 5000 years ago.<ref name="esr">{{cite journal |last1= Nyssen|first1= Jan|last2= Poesen|first2= Jean|last3= Moeyersons|first3= Jan|last4= Deckers|first4= Jozef|last5= Haile|first5= Mitiku|last6= Lang|first6= Andreas|title= Human impact on the environment in the Ethiopian and Eritrean highlands - a state of the art. |journal= Earth-Science Reviews |date=2004 |volume=64 |issue=3–4 |pages=273–320 |doi= 10.1016/S0012-8252(03)00078-3|bibcode= 2004ESRv...64..273N}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Blond |first1=N. and colleagues |title= Terrasses alluviales et terrasses agricoles. Première approche des comblements sédimentaires et de leurs aménagements agricoles depuis 5000 av. n. è. à Wakarida (Éthiopie). |journal= Géomorphologie: Relief, Processus, Environnement |date=2018 |volume=24 |issue=3 |pages=277–300 |doi=10.4000/geomorphologie.12258 |s2cid=134513245 |url=https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-02446277/file/BLOND_et_al_Geomorphologie_2018_fac_simile.pdf }}</ref> Depending on land use history, locations have been exposed in varying degrees to such [[land degradation]].


== Geomorphic regions and soil units ==
== Geomorphic regions and soil units ==
[[File:CeUP3 Gently rolling Antalo limestone plateau catena.tif|thumb| upright=2|Typical catena in the gently rolling Antalo limestone plateau]]
[[File:CeUP3 Gently rolling Antalo limestone plateau catena.tif|thumb| upright=2|Typical catena in the gently rolling Antalo limestone plateau]]
Given the complex geology and topography of the district, it has been organised into [[land systems]] - areas with specific and unique geomorphic and geological characteristics, characterised by a particular soil distribution along the [[catena (soil)|soil catena]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bui |first1=E.N. |title= Soil survey as a knowledge system. |journal= Geoderma. |date=2004 |volume=120 |issue=1–2 |pages=17–26 |url= https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0016706103002738?via%3Dihub}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1= |first1= |title= Principes de la cartographie des pédopaysages dans les Alpes. |journal=Ecologie |date=1998 |volume=29 |issue=1–2 |pages=49 |url= https://search.proquest.com/docview/223074690?pq-origsite=gscholar}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Tielens | first1=Sander | title= Towards a soil map of the Geba catchment using benchmark soils. MSc thesis.|date=2012 | publisher= K.U.Leuven |location= Leuven, Belgium }}</ref> Soil types are classified in line with [[World Reference Base for Soil Resources]] and reference made to main characteristics that can be observed in the field.
Given the complex geology and topography of the district, it has been organised into [[land systems]] - areas with specific and unique geomorphic and geological characteristics, characterised by a particular soil distribution along the [[catena (soil)|soil catena]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bui |first1=E.N. |title= Soil survey as a knowledge system. |journal= Geoderma. |date=2004 |volume=120 |issue=1–2 |pages=17–26 |doi=10.1016/j.geoderma.2003.07.006 |bibcode=2004Geode.120...17B }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title= Principes de la cartographie des pédopaysages dans les Alpes |journal=Écologie |date=1998 |volume=29 |issue=1–2 |pages=49 |id= {{ProQuest|223074690}}}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Tielens | first1=Sander | title= Towards a soil map of the Geba catchment using benchmark soils. MSc thesis.|date=2012 | publisher= K.U.Leuven |location= Leuven, Belgium }}</ref> Soil types are classified in line with [[World Reference Base for Soil Resources]] and reference made to main characteristics that can be observed in the field.


==== Gently rolling [[Antalo Limestone]] plateau, holding cliffs and valley bottoms ====
=== Gently rolling [[Antalo Limestone]] plateau, holding cliffs and valley bottoms ===
* Associated soil types
* Associated soil types
** shallow stony soils with a dark surface horizon overlying calcaric material (Calcaric [[Leptosol]]) (3)
** shallow stony soils with a dark surface horizon overlying calcaric material (Calcaric [[Leptosol]]) (3)
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==== Gently undulating Agula [[shale]] plateau with [[dolerite]] ====
=== Gently undulating Agula [[shale]] plateau with [[dolerite]] ===
[[File:CeP1 Undulating Agula shale plateau with dolerite catena.tif|thumb| Upright=3|Typical catena on the undulating Agula shale plateau with dolerite]]
[[File:CeP1 Undulating Agula shale plateau with dolerite catena.tif|thumb|upright=3|Typical catena on the undulating Agula shale plateau with dolerite]]
* Dominant soil type: stony, dark cracking [[clay]]s with good natural fertility (Vertic [[Cambisol]]) (10)
* Dominant soil type: stony, dark cracking [[clay]]s with good natural fertility (Vertic [[Cambisol]]) (10)
* Associated soil types
* Associated soil types
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** deep, dark cracking [[clay]]s on calcaric material with good fertility but poor drainage ([[Vertisol]]) (11,12)
** deep, dark cracking [[clay]]s on calcaric material with good fertility but poor drainage ([[Vertisol]]) (11,12)


==== Mekelle Graben ====
=== Mekelle Graben ===
[[File:CeG Mekelle Graben catena.tif|thumb| Upright=3|Typical catena along the Mekelle Fault escarpment]]
[[File:CeG Mekelle Graben catena.tif|thumb|upright=3|Typical catena along the Mekelle Fault escarpment]]
* Associated soil types
* Associated soil types
** moderately deep dark stony [[clay]]s with good natural fertility (Vertic [[Cambisol]]) (10)
** moderately deep dark stony [[clay]]s with good natural fertility (Vertic [[Cambisol]]) (10)
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** Shallow very stony [[loam]]y soil on limestone (Skeletic Calcaric [[Cambisol]]) (5)
** Shallow very stony [[loam]]y soil on limestone (Skeletic Calcaric [[Cambisol]]) (5)


==== Strongly incised Giba gorge====
=== Strongly incised Giba gorge ===
[[File:CeB2 Severely incised Giba catena.tif|thumb| upright=2|Typical catena in the severely incised Giba gorge]]
[[File:CeB2 Severely incised Giba catena.tif|thumb| upright=2|Typical catena in the severely incised Giba gorge]]
[[File: 1960s_bridge_on_Giba_river.jpg|thumb|left|Giba river near Inda Mihtsun]]
[[File:1960s bridge on Giba river in Ethiopia.jpg|thumb|left|Giba river near Inda Mihtsun]]
* Dominant soil type: complex of rock outcrops, very stony and very shallow soils ((Lithic) [[Leptosol]]) (1)
* Dominant soil type: complex of rock outcrops, very stony and very shallow soils ((Lithic) [[Leptosol]]) (1)
* Associated soil types
* Associated soil types
Line 68: Line 68:




==== Ancient river terraces ====
=== Ancient river terraces ===
[[File:CeB3 Ancient river terraces catena.tif|thumb| upright=1.5| Typical catena on ancient river terraces]]
[[File:CeB3 Ancient river terraces catena.tif|thumb| upright=1.5| Typical catena on ancient river terraces]]
* Associated soil types
* Associated soil types
Line 80: Line 80:
** shallow, dark, stony, loamy soils on calcaric material, rich on organic matter (Calcaric Mollic [[Cambisol]]) (23)
** shallow, dark, stony, loamy soils on calcaric material, rich on organic matter (Calcaric Mollic [[Cambisol]]) (23)


==== Alluvial plains induced by [[tufa]] dams ====
=== Alluvial plains induced by [[tufa]] dams ===
[[File:CeT Tufa dam catena.tif|thumb| upright=2|Typical catena on Tufa dam backfill]]
[[File:CeT Tufa dam catena.tif|thumb| upright=2|Typical catena on Tufa dam backfill]]
[[File:Tufa dam in Chelekwot.jpg|thumb|left|Tufa dam in Chelekwot]]
[[File:Tufa dam in Chelekwot.jpg|thumb|left|Tufa dam in Chelekwot]]
Line 91: Line 91:


== Soil erosion and conservation ==
== Soil erosion and conservation ==
The reduced soil protection by vegetation cover, combined with steep slopes and erosive rainfall has led to excessive [[soil erosion]].<ref name=''esr''/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Demel Teketay |first1= |title= Deforestation, wood famine, and environmental degradation in Ethiopia's highland ecosystems: urgent need for action. |journal= Northeast African Studies |date=2001 |volume=8 |issue= |pages=53–76 |url= https://www.jstor.org/stable/41931355?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1= |first1= |title= Land management in the northern Ethiopian highlands: local and global perspectives; past, present and future. |journal= Land Degradation & Development |date=2015 |volume=26 |issue=7 |pages=759–794 |url= https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ldr.2336}}</ref> [[Nutrient]]s and [[organic matter]] were lost and soil depth was reduced. Hence, soil erosion is an important problem, which results in low crop yields and biomass production.<ref>{{cite journal |last1= Tesfay Berihu|first1= and colleagues|title= Soil carbon and nitrogen losses following deforestation in Ethiopia. |journal= Agronomy for Sustainable Development |date=2017 |volume=37 |issue=1 |pages= |url= https://rd.springer.com/article/10.1007/s13593-016-0408-4}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1= Virgo|first1= K.J.|last2= Munro|first2= R.N.|title= Soil and erosion features of the Central Plateau region of Tigrai, Ethiopia. |journal= Geoderma|date=1978 |volume=20 |issue=2 |pages=131–157 |url= https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/001670617890040X}}</ref> As a response to the strong degradation and thanks to the hard labour of many people in the villages, soil conservation has been carried out on a large scale since the 1980s and especially 1980s; this has curbed rates of soil loss.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fitsum Hagos |first1= and colleagues |title= Land degradation in the Highlands of Tigray and strategies for sustainable land management (No. 25)|date=1999 |publisher=ILRI |isbn= |url= https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/132686677.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Munro |first1=N. and colleagues |title=A History of Soil and Water Conservation in Tigray|date=2019 |publisher=SpringerNature |isbn=978-3-030-04954-6 |url=https://rd.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-04955-3_32}}</ref> Measures include the construction of [[infiltration (hydrology)|infiltration]] trenches, stone bunds,<ref>{{cite journal |last1= |first1= |title= Interdisciplinary on-site evaluation of stone bunds to control soil erosion on cropland in Northern Ethiopia. |journal= Soil and Tillage Research |date=2007 |volume=94 |issue=1 |pages=151–163 |url= https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0167198706001632}}</ref> check dams,<ref>{{cite journal |last1= |first1= |title= The effectiveness of loose rock check dams for gully control in Tigray, Northern Ethiopia. |journal= Soil Use and Management |date=2004 |volume=20 |issue= |pages=55–64 |url= https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1475-2743.2004.tb00337.x}}</ref> small reservoirs such as [[Addi Amharay]], [[Arato]] and [[Hiza'iti Wedi Cheber]] as well as a major biological measure: [[exclosure]]s in order to allow forest regeneration.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Descheemaeker |first1=K. and colleagues |title= Sediment deposition and pedogenesis in exclosures in the Tigray Highlands, Ethiopia. |journal=Geoderma |date=2006 |volume=132 |issue= |pages=291–314 |url= https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0016706105001576}}</ref> On the other hand, it remains difficult to convince farmers to carry out measures within the farmland (''in situ'' soil management), such as bed and furrows or zero grazing, as there is a fear for loss of income from the land. Such techniques are however very effective.<ref>{{cite journal |last1= Tewodros Gebreegziabher |first1= and colleagues |title= Contour furrows for in situ soil and water conservation, Tigray, Northern Ethiopia. |journal= Soil and Tillage Research |date=2009 |volume=103 |issue=2 |pages=257–264 |url= https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0167198708001268?via%3Dihub}}</ref>
The reduced soil protection by vegetation cover, combined with steep slopes and erosive rainfall has led to excessive [[soil erosion]].<ref name="esr"/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Demel Teketay |title= Deforestation, wood famine, and environmental degradation in Ethiopia's highland ecosystems: urgent need for action. |journal= Northeast African Studies |date=2001 |volume=8 |issue= 1|pages=53–76 |jstor= 41931355|doi= 10.1353/nas.2005.0020|s2cid= 145550500 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1= Nyssen|first1= Jan|last2= Frankl|first2= Amaury|last3= Zenebe|first3= Amanuel|last4= Deckers|first4= Jozef|last5= Poesen|first5= Jean|title= Land management in the northern Ethiopian highlands: local and global perspectives; past, present and future. |journal= Land Degradation & Development |date=2015 |volume=26 |issue=7 |pages=759–794 |doi= 10.1002/ldr.2336|s2cid= 129501591}}</ref> [[Nutrient]]s and [[organic matter]] were lost and soil depth was reduced. Hence, soil erosion is an important problem, which results in low crop yields and biomass production.<ref>{{cite journal |last1= Tesfay Berihu|first1= and colleagues|title= Soil carbon and nitrogen losses following deforestation in Ethiopia. |journal= Agronomy for Sustainable Development |date=2017 |volume=37 |issue=1 |doi= 10.1007/s13593-016-0408-4|s2cid= 30898575|url= https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01668218/file/13593_2016_Article_408.pdf|doi-access= free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1= Virgo|first1= K.J.|last2= Munro|first2= R.N.|title= Soil and erosion features of the Central Plateau region of Tigrai, Ethiopia. |journal= Geoderma|date=1978 |volume=20 |issue=2 |pages=131–157 |doi= 10.1016/0016-7061(78)90040-X|bibcode= 1978Geode..20..131V|s2cid= 140536258}}</ref> As a response to the strong degradation and thanks to the hard labour of many people in the villages, soil conservation has been carried out on a large scale since the 1980s and especially 1980s; this has curbed rates of soil loss.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fitsum Hagos |first1= and colleagues |title= Land degradation in the Highlands of Tigray and strategies for sustainable land management (No. 25)|date=1999 |publisher=ILRI |url= https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/132686677.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Munro |first1=N. and colleagues |title=Geo-trekking in Ethiopia's Tropical Mountains |pages=477–493 |chapter=A History of Soil and Water Conservation in Tigray|date=2019 |publisher=SpringerNature |isbn=978-3-030-04954-6 |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-04955-3_32 |series=GeoGuide |s2cid=199104514 }}</ref> Measures include the construction of [[infiltration (hydrology)|infiltration]] trenches, stone bunds,<ref>{{cite journal |last1= Nyssen|first1= Jan|last2= Poesen|first2= Jean|last3= Gebremichael|first3= Desta|last4= Vancampenhout|first4= Karen|last5= d'Aes|first5= Margo|last6= Yihdego|first6= Gebremedhin|last7= Govers|first7= Gerard|last8= Leirs|first8= Herwig|last9= Moeyersons|first9= Jan|last10= Naudts|first10= Jozef|last11= Haregeweyn|first11= Nigussie|last12= Haile|first12= Mitiku|last13= Deckers|first13= Jozef|title= Interdisciplinary on-site evaluation of stone bunds to control soil erosion on cropland in Northern Ethiopia. |journal= Soil and Tillage Research |date=2007 |volume=94 |issue=1 |pages=151–163 |doi= 10.1016/j.still.2006.07.011|hdl= 1854/LU-378900|url= https://biblio.ugent.be/publication/378900|hdl-access= free}}</ref> check dams,<ref>{{cite journal |last1= Nyssen|first1= J.|last2= Veyret-Picot|first2= M.|last3= Poesen|first3= J.|last4= Moeyersons|first4= J.|last5= Haile|first5= Mitiku|last6= Deckers|first6= J.|last7= Govers|first7= G.|title= The effectiveness of loose rock check dams for gully control in Tigray, Northern Ethiopia. |journal= Soil Use and Management |date=2004 |volume=20 |pages=55–64 |doi= 10.1111/j.1475-2743.2004.tb00337.x|s2cid= 98547102}}</ref> small reservoirs such as [[Addi Amharay]], [[Arato]] and [[Hiza'iti Wedi Cheber]] as well as a major biological measure: [[exclosure]]s in order to allow forest regeneration.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Descheemaeker |first1=K. and colleagues |title= Sediment deposition and pedogenesis in exclosures in the Tigray Highlands, Ethiopia. |journal=Geoderma |date=2006 |volume=132 |issue= 3–4|pages=291–314 |doi=10.1016/j.geoderma.2005.04.027 |bibcode=2006Geode.132..291D }}</ref> On the other hand, it remains difficult to convince farmers to carry out measures within the farmland (''in situ'' [[soil management]]), such as bed and furrows or zero grazing, as there is a fear for loss of income from the land. Such techniques are however very effective.<ref>{{cite journal |last1= Tewodros Gebreegziabher |first1= and colleagues |title= Contour furrows for in situ soil and water conservation, Tigray, Northern Ethiopia. |journal= Soil and Tillage Research |date=2009 |volume=103 |issue=2 |pages=257–264 |doi= 10.1016/j.still.2008.05.021 }}</ref>


== References ==
== References ==
{{Reflist}}
{{Reflist}}
[[Category:Soil]]
[[Category:Soil geography of Tigray (Ethiopia)]]
[[Category:Types of soil]]
[[Category:Pedology|Classification, soil]]
[[Category:Ethiopia]] [[Category:Tigray Region]]
[[Category:Geology]][[Category:Geomorphology]][[Category:Geography]]

Latest revision as of 21:29, 15 June 2022

The soils of the Inderta woreda (district) in Tigray (Ethiopia) reflect its longstanding agricultural history, highly seasonal rainfall regime, relatively low temperatures, overall dominance of limestone and dolerite lithologies and steep slopes. Outstanding features in the soilscape are wide plains with Vertisols.[1][2][3][4]

Factors contributing to soil diversity

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Climate

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Annual rainfall depth is very variable with an average of around 600 mm.[5] Most rains fall during the main rainy season, which typically extends from June to September. Mean temperature in woreda town Kwiha is 20 °C, oscillating between average daily minimum of 11.3 °C and maximum of 28.4 °C. The contrasts between day and night air temperatures are much larger than seasonal contrasts.[6]

Geology

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From the higher to the lower locations, the following geological formations are present:[7]

Topography

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As part of the Ethiopian highlands the land has undergone a rapid tectonic uplift, leading the occurrence of mountain peaks, plateaus, valleys and gorges.

Land use

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Generally speaking the level lands and intermediate slopes are occupied by cropland, while there is rangeland and shrubs on the steeper slopes. Remnant forests occur around Orthodox Christian churches and a few inaccessible places. A recent trend is the widespread planting of eucalyptus trees.

Environmental changes

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Soil degradation in this district became important when humans started deforestation almost 5000 years ago.[11][12] Depending on land use history, locations have been exposed in varying degrees to such land degradation.

Geomorphic regions and soil units

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Typical catena in the gently rolling Antalo limestone plateau

Given the complex geology and topography of the district, it has been organised into land systems - areas with specific and unique geomorphic and geological characteristics, characterised by a particular soil distribution along the soil catena.[13][14][15] Soil types are classified in line with World Reference Base for Soil Resources and reference made to main characteristics that can be observed in the field.

Gently rolling Antalo Limestone plateau, holding cliffs and valley bottoms

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Gently undulating Agula shale plateau with dolerite

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Typical catena on the undulating Agula shale plateau with dolerite
  • Dominant soil type: stony, dark cracking clays with good natural fertility (Vertic Cambisol) (10)
  • Associated soil types
    • rock outcrops, stony and shallow soils (Lithic Leptosol) (1)
    • red-brownish loamy soils with good natural fertility (Chromic Luvisol) (20)
  • Inclusions
    • deep, dark cracking clays on calcaric material with good fertility but poor drainage (Vertisol) (11,12)

Mekelle Graben

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Typical catena along the Mekelle Fault escarpment
  • Associated soil types
    • moderately deep dark stony clays with good natural fertility (Vertic Cambisol) (10)
    • deep, dark cracking clays on calcaric material (Calcaric Vertisol, Calcic Vertisol) (11)
    • moderately deep, red-brownish, loamy soils with a good natural fertility (Chromic Luvisol) (20)
  • Inclusions
    • Rock outcrops and very shallow soils on limestone (Calcaric Leptosol) (2)
    • Shallow very stony loamy soil on limestone (Skeletic Calcaric Cambisol) (5)

Strongly incised Giba gorge

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Typical catena in the severely incised Giba gorge
Giba river near Inda Mihtsun
  • Dominant soil type: complex of rock outcrops, very stony and very shallow soils ((Lithic) Leptosol) (1)
  • Associated soil types
    • shallow, stony, dark, loamy soils on calcaric material (Rendzic Leptosol) (3)
    • shallow, stony to sandy loam soils on calcaric material (Calcaric Regosol and Cambisol) (21)
    • brown loamy sands developed on alluvium along Giba River (Fluvisol)


Ancient river terraces

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Typical catena on ancient river terraces
  • Associated soil types
    • shallow, stony, dark, loamy soils on calcaric material (Rendzic Leptosol) (3)
    • Deep, dark cracking clays with good fertility, but problems of waterlogging (Chromic and Pellic Vertisol) (12)
    • moderately deep, red-brownish, loamy soils with a good natural fertility (Chromic Luvisol) (20)
    • Brown to dark, silty clay loams to loamy sands developed on alluvium, with good natural fertility (Fluvisol) (30)
  • Inclusions
    • complex of rock outcrops, very stony and very shallow soils ((Lithic) Leptosol) (1)
    • shallow to very shallow, very stony, loamy soils (Skeletic/Leptic Cambisol and Regosol) (4)
    • shallow, dark, stony, loamy soils on calcaric material, rich on organic matter (Calcaric Mollic Cambisol) (23)

Alluvial plains induced by tufa dams

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Typical catena on Tufa dam backfill
Tufa dam in Chelekwot
  • Dominant soil type: deep dark cracking clays with very good natural fertility, waterlogged during the wet season (Chromic Vertisol, Pellic Vertisol) (12)
  • Associated soil type: stony, dark cracking clays with good natural fertility (Vertic Cambisol) (10)
  • Inclusions
    • shallow, stony, dark, loamy soils on calcaric material (Rendzic Leptosol) (3)
    • shallow, very stony, silt loamy to loamy soils (Skeletic Cambisol, Leptic Cambisol, Skeletic Regosol) (4)


Soil erosion and conservation

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The reduced soil protection by vegetation cover, combined with steep slopes and erosive rainfall has led to excessive soil erosion.[11][16][17] Nutrients and organic matter were lost and soil depth was reduced. Hence, soil erosion is an important problem, which results in low crop yields and biomass production.[18][19] As a response to the strong degradation and thanks to the hard labour of many people in the villages, soil conservation has been carried out on a large scale since the 1980s and especially 1980s; this has curbed rates of soil loss.[20][21] Measures include the construction of infiltration trenches, stone bunds,[22] check dams,[23] small reservoirs such as Addi Amharay, Arato and Hiza'iti Wedi Cheber as well as a major biological measure: exclosures in order to allow forest regeneration.[24] On the other hand, it remains difficult to convince farmers to carry out measures within the farmland (in situ soil management), such as bed and furrows or zero grazing, as there is a fear for loss of income from the land. Such techniques are however very effective.[25]

References

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  1. ^ Nyssen, Jan; Tielens, Sander; Gebreyohannes, Tesfamichael; Araya, Tigist; Teka, Kassa; Van De Wauw, Johan; Degeyndt, Karen; Descheemaeker, Katrien; Amare, Kassa; Haile, Mitiku; Zenebe, Amanuel; Munro, Neil; Walraevens, Kristine; Gebrehiwot, Kindeya; Poesen, Jean; Frankl, Amaury; Tsegay, Alemtsehay; Deckers, Jozef (2019). "Understanding spatial patterns of soils for sustainable agriculture in northern Ethiopia's tropical mountains". PLOS ONE. 14 (10): e0224041. Bibcode:2019PLoSO..1424041N. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0224041. PMC 6804989. PMID 31639144.
  2. ^ Hunting Technical Services. Central Tigre Development Study – Tigre Province Ethiopia, Working Paper I: Soils and land classification. Hemel Hempstead (U.K.): Hunting Technical Services Ltd.
  3. ^ IAO (2008). Land evaluation in Enderta District - Tigray Region, Ethiopia. Firenze, Italy: Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Istituto Agronomico per l'Oltremare.
  4. ^ IAO (2014). Land evaluation in the May Gabat watershed Enderta-Hintalo Wejirat Districts (Northern Ethiopia). Firenze, Italy: Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Istituto Agronomico per l'Oltremare.
  5. ^ Jacob, M. and colleagues (2013). "Assessing spatio-temporal rainfall variability in a tropical mountain area (Ethiopia) using NOAAs Rainfall Estimates". International Journal of Remote Sensing. 34 (23): 8305–8321. Bibcode:2013IJRS...34.8319J. doi:10.1080/01431161.2013.837230. hdl:1854/LU-4252226. S2CID 140560276.
  6. ^ Jacob, M. and colleagues (2019). Dogu'a Tembien's Tropical Mountain Climate. In: Geo-trekking in Ethiopia's Tropical Mountains — The Dogu'a Tembien District. SpringerNature. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-04955-3_3. ISBN 978-3-030-04954-6. S2CID 199105560.
  7. ^ Sembroni, A.; Molin, P.; Dramis, F. (2019). Regional geology of the Dogu'a Tembien massif. In: Geo-trekking in Ethiopia's Tropical Mountains — The Dogu'a Tembien District. SpringerNature. ISBN 978-3-030-04954-6.
  8. ^ Bosellini, A.; Russo, A.; Fantozzi, P.; Assefa, G.; Tadesse, S. (1997). "The Mesozoic succession of the Mekelle Outlier (Tigrai Province, Ethiopia)". Mem. Sci. Geol. 49: 95–116.
  9. ^ Tefera, M.; Chernet, T.; Haro, W. Geological Map of Ethiopia (1:2,000,000). Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: Ethiopian Institute of Geological Survey.
  10. ^ Moeyersons, J. and colleagues (2006). "Age and backfill/overfill stratigraphy of two tufa dams, Tigray Highlands, Ethiopia: Evidence for Late Pleistocene and Holocene wet conditions". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 230 (1–2): 162–178. Bibcode:2006PPP...230..165M. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2005.07.013.
  11. ^ a b Nyssen, Jan; Poesen, Jean; Moeyersons, Jan; Deckers, Jozef; Haile, Mitiku; Lang, Andreas (2004). "Human impact on the environment in the Ethiopian and Eritrean highlands - a state of the art". Earth-Science Reviews. 64 (3–4): 273–320. Bibcode:2004ESRv...64..273N. doi:10.1016/S0012-8252(03)00078-3.
  12. ^ Blond, N. and colleagues (2018). "Terrasses alluviales et terrasses agricoles. Première approche des comblements sédimentaires et de leurs aménagements agricoles depuis 5000 av. n. è. à Wakarida (Éthiopie)" (PDF). Géomorphologie: Relief, Processus, Environnement. 24 (3): 277–300. doi:10.4000/geomorphologie.12258. S2CID 134513245.
  13. ^ Bui, E.N. (2004). "Soil survey as a knowledge system". Geoderma. 120 (1–2): 17–26. Bibcode:2004Geode.120...17B. doi:10.1016/j.geoderma.2003.07.006.
  14. ^ "Principes de la cartographie des pédopaysages dans les Alpes". Écologie. 29 (1–2): 49. 1998. ProQuest 223074690.
  15. ^ Tielens, Sander (2012). Towards a soil map of the Geba catchment using benchmark soils. MSc thesis. Leuven, Belgium: K.U.Leuven.
  16. ^ Demel Teketay (2001). "Deforestation, wood famine, and environmental degradation in Ethiopia's highland ecosystems: urgent need for action". Northeast African Studies. 8 (1): 53–76. doi:10.1353/nas.2005.0020. JSTOR 41931355. S2CID 145550500.
  17. ^ Nyssen, Jan; Frankl, Amaury; Zenebe, Amanuel; Deckers, Jozef; Poesen, Jean (2015). "Land management in the northern Ethiopian highlands: local and global perspectives; past, present and future". Land Degradation & Development. 26 (7): 759–794. doi:10.1002/ldr.2336. S2CID 129501591.
  18. ^ Tesfay Berihu, and colleagues (2017). "Soil carbon and nitrogen losses following deforestation in Ethiopia" (PDF). Agronomy for Sustainable Development. 37 (1). doi:10.1007/s13593-016-0408-4. S2CID 30898575.
  19. ^ Virgo, K.J.; Munro, R.N. (1978). "Soil and erosion features of the Central Plateau region of Tigrai, Ethiopia". Geoderma. 20 (2): 131–157. Bibcode:1978Geode..20..131V. doi:10.1016/0016-7061(78)90040-X. S2CID 140536258.
  20. ^ Fitsum Hagos, and colleagues (1999). Land degradation in the Highlands of Tigray and strategies for sustainable land management (No. 25) (PDF). ILRI.
  21. ^ Munro, N. and colleagues (2019). "A History of Soil and Water Conservation in Tigray". Geo-trekking in Ethiopia's Tropical Mountains. GeoGuide. SpringerNature. pp. 477–493. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-04955-3_32. ISBN 978-3-030-04954-6. S2CID 199104514.
  22. ^ Nyssen, Jan; Poesen, Jean; Gebremichael, Desta; Vancampenhout, Karen; d'Aes, Margo; Yihdego, Gebremedhin; Govers, Gerard; Leirs, Herwig; Moeyersons, Jan; Naudts, Jozef; Haregeweyn, Nigussie; Haile, Mitiku; Deckers, Jozef (2007). "Interdisciplinary on-site evaluation of stone bunds to control soil erosion on cropland in Northern Ethiopia". Soil and Tillage Research. 94 (1): 151–163. doi:10.1016/j.still.2006.07.011. hdl:1854/LU-378900.
  23. ^ Nyssen, J.; Veyret-Picot, M.; Poesen, J.; Moeyersons, J.; Haile, Mitiku; Deckers, J.; Govers, G. (2004). "The effectiveness of loose rock check dams for gully control in Tigray, Northern Ethiopia". Soil Use and Management. 20: 55–64. doi:10.1111/j.1475-2743.2004.tb00337.x. S2CID 98547102.
  24. ^ Descheemaeker, K. and colleagues (2006). "Sediment deposition and pedogenesis in exclosures in the Tigray Highlands, Ethiopia". Geoderma. 132 (3–4): 291–314. Bibcode:2006Geode.132..291D. doi:10.1016/j.geoderma.2005.04.027.
  25. ^ Tewodros Gebreegziabher, and colleagues (2009). "Contour furrows for in situ soil and water conservation, Tigray, Northern Ethiopia". Soil and Tillage Research. 103 (2): 257–264. doi:10.1016/j.still.2008.05.021.
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