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{{Short description|American special engineering development and manufacturing company}}
'''ILC Dover''' (formerly '''ILC Industries''') is a [[Dover, Delaware]]-based corporation located in nearby [[Frederica, Delaware]]. Approximately ten-percent of the workforce is stationed at the [[Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center]]. Most of the company's work is done under contract to [[NASA]] and the [[United States Department of Defense]].
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[[File:STS-118 EVA EMU Suit.jpg|thumb|EMU suit worn during EVA on the International Space Station]]
'''ILC Dover, LP''' is a special engineering development and manufacturing company, globally headquartered in [[Frederica, Delaware]]. ILC Dover specializes in the use of high-performance flexible materials, serving the [[aerospace manufacturer|aerospace]], [[personal protective equipment|personal protection]], and [[Pharmaceutical industry|pharmaceutical industries]].


The company is famous for making the [[Space suit|spacesuits]] for [[Project Apollo]] in the 1960s and 1970s, in which 45 astronauts wore its so-called "A7L" and "A7L-B" model suits without experiencing any significant failure. After the [[Apollo-Soyuz Test Project]] in 1975, ILC Dover teamed up with the [[Hamilton Sundstrand Corporation]] to produce the [[Space Shuttle]] two-piece, self-contained extravehicular mobility unit (EMU), in which a derivative of the unit is still being used by astronauts onboard the [[International Space Station]].
Best known for making [[Spacesuits|space suits]] for [[NASA]], ILC Dover outfitted every United States [[astronaut]] in the [[Apollo program]], including the twelve that walked on the Moon. ILC also designed and manufactured the Space Suit Assembly portion of the [[Extravehicular Mobility Unit]] (EMU) developed by [[Collins Aerospace]], worn by astronauts during performance of [[extra-vehicular activity]] (EVA) on [[Space Shuttle]] missions and on the [[International Space Station]].

Other ILC Dover products include the airbag landing devices for [[Mars Pathfinder]] and [[Mars Exploration Rover]] (MER) missions; lighter-than-air vehicles, including [[airship]]s, [[aerostat]]s, and [[zeppelin]]s; [[chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear]] (CBRN) masks and hood systems; and flexible powder-containment solutions for the pharmaceutical industry.{{citation needed|date=December 2018}}


==History==
==History==
ILC Dover initially formed as a branch of the [[International Latex Corporation]], the company founded in 1932 by Abram Spanel and later known as [[Playtex]] best known for manufacture of women's undergarments. The International Latex Corporation supported American efforts in World War II with latex products such as attack boats, life rafts, and canteens. In 1947, the International Latex Corporation split into four divisions, one of which, the Metals Division, eventually became ILC Dover.<ref name="milestones">ILC Dover, [http://www.ilcdover.com/index.cfm?fuseaction=trees.treePage&p=955-255-1911 "ILC Milestones"]. Retrieved on 2011-02-01</ref><ref>Jewish Virtual Library, [http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/judaica/ejud_0002_0019_0_18940.html "Obituary, Abram Nathaniel Spanel, '' Encyclopedia Judaica''"]. Retrieved on 2011-02-01.</ref>
At its inception in [[1947]], ILC Dover manufactured [[Brassiere|bras]] and [[girdle]]s while it was a division of [[Playtex]], at that time known as "International Latex". After its sale by Playtex in the 1950s, ILC Dover moved to the manufacture of [[Pressure suit|pressurized suit]]s for aircraft [[test pilot]]s.


Located at that time in [[Dover, Delaware]], ILC's earliest work was on high-altitude pressure helmets and high-altitude pressure suits for the U.S Navy and Air Force. In 1965, ILC (then known as the Government and Industrial Division of the International Latex Corporation) was awarded the prime contract for the [[Apollo/Skylab A7L|Apollo Lunar Space Suit]], based on its unique approach to designing flexible joints in air filled suits.<ref name="spins">NASA Tech Briefs, [http://www.techbriefs.com/component/content/1535?task=view "Space Suit Spins"]. Retrieved on 2011-02-01.</ref> ILC successfully designed and manufactured the suit worn by astronauts in the Apollo program, including Neil Armstrong during the first moonwalk. By 1969, ILC's workforce expanded to 900 employees as it supported the space program through production of Apollo space suits and a sun shield to protect Skylab, the first U.S. space station.<ref name="milestones" /><ref name="Bivens">Bivens, Terry, [http://www.chron.com/CDA/archives/archive.mpl/1987_507484/icl-dover-known-for-spacesuit-design.html "ICL (sic) Dover known for Spacesuit Design, ''Houston Chronicle'', 12/6/87"], Houston Chronicle Archives. Retrieved on 2011-02-01.</ref>
As early as [[1955]], the company began designing spacesuits. In the early 1960s, when [[NASA]] announced it was looking for a "Block II" Apollo spacesuit to be worn for launch, landing, and [[extra-vehicular activity]] (EVA), Hamilton Sundstrand(then Hamilton Standard), contracted ILC to fabricate the joints for the new suit. Because of problems expierienced by ILC employees with the fabrication of the joints, Hamilton United dropped ILC, but NASA, facing lawsuits from ILC for [[breach of contract]], allowed the company to enter their version of the Apollo spacesuit into the competition. After a one week test trial, in which spacesuit from Hamilton United, ILC, and the [[David Clark Company]]<ref>The [[David Clark Company]] manufactured the [[Project Gemini|Gemini]] and [[Project Apollo|Apollo]] "Block I" spacesuit, the same suit that [[Gus Grissom]], [[Edward Higgins White|Ed White]], and [[Roger B. Chaffee|Roger Chaffee]] wore when they were killed in the [[Apollo 1]] fire in 1967</ref> were compared, NASA chose the ILC suit and gave the company the prime contract to produce over 30 suits for the upcoming Apollo missions. The first manned flight, [[Apollo 7]] in [[1968]], was also the first flight of the company's "A7L" spacesuit.


[[File:M40 gasmask.jpg|thumb|M40 Gas Mask]]
When NASA shut down the space program in the 1970s, ILC Dover almost went out of business, dropping from a staff of 1000 to 25, before entering the field of unmanned [[airship]] manufacture. Since their entry into this market, the company has manufactured most of the large (>50,000 cubic feet) [[airship envelope]]s for vehicles such as [[Non-rigid airship|blimp]]s which are presently in use in the United States. In the 1980s, ILC Dover returned to the manufacture of spacesuits, this time for the [[Space Shuttle program]]. Also in the 1980s, the company expanded their product line to include [[gas mask]]s. Presently, ILC Dover is the largest supplier of gas masks to the [[United States Army]]. Later, the company began manufacture of isolation bags for hazardous pharmaceutical compounds which would otherwise require workers to wear protective suits and masks to handle and transport.
In 1974, the [[Skylab]] program ended, and ILC faced an immediate need to diversify their product offerings. That same year, ILC delivered its first [[aerostat]] to the U.S. Air Force for use at Cudjoe Key Air Force Station.<ref name="milestones" /> Subsequently, they entered the field of [[personal protective equipment]], paving the way for development of industrial protection suits, such as the [[Chemturion]] suit line. In later years, their development of protective equipment expanded into type classified military [[chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear|chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear (CBRN)]] masks and hood systems (for example, the M43, M40, MBU-19/P). The [[M40 Field Protective Mask|M40/M42 masks]] became the standard field mask of the U.S. Army, and, as of 2010, over two million had been produced and sold.<ref name="Bivens" /><ref name=durantine /><ref>U.S. Army Fact Files, [http://www.army.mil/factfiles/equipment/nbc/m40.html "Weapons Systems, Field Protection Mask, M40/42 Series"]. Retrieved on 2011-02-01.</ref> [[Hamilton Standard]], of Windsor Locks, CT was contracted to oversee ILC's suit manufacture due to ILC's inexperience with federal government contracts.<ref name="moonmachines">{{cite news|title=Moon Machines - Space Suit Factory|url=http://science.discovery.com/videos/moon-machines-space-suit-factory.html|newspaper=Discovery Science|date=May 4, 2009|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101229025411/http://science.discovery.com/videos/moon-machines-space-suit-factory.html|archive-date=December 29, 2010}}</ref>


In 1977, ILC Dover, in conjunction with [[Hamilton Standard]], began development and manufacture of the [[Extravehicular Mobility Unit]] (EMU), the suit worn by astronauts during [[Space Shuttle]] and [[Space Station]] [[extra-vehicular activity]] (EVA). ILC continued its support of the space program, while expanding its personal protection and lighter-than-air (LTA) vehicle lines.<ref name="spins" /><ref name="Bivens" />
ILC is currently designing a new model of spacesuit, the "I-Suit", for use in future manned missions to the moon and Mars.


[[File:Challenger Memorial Station At Meridiani Planum.jpg|thumb|left|[[Opportunity (rover)|Mars Exploration Rover ''Opportunity'']] airbag on the surface of Mars]]
==Apollo spacesuits==
{{main|Apollo/Skylab A7L}}
The suits worn by the astronauts on the 11 manned Apollo flights, the three manned [[Skylab]] flights, and Apollo-Soyuz, were identical in fabrication. Each suit, called a "pressure garment assembly", was a five-layer suit made from rubber-coated [[nylon]], and alternating layers of nylon and [[nomex]], a fire-resistant fabric. Depending upon the individual mission, and each crew member's job, the suits were different from basic appearance, and function. From Apollo 7 to Apollo 14, the command module pilot's suit had a three-layer fireproof "cover layer" consisting of spuned teflon-coated fiberglass, called "beta cloth", over layers of mylar and nomex. His suit had three connectors, two for environmental and life support, and one for communications. This was the same suit worn on Apollo-Soyuz, but by all three astronauts, as they did not conduct any EVAs during the flight.


In 1994 and 1995, ILC was awarded contracts with the German company Zeppelin Luftschifftechnik GmbH and the [[American Blimp Corporation]] for production of envelopes for each company. Over the following decade, ILC's production of LTA vehicles continued, and in 2001, ILC, in collaboration with TCOM and Uretek, developed and manufactured the world's largest pressurized LTA vehicle for [[CargoLifter]] in Brand, Germany.<ref name="milestones" /><ref>Airship Blimp Resources, [http://www.myairship.com/database/ilcdover.html "ILC Dover"]. Retrieved on 2011-02-01.</ref><ref>Frembes, Linda Seid, [http://www.themanufacturer.com/us/profile/2226/ILC_Dover "ILC Dover, Weaving through Space, ''The Manufacturer''"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927051845/http://www.themanufacturer.com/us/profile/2226/ILC_Dover |date=2011-09-27 }}. Retrieved on 2011-02-01.</ref>
The commander and lunar module pilot had a cover layer made up of 12 additional layers, alternating of both mylar and kaptan fabric, with a beta cloth outer layer for fire protection, and an inner layer of nylon for abrasion protection. These astronauts also had boots made of a silicone rubber compound with uppers made of "Chromel-R", a woven steel that provided abrasion protection while on the moon's surface. The EVA gloves were also made of the same material. The suit, in addition to the three main connectors, also had three addition connectors, six altogether, that allowed the hookup of the EVA backpack (built by Hamilton Standard), providing emergency oxygen and liquid water cooling, by means of a [[Liquid Cooling and Ventilation Garment|Liquid Cooling Garment]].


In 1994, NASA's [[Jet Propulsion Laboratory]] contracted ILC to develop and manufacture the airbag landing system for the [[Mars Pathfinder|Mars Pathfinder mission]], which successfully cushioned Pathfinder's landing on July 4, 1997. In 2003, ILC's airbag system enabled the safe landing of the twin rovers, ''[[Spirit rover|Spirit]]'' and ''[[Opportunity rover|Opportunity]]'', during the [[Mars Exploration Rover|Mars Exploration Rover (MER) missions]].<ref name="spins" /><ref name=durantine /><ref>Space Daily, [http://www.spacedaily.com/news/mars-mera-04j.html "ILC Dover Airbags Cushion MER Spirit Landing on Mars, ''Mars Daily''"]. Retrieved on 2011-02-01.</ref>
For Apollos 15 through 17, the commander and LM pilot wore a modified "A7L-B" suit, which had improved waist joints, and better abrasion protection (as the crew performed three EVAs during each mission), while the CM pilot wore a five-connector version of the "A7L" suit--the liquid water cooling connector being omitted, as the CM pilot, during the trip back to Earth, wore a life-support umbilical, providing both oxygen for breathing and air conditioning. The "A7L-B" suit was also worn by all three Skylab crews, but with an umbilical assembly similar to that worn on the [[Gemini]] flights.


In the 1990s ILC entered the [[pharmaceutical industry]] with the design and production of flexible containment systems, used to improve operator safety and ensure product purity during the manufacturing processing of potent pharmaceutical agents.<ref name="spins" /><ref>O'Hanlon, John, [http://www.themanufacturer.com/us/profile/3966/ILC_Dover "ILC Dover, Giant Strides, ''The Manufacturer''"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110918130135/http://www.themanufacturer.com/us/profile/3966/ILC_Dover |date=2011-09-18 }}. Retrieved on 2011-02-01.</ref>
==Other spaceflight-related products==

* ILC manufactured the air bags which were deployed for final braking by the Mars landers [[Spirit rover|''Spirit'']] and [[Opportunity rover|''Opportunity'']]
==Space suits==
[[File:Buzz Aldrin Apollo Spacesuit.jpg|thumb|Apollo Spacesuit worn by [[Buzz Aldrin]]]]
[[File:Z-1 Spacesuit Prototype - kneeling Nov 2012.jpg|thumb|Z-1 Spacesuit Prototype - kneeling Nov 2012]]
Since the beginning of the [[Apollo Program]], ILC has been the designer and producer of the space suit pressure garment for [[NASA]]. Throughout [[Apollo program|Apollo]], [[Skylab]], [[Space Shuttle]], and [[Space Station]] missions, the space suit has been required to protect astronauts from hazards faced in Earth's orbit and on the surface of the Moon. These hazards include the vacuum environment of space, temperature extremes ranging from -250 degrees Fahrenheit to 250 degrees Fahrenheit, the impact of micrometeoroids and orbital debris, and [[lunar dust]]. Above the 63,000 foot threshold, spacesuits are needed to supply oxygen and to provide a pressurized environment around the body to keep body fluids in a liquid state.<ref name="NASA history">NASA History Program Office, [https://history.nasa.gov/spacesuits.pdf Human Space Flight, Spacesuits]. Retrieved on 2011-02-10.</ref>

===Apollo and Skylab===
ILC began delivering spacesuits for the [[Apollo program]] in 1966. Initial deliveries of suits did not perform well in tests and NASA initially cancelled its contract with ILC and Hamilton Standard.<ref name=moonmachines /> NASA relaunched the program to develop a spacesuit for the Apollo program experimenting at first with hard suits. ILC and Hamilton Standard submitted competing designs this time with ILC winning the sole contract based on its flexible, close-fitting design which featured water cooled undergarment, a blue inner pressurized layer, and covered in a white nylon layer to protect the suits from rocks. Hamilton received a separate contract for the life support backpack unit. ILC was further challenged after the [[Apollo 1]] fire to remove all flammable material from space suits. After a nationwide search, ILC settled on [[beta cloth]], a fireproof silica fiber cloth.<ref name=moonmachines /><ref>{{cite book|title=Apollo Operations Handbook Extra Vehicular Mobility Unit, CSD-A-789-(1)|year=1971|publisher=NASA}}</ref> Apollo spacesuits were custom-made for each of the astronauts in the program, and for each of the twelve crewed flights carried out, ILC produced fifteen suits. Three suits were made for each of the three astronauts comprising the crew (one suit for flight, one for training, one for back-up) and two suits were made for each of the three back-up crew members (one suit for flight and one for training). Twenty [[Extra-vehicular activity|extra-vehicular activities]] (EVAs) were performed during the [[Apollo program]], and ten were performed during [[Skylab]]. The Apollo suits were used for a total of 160 hours on the lunar surface.<ref name="NASA history" /><ref name="ILC spacesuits">ILC Dover, [http://www.ilcdover.com Spacesuits]. Retrieved on 2011-02-10.</ref><ref name="NASA directorates">NASA, [http://www.nasa.gov/directorates/somd/reports/eva.html Directorates, Space Operations]. Retrieved on 2011-02-10.</ref>

===Space Shuttle===
The space suit used for EVA during [[Space Shuttle]] missions is the [[Extravehicular Mobility Unit]] (EMU), which has two parts: the space suit assembly (SSA), manufactured by ILC, and the [[Primary Life Support System|life support system]] (LSS), manufactured by Hamilton Sundstrand (previously Hamilton Standard). The SSA is made of individual components which are assembled to fit each astronaut. Since the first shuttle EVA in 1983, 216 U.S. astronauts have performed a total of 74 shuttle EVAs, combining for greater than 470 hours in space.<ref name="NASA history" /><ref name="ILC spacesuits" /><ref name="NASA directorates" />

===International Space Station===
The shuttle EMU was improved for use on the [[International Space Station]] (ISS). The suits for the ISS were modified to provide greater mobility, to afford better tactile capabilities of the glove, and to provide an increased operational life. As of February 2011, a total of 104 EVAs on the ISS had occurred, for greater than 650 total hours in space.<ref name="ILC spacesuits" /><ref name="NASA directorates" />

===Mark III===
The [[Mark III (space suit)|Mark III]] (MKIII) is an experimental suit that was designed by ILC for use on the [[International Space Station|space station]]. The suit is a combination of hard and soft elements, designed for pressurization to {{cvt|8.3|psi}}. Shuttle suits are pressurized to {{cvt|4.3|psi}}, and astronauts are required to breathe pure oxygen for several hours prior to EVA to remove all dissolved nitrogen from body fluids (to prevent "[[Decompression sickness|the bends]]" upon de-pressurization). Pressurization to {{cvt|8.3|psi}} would eliminate the need for a lengthy pre-breathing time. The Mk III has since been used in test programs that study space suit operations in the lunar and [[Mars]] surface environments.<ref name="NASA history" /><ref name="ILC spacesuits" />

===Lunar and Mars suit prototype (I Suit)===
The [[I-Suit]] is a lightweight experimental suit designed and manufactured by ILC to be used for high-mobility surface operations in gravity, such as on the lunar surface or on the surface of [[Mars]]. The I-suit is also being studied for use with next generation NASA launch vehicles and commercial space vehicles.<ref name="ILC spacesuits" />

===Z-1 Prototype Suit===
ILC continues in their space suit innovation<ref name="ILC spacesuits" /> with the development of the [[Z-1 Suit]] for NASA <ref name="ILC Z-1 Awards">ILC Dover, [http://www.ilcdover.com/Awards ILC Awards] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120704020033/http://www.ilcdover.com/Awards/ |date=2012-07-04 }}. Retrieved on 2012-12-21.</ref> Designed and manufactured at ILC Dover's Houston <ref name="ILC Houston">ILC Dover, [http://www.ilcdover.com/index.cfm?fuseaction=trees.treePage&treeID=292 ILC Houston]. Retrieved on 2012-12-21.</ref> facility. The Z-1 is the first suit to be successfully integrated into a suit-port dock mechanism eliminating the need for an air lock; and reducing the consumable demands on long term missions.

==Lighter than air structures==
[[File:Zeppellin NT amk.JPG|thumb|left|Lighter-Than-Air]]
Since the early 1970s, ILC has been designing and manufacturing softgoods structures for [[aerostat]]s, [[airship]]s, [[blimp]]s, and other [[Lighter than air|lighter-than-air]] (LTA) structures. ILC is the world's largest producer of modern aerostat and airship envelopes.<ref name=durantine>Durantine, Peter, [http://www.delawareonline.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20060505/LIFE/605050330/-1/NEWS01 "This Suit Was Made for Walkin', ''The News Journal'', 5/5/06"], Delaware Online. Retrieved on 2011-02-10.</ref><ref name="ILC LTA">ILC Dover, [http://www.ilcdover.com/Lighter-Than-Air-Structures/ Lighter-Than-Air-Structures] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110114092434/http://www.ilcdover.com/Lighter-Than-Air-Structures/ |date=2011-01-14 }}. Retrieved 2011-02-01.</ref>

===Airships and blimps===
Airships and blimps are used for a variety of applications including transport and tourism; advertising; and surveillance. ILC's airship products are used by the U.S. military, the American Blimp Corporation, and Zeppelin Luftschifftechnik GmbH (Germany).<ref name="ILC LTA" /><ref>Bolkcom, Christopher, [http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/weapons/RS21886.pdf "Potential Military Use of Airships and Aerostats," ''CRS Report for Congress'']. Retrieved on 2011-02-10.</ref>

===High altitude airships===
Since the early 1980s, ILC has been involved in the design and development of high altitude airships. The advent and growth of the cellular phone market renewed interest in the use of high altitude airships as an economical alternative to satellites. In the past decade, ILC has worked with Lockheed Martin to support several US government-funded [[high-altitude airship]] (HAA) programs to define the system for a mobile platform capable of carrying various payloads, including communications and Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance (ISR) sensors.<ref name="ILC LTA" /><ref name=browndover>Brown, Jeff, [http://www.doverpost.com/communities/dover/x1042542996/ILC-Dover-expands-work-on-terrorist-detecting-airships "ILC Dover Expands Work on Terrorist-Detecting Airships"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718152638/http://www.doverpost.com/communities/dover/x1042542996/ILC-Dover-expands-work-on-terrorist-detecting-airships |date=2011-07-18 }} ''Dover Post'', Apr 20, 2010. Retrieved 2011-02-10.</ref>

[[File:MarfaTX.jpg|thumb|Tethered Aerostat]]

===Tethered aerostats===
Aerostats are typically utilized as platforms to carry surveillance radars to altitudes reaching {{convert|15,000|ft}} while tethered to the ground by a single tether. ILC has manufactured aerostats with volumes ranging from {{convert|56,000|to|595,000|ft3}}. The length of these aerostats ranges from {{convert|109|to|240|ft}}.<ref name=durantine /><ref name="ILC LTA" /><ref name=browndover />

===Heavy lift airships and balloons===
The lift generated by a helium filled LTA vehicle can allow heavy loads to be transported in an economical manner. In the early 1990s, ILC was involved in the design and manufacture of logging balloons, devices used in the northwestern U.S. and western Canada for the purpose of retrieving logs from mountainous areas inaccessible by road.<ref name="spins" /><ref name="ILC LTA" />

==Personal protective equipment==
[[File:US Navy 030428-M-1852W-037 Hospital Corpsman John Copeck assigned to 3D Medical Battalion, Training Company, takes a break to hydrate after connecting his canteen to his gas mask.jpg|thumb|M40 gas mask]]
Since the mid-1970s, ILC has designed and produced products for chemical and biological protection. Currently, ILC designs and produces [[respirator]]s, masks, and [[Hazmat suits|suits]] used to protect against [[Chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear|chemical, biological, radiological and nuclear]] (CBRN) threats. The products are used by U.S. military troops, federal employees, scientists and health care workers.

===Masks and respirators===
ILC produces powered air purifying respirators (PAPRs). These include the Sentinel XL CBRN PAPR, used to protect against [[Chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear|CBRN]] threats; the Sentinel HP PAPR, used to protect against [[infectious disease]]; and the Sentinel XT PAPR, used to protect pharmaceutical workers from airborne [[active ingredient|active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs)]]. They also produce an air purifying escape respirator (APER), the SCape CBRN, and the [[M40 Field Protective Mask|M40/42 gas mask]] used by the U.S. military.<ref name="spins" /><ref>FEMA, [https://www.rkb.us/contentdetail.cfm?content_id=141292 Sentinel XL CBRN, Product Details] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111006101059/https://www.rkb.us/contentdetail.cfm?content_id=141292 |date=2011-10-06 }}. Retrieved on 2011-02-11.</ref><ref name="ILC PPE">ILC Dover, [http://www.ilcdover.com/PPE-Personal-Protection-Equipment/ PPE -Personal-Protection-Equipment]. Retrieved on 2011-02-11.</ref>

===Protective suits===
{{see also|Chemturion}}
In the late 1970s, ILC developed a special garment, the [[Demilitarization Protective Ensemble]] (DPE), to fulfill the U.S. Army's need for an off-the-shelf, positive pressure, totally encapsulating suit for use by maintenance personnel at a [[chemical weapon]]s site. The DPE was delivered to the Army in 1979 and is still currently in daily use, with over 700 recorded entries into a "hot" environment and a perfect safety record.

From the technology used in production of the DPE, ILC developed a protective suit to be used for commercial applications. The [[Chemturion]] is a multi-use, totally encapsulating protective suit, currently used by Public Health Canada, Boston University, USAMRIID and AI Signal Research, the Center for Disease Control in Atlanta, and many industrial companies such as DuPont, Dow, and Georgia Pacific.<ref name="ILC PPE" /><ref>U.S. Army Chemical Materials Agency, [http://www.cma.army.mil/fndocumentviewer.aspx?docid=003676566 Suiting up for Safety, Fact Sheet] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923204937/http://www.cma.army.mil/fndocumentviewer.aspx?docid=003676566 |date=2015-09-23 }}. Retrieved on 2011-02-11.</ref>

==Flexible pharmaceutical containment systems==
ILC designs and manufactures products that allow for flexible containment of potent pharmaceutical agents during the [[pharmaceutical drug]] manufacturing process. Such containment systems enable the safe and effective processing of active pharmaceutical ingredients. Flexible enclosure systems or specific products, such as the DoverPac, G2Pac and Continuous Liner, can be incorporated into various procedures in the manufacturing process to provide containment of potent pharmaceutical agents, protecting workers from harmful exposure and ensuring purity of the pharmaceutical agents by preventing [[contamination]].<ref name="spins" /><ref>George, Alan, [http://www.lifescienceleader.com/index.php?option=com_jambozine&layout=article&view=page&aid=3935&Itemid=56 "Key Regulatory Considerations for Flexible Containment Systems"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110713204421/http://www.lifescienceleader.com/index.php?option=com_jambozine&layout=article&view=page&aid=3935&Itemid=56 |date=2011-07-13 }}, ''Life Science Leader,'' Dec 2009. Retrieved on 2011-02-11.</ref><ref>Wood, James P., ed. ''Containment in the Pharmaceutical Industry'', Marcel Dekker, Inc., 2001.</ref>

==Space inflatables==
[[File:Pan segment1.gif|thumb|left|Pathfinder airbag on Mars]]
ILC designs and manufactures [[inflatable structure]]s for use in [[Geocentric orbit|earth orbit]], [[Moon|lunar]], and [[Timeline of Solar System exploration|planetary exploration]]. Inflatable structures have been used on a number of space missions for a variety of applications including specialized flexible containment covers ([[Hubble Space Telescope]]), [[Impact attenuator|impact attenuation]] airbag systems, and inflatable aerodynamic decelerators.<ref>NASA, [http://www.aeronautics.nasa.gov/fap/hyp_atmosphericentry.html Atmospheric Entry Decelerator Technologies] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721050008/http://www.aeronautics.nasa.gov/fap/hyp_atmosphericentry.html |date=2011-07-21 }}. Retrieved on 2011-02-11.</ref><ref>ILC Dover, [http://www.ilcdover.com/Space-Inflatables/ Space Inflatables]. Retrieved on 2011-02-11.</ref>

===Habitats and shelters===
ILC has developed and manufactured a variety of inflatable habitats, [[airlock]]s, and shelters for use in [[Geocentric orbit|Earth orbit]] and [[Moon|lunar]] / [[Timeline of Solar System exploration|planetary exploration]]. [[Inflatable space habitat|Lunar habitat projects]] include the X-Hab Lunar Habitat, the InFlex Lunar Habitat, the Toroidal Lunar Habitat, and the Expandable Lunar Habitat. ILC has also worked on the Antarctic Habitat Planetary Analog Study, the Lawrence Livermore Inflatable Space Station, and the Minimum Function Habitat.<ref>Spaminato, Phil, [http://spirit.as.utexas.edu/~fiso/telecon/Spampinato_7-28-10/Spampinato%207-28-10.pdf "Overview of ILC Dover Habitat Programs and Technology"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120317005721/http://spirit.as.utexas.edu/~fiso/telecon/Spampinato_7-28-10/Spampinato%207-28-10.pdf |date=2012-03-17 }}, Future in Space (FISO) Colloquium, Jul 2010. Retrieved on 2011-02-11.</ref><ref>SpaceRef, [http://www.spaceref.com/news/viewsr.html?pid=26912 NASA, NSF, ILC Dover Inflatable Habitat Blog, Jan 2008]. Retrieved on 2011-02-11.</ref>

===Impact bags===
[[File:Pathfinder Air Bags - GPN-2000-000484.jpg|thumb|The Pathfinder air bags are tested in June 1995]]For decades, ILC has worked on the design and manufacture of inflatable airbag systems. ILC's most notable accomplishments are the [[Mars Pathfinder]] and [[Mars Exploration Rover]] (MER) airbags which helped land the ''[[Mars Pathfinder|Sojourner]]'', ''[[Spirit rover|Spirit]]'', and ''[[Opportunity rover|Opportunity]]'' rovers on the surface of [[Mars]]. In addition to planetary landing systems, ILC has designed and fabricated airbag landing systems to safely return crewed and uncrewed space systems to the surface of Earth. This includes airbags for the [[Orion spacecraft]], and the Advanced Launch System.<ref name="spins" /><ref>NASA, [http://www.nasa.gov/centers/glenn/about/history/marspbag.html Mars Pathfinder Air Bag Landing Test]. Retrieved on 2011-02-11.</ref><ref>NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory, [https://web.archive.org/web/20040228224749/http://marsrover.nasa.gov/spotlight/airbags01.html How to Land Softly on a Hard Planet]. Retrieved on 2011-02-01.</ref>

===Other===
Other inflatable products with space applications include [[ballute]]s and decelerators; inflatable and deployable [[Antenna (radio)|antenna]]s; [[Space sunshade|sunshields]], [[solar sail]]s and [[Photovoltaic array|solar arrays]]; [[radiation]] shields; decoys; and planetary balloons.

==Engineered inflatables==
ILC has produced numerous inflatable structures for military and aerospace applications. Inflatable structures are those made from high-performance flexible materials, often providing weight, size, and economic advantages over structures made from traditional metal or composite materials. Products include [[ballute]]s and decelerators; floats; munition dispensing systems; [[Unmanned aerial vehicle|UAV]] wings; [[radome]]s; and shelters.


==References==
==References==
{{Reflist|2}}
* {{cite news

|first = Peter |last = Durantine
==Further reading==
|title = This suit was made for walkin'... |publisher = [[The News Journal]]
*{{cite book|title=Spacesuit: Fashioning Apollo|first=Nicholas|last=de Monchaux|isbn=978-0262015202|publisher=MIT Press|year=2011}}
|pages = E4–E5 |date = May 5, 2006

}}
==External links==
*[http://www.ilcdover.com ILC Dover]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20101027004735/http://doverpac.com/index.cfm DoverPac.com]


{{DEFAULTSORT:Ilc Dover}}
[[Category:Apollo program]]
[[Category:Apollo program]]
[[Category:Companies based in Delaware]]
[[Category:Companies based in Kent County, Delaware]]
[[Category:Dover, Delaware]]
[[Category:Technology companies established in 1947]]
[[Category:1947 establishments in Delaware]]

Revision as of 16:45, 27 November 2023

ILC Dover
Gegründet1947 Edit this on Wikidata
Hauptsitz
Frederica, Delaware[1]
Websitewww.ilcdover.com
EMU suit worn during EVA on the International Space Station

ILC Dover, LP is a special engineering development and manufacturing company, globally headquartered in Frederica, Delaware. ILC Dover specializes in the use of high-performance flexible materials, serving the aerospace, personal protection, and pharmaceutical industries.

Best known for making space suits for NASA, ILC Dover outfitted every United States astronaut in the Apollo program, including the twelve that walked on the Moon. ILC also designed and manufactured the Space Suit Assembly portion of the Extravehicular Mobility Unit (EMU) developed by Collins Aerospace, worn by astronauts during performance of extra-vehicular activity (EVA) on Space Shuttle missions and on the International Space Station.

Other ILC Dover products include the airbag landing devices for Mars Pathfinder and Mars Exploration Rover (MER) missions; lighter-than-air vehicles, including airships, aerostats, and zeppelins; chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear (CBRN) masks and hood systems; and flexible powder-containment solutions for the pharmaceutical industry.[citation needed]

History

ILC Dover initially formed as a branch of the International Latex Corporation, the company founded in 1932 by Abram Spanel and later known as Playtex best known for manufacture of women's undergarments. The International Latex Corporation supported American efforts in World War II with latex products such as attack boats, life rafts, and canteens. In 1947, the International Latex Corporation split into four divisions, one of which, the Metals Division, eventually became ILC Dover.[2][3]

Located at that time in Dover, Delaware, ILC's earliest work was on high-altitude pressure helmets and high-altitude pressure suits for the U.S Navy and Air Force. In 1965, ILC (then known as the Government and Industrial Division of the International Latex Corporation) was awarded the prime contract for the Apollo Lunar Space Suit, based on its unique approach to designing flexible joints in air filled suits.[4] ILC successfully designed and manufactured the suit worn by astronauts in the Apollo program, including Neil Armstrong during the first moonwalk. By 1969, ILC's workforce expanded to 900 employees as it supported the space program through production of Apollo space suits and a sun shield to protect Skylab, the first U.S. space station.[2][5]

M40 Gas Mask

In 1974, the Skylab program ended, and ILC faced an immediate need to diversify their product offerings. That same year, ILC delivered its first aerostat to the U.S. Air Force for use at Cudjoe Key Air Force Station.[2] Subsequently, they entered the field of personal protective equipment, paving the way for development of industrial protection suits, such as the Chemturion suit line. In later years, their development of protective equipment expanded into type classified military chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear (CBRN) masks and hood systems (for example, the M43, M40, MBU-19/P). The M40/M42 masks became the standard field mask of the U.S. Army, and, as of 2010, over two million had been produced and sold.[5][6][7] Hamilton Standard, of Windsor Locks, CT was contracted to oversee ILC's suit manufacture due to ILC's inexperience with federal government contracts.[8]

In 1977, ILC Dover, in conjunction with Hamilton Standard, began development and manufacture of the Extravehicular Mobility Unit (EMU), the suit worn by astronauts during Space Shuttle and Space Station extra-vehicular activity (EVA). ILC continued its support of the space program, while expanding its personal protection and lighter-than-air (LTA) vehicle lines.[4][5]

Mars Exploration Rover Opportunity airbag on the surface of Mars

In 1994 and 1995, ILC was awarded contracts with the German company Zeppelin Luftschifftechnik GmbH and the American Blimp Corporation for production of envelopes for each company. Over the following decade, ILC's production of LTA vehicles continued, and in 2001, ILC, in collaboration with TCOM and Uretek, developed and manufactured the world's largest pressurized LTA vehicle for CargoLifter in Brand, Germany.[2][9][10]

In 1994, NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory contracted ILC to develop and manufacture the airbag landing system for the Mars Pathfinder mission, which successfully cushioned Pathfinder's landing on July 4, 1997. In 2003, ILC's airbag system enabled the safe landing of the twin rovers, Spirit and Opportunity, during the Mars Exploration Rover (MER) missions.[4][6][11]

In the 1990s ILC entered the pharmaceutical industry with the design and production of flexible containment systems, used to improve operator safety and ensure product purity during the manufacturing processing of potent pharmaceutical agents.[4][12]

Space suits

Apollo Spacesuit worn by Buzz Aldrin
Z-1 Spacesuit Prototype - kneeling Nov 2012

Since the beginning of the Apollo Program, ILC has been the designer and producer of the space suit pressure garment for NASA. Throughout Apollo, Skylab, Space Shuttle, and Space Station missions, the space suit has been required to protect astronauts from hazards faced in Earth's orbit and on the surface of the Moon. These hazards include the vacuum environment of space, temperature extremes ranging from -250 degrees Fahrenheit to 250 degrees Fahrenheit, the impact of micrometeoroids and orbital debris, and lunar dust. Above the 63,000 foot threshold, spacesuits are needed to supply oxygen and to provide a pressurized environment around the body to keep body fluids in a liquid state.[13]

Apollo and Skylab

ILC began delivering spacesuits for the Apollo program in 1966. Initial deliveries of suits did not perform well in tests and NASA initially cancelled its contract with ILC and Hamilton Standard.[8] NASA relaunched the program to develop a spacesuit for the Apollo program experimenting at first with hard suits. ILC and Hamilton Standard submitted competing designs this time with ILC winning the sole contract based on its flexible, close-fitting design which featured water cooled undergarment, a blue inner pressurized layer, and covered in a white nylon layer to protect the suits from rocks. Hamilton received a separate contract for the life support backpack unit. ILC was further challenged after the Apollo 1 fire to remove all flammable material from space suits. After a nationwide search, ILC settled on beta cloth, a fireproof silica fiber cloth.[8][14] Apollo spacesuits were custom-made for each of the astronauts in the program, and for each of the twelve crewed flights carried out, ILC produced fifteen suits. Three suits were made for each of the three astronauts comprising the crew (one suit for flight, one for training, one for back-up) and two suits were made for each of the three back-up crew members (one suit for flight and one for training). Twenty extra-vehicular activities (EVAs) were performed during the Apollo program, and ten were performed during Skylab. The Apollo suits were used for a total of 160 hours on the lunar surface.[13][15][16]

Space Shuttle

The space suit used for EVA during Space Shuttle missions is the Extravehicular Mobility Unit (EMU), which has two parts: the space suit assembly (SSA), manufactured by ILC, and the life support system (LSS), manufactured by Hamilton Sundstrand (previously Hamilton Standard). The SSA is made of individual components which are assembled to fit each astronaut. Since the first shuttle EVA in 1983, 216 U.S. astronauts have performed a total of 74 shuttle EVAs, combining for greater than 470 hours in space.[13][15][16]

International Space Station

The shuttle EMU was improved for use on the International Space Station (ISS). The suits for the ISS were modified to provide greater mobility, to afford better tactile capabilities of the glove, and to provide an increased operational life. As of February 2011, a total of 104 EVAs on the ISS had occurred, for greater than 650 total hours in space.[15][16]

Mark III

The Mark III (MKIII) is an experimental suit that was designed by ILC for use on the space station. The suit is a combination of hard and soft elements, designed for pressurization to 8.3 psi (57 kPa). Shuttle suits are pressurized to 4.3 psi (30 kPa), and astronauts are required to breathe pure oxygen for several hours prior to EVA to remove all dissolved nitrogen from body fluids (to prevent "the bends" upon de-pressurization). Pressurization to 8.3 psi (57 kPa) would eliminate the need for a lengthy pre-breathing time. The Mk III has since been used in test programs that study space suit operations in the lunar and Mars surface environments.[13][15]

Lunar and Mars suit prototype (I Suit)

The I-Suit is a lightweight experimental suit designed and manufactured by ILC to be used for high-mobility surface operations in gravity, such as on the lunar surface or on the surface of Mars. The I-suit is also being studied for use with next generation NASA launch vehicles and commercial space vehicles.[15]

Z-1 Prototype Suit

ILC continues in their space suit innovation[15] with the development of the Z-1 Suit for NASA [17] Designed and manufactured at ILC Dover's Houston [18] facility. The Z-1 is the first suit to be successfully integrated into a suit-port dock mechanism eliminating the need for an air lock; and reducing the consumable demands on long term missions.

Lighter than air structures

Lighter-Than-Air

Since the early 1970s, ILC has been designing and manufacturing softgoods structures for aerostats, airships, blimps, and other lighter-than-air (LTA) structures. ILC is the world's largest producer of modern aerostat and airship envelopes.[6][19]

Airships and blimps

Airships and blimps are used for a variety of applications including transport and tourism; advertising; and surveillance. ILC's airship products are used by the U.S. military, the American Blimp Corporation, and Zeppelin Luftschifftechnik GmbH (Germany).[19][20]

High altitude airships

Since the early 1980s, ILC has been involved in the design and development of high altitude airships. The advent and growth of the cellular phone market renewed interest in the use of high altitude airships as an economical alternative to satellites. In the past decade, ILC has worked with Lockheed Martin to support several US government-funded high-altitude airship (HAA) programs to define the system for a mobile platform capable of carrying various payloads, including communications and Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance (ISR) sensors.[19][21]

Tethered Aerostat

Tethered aerostats

Aerostats are typically utilized as platforms to carry surveillance radars to altitudes reaching 15,000 feet (4,600 m) while tethered to the ground by a single tether. ILC has manufactured aerostats with volumes ranging from 56,000 to 595,000 cubic feet (1,600 to 16,800 m3). The length of these aerostats ranges from 109 to 240 feet (33 to 73 m).[6][19][21]

Heavy lift airships and balloons

The lift generated by a helium filled LTA vehicle can allow heavy loads to be transported in an economical manner. In the early 1990s, ILC was involved in the design and manufacture of logging balloons, devices used in the northwestern U.S. and western Canada for the purpose of retrieving logs from mountainous areas inaccessible by road.[4][19]

Personal protective equipment

M40 gas mask

Since the mid-1970s, ILC has designed and produced products for chemical and biological protection. Currently, ILC designs and produces respirators, masks, and suits used to protect against chemical, biological, radiological and nuclear (CBRN) threats. The products are used by U.S. military troops, federal employees, scientists and health care workers.

Masks and respirators

ILC produces powered air purifying respirators (PAPRs). These include the Sentinel XL CBRN PAPR, used to protect against CBRN threats; the Sentinel HP PAPR, used to protect against infectious disease; and the Sentinel XT PAPR, used to protect pharmaceutical workers from airborne active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs). They also produce an air purifying escape respirator (APER), the SCape CBRN, and the M40/42 gas mask used by the U.S. military.[4][22][23]

Protective suits

See also: Chemturion

In the late 1970s, ILC developed a special garment, the Demilitarization Protective Ensemble (DPE), to fulfill the U.S. Army's need for an off-the-shelf, positive pressure, totally encapsulating suit for use by maintenance personnel at a chemical weapons site. The DPE was delivered to the Army in 1979 and is still currently in daily use, with over 700 recorded entries into a "hot" environment and a perfect safety record.

From the technology used in production of the DPE, ILC developed a protective suit to be used for commercial applications. The Chemturion is a multi-use, totally encapsulating protective suit, currently used by Public Health Canada, Boston University, USAMRIID and AI Signal Research, the Center for Disease Control in Atlanta, and many industrial companies such as DuPont, Dow, and Georgia Pacific.[23][24]

Flexible pharmaceutical containment systems

ILC designs and manufactures products that allow for flexible containment of potent pharmaceutical agents during the pharmaceutical drug manufacturing process. Such containment systems enable the safe and effective processing of active pharmaceutical ingredients. Flexible enclosure systems or specific products, such as the DoverPac, G2Pac and Continuous Liner, can be incorporated into various procedures in the manufacturing process to provide containment of potent pharmaceutical agents, protecting workers from harmful exposure and ensuring purity of the pharmaceutical agents by preventing contamination.[4][25][26]

Space inflatables

Pathfinder airbag on Mars

ILC designs and manufactures inflatable structures for use in earth orbit, lunar, and planetary exploration. Inflatable structures have been used on a number of space missions for a variety of applications including specialized flexible containment covers (Hubble Space Telescope), impact attenuation airbag systems, and inflatable aerodynamic decelerators.[27][28]

Habitats and shelters

ILC has developed and manufactured a variety of inflatable habitats, airlocks, and shelters for use in Earth orbit and lunar / planetary exploration. Lunar habitat projects include the X-Hab Lunar Habitat, the InFlex Lunar Habitat, the Toroidal Lunar Habitat, and the Expandable Lunar Habitat. ILC has also worked on the Antarctic Habitat Planetary Analog Study, the Lawrence Livermore Inflatable Space Station, and the Minimum Function Habitat.[29][30]

Impact bags

The Pathfinder air bags are tested in June 1995

For decades, ILC has worked on the design and manufacture of inflatable airbag systems. ILC's most notable accomplishments are the Mars Pathfinder and Mars Exploration Rover (MER) airbags which helped land the Sojourner, Spirit, and Opportunity rovers on the surface of Mars. In addition to planetary landing systems, ILC has designed and fabricated airbag landing systems to safely return crewed and uncrewed space systems to the surface of Earth. This includes airbags for the Orion spacecraft, and the Advanced Launch System.[4][31][32]

Other

Other inflatable products with space applications include ballutes and decelerators; inflatable and deployable antennas; sunshields, solar sails and solar arrays; radiation shields; decoys; and planetary balloons.

Engineered inflatables

ILC has produced numerous inflatable structures for military and aerospace applications. Inflatable structures are those made from high-performance flexible materials, often providing weight, size, and economic advantages over structures made from traditional metal or composite materials. Products include ballutes and decelerators; floats; munition dispensing systems; UAV wings; radomes; and shelters.

References

  1. ^ "Contact".
  2. ^ a b c d ILC Dover, "ILC Milestones". Retrieved on 2011-02-01
  3. ^ Jewish Virtual Library, "Obituary, Abram Nathaniel Spanel, Encyclopedia Judaica". Retrieved on 2011-02-01.
  4. ^ a b c d e f g h NASA Tech Briefs, "Space Suit Spins". Retrieved on 2011-02-01.
  5. ^ a b c Bivens, Terry, "ICL (sic) Dover known for Spacesuit Design, Houston Chronicle, 12/6/87", Houston Chronicle Archives. Retrieved on 2011-02-01.
  6. ^ a b c d Durantine, Peter, "This Suit Was Made for Walkin', The News Journal, 5/5/06", Delaware Online. Retrieved on 2011-02-10.
  7. ^ U.S. Army Fact Files, "Weapons Systems, Field Protection Mask, M40/42 Series". Retrieved on 2011-02-01.
  8. ^ a b c "Moon Machines - Space Suit Factory". Discovery Science. May 4, 2009. Archived from the original on December 29, 2010.
  9. ^ Airship Blimp Resources, "ILC Dover". Retrieved on 2011-02-01.
  10. ^ Frembes, Linda Seid, "ILC Dover, Weaving through Space, The Manufacturer" Archived 2011-09-27 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved on 2011-02-01.
  11. ^ Space Daily, "ILC Dover Airbags Cushion MER Spirit Landing on Mars, Mars Daily". Retrieved on 2011-02-01.
  12. ^ O'Hanlon, John, "ILC Dover, Giant Strides, The Manufacturer" Archived 2011-09-18 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved on 2011-02-01.
  13. ^ a b c d NASA History Program Office, Human Space Flight, Spacesuits. Retrieved on 2011-02-10.
  14. ^ Apollo Operations Handbook Extra Vehicular Mobility Unit, CSD-A-789-(1). NASA. 1971.
  15. ^ a b c d e f ILC Dover, Spacesuits. Retrieved on 2011-02-10.
  16. ^ a b c NASA, Directorates, Space Operations. Retrieved on 2011-02-10.
  17. ^ ILC Dover, ILC Awards Archived 2012-07-04 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved on 2012-12-21.
  18. ^ ILC Dover, ILC Houston. Retrieved on 2012-12-21.
  19. ^ a b c d e ILC Dover, Lighter-Than-Air-Structures Archived 2011-01-14 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 2011-02-01.
  20. ^ Bolkcom, Christopher, "Potential Military Use of Airships and Aerostats," CRS Report for Congress. Retrieved on 2011-02-10.
  21. ^ a b Brown, Jeff, "ILC Dover Expands Work on Terrorist-Detecting Airships" Archived 2011-07-18 at the Wayback Machine Dover Post, Apr 20, 2010. Retrieved 2011-02-10.
  22. ^ FEMA, Sentinel XL CBRN, Product Details Archived 2011-10-06 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved on 2011-02-11.
  23. ^ a b ILC Dover, PPE -Personal-Protection-Equipment. Retrieved on 2011-02-11.
  24. ^ U.S. Army Chemical Materials Agency, Suiting up for Safety, Fact Sheet Archived 2015-09-23 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved on 2011-02-11.
  25. ^ George, Alan, "Key Regulatory Considerations for Flexible Containment Systems" Archived 2011-07-13 at the Wayback Machine, Life Science Leader, Dec 2009. Retrieved on 2011-02-11.
  26. ^ Wood, James P., ed. Containment in the Pharmaceutical Industry, Marcel Dekker, Inc., 2001.
  27. ^ NASA, Atmospheric Entry Decelerator Technologies Archived 2011-07-21 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved on 2011-02-11.
  28. ^ ILC Dover, Space Inflatables. Retrieved on 2011-02-11.
  29. ^ Spaminato, Phil, "Overview of ILC Dover Habitat Programs and Technology" Archived 2012-03-17 at the Wayback Machine, Future in Space (FISO) Colloquium, Jul 2010. Retrieved on 2011-02-11.
  30. ^ SpaceRef, NASA, NSF, ILC Dover Inflatable Habitat Blog, Jan 2008. Retrieved on 2011-02-11.
  31. ^ NASA, Mars Pathfinder Air Bag Landing Test. Retrieved on 2011-02-11.
  32. ^ NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory, How to Land Softly on a Hard Planet. Retrieved on 2011-02-01.

Further reading

  • de Monchaux, Nicholas (2011). Spacesuit: Fashioning Apollo. MIT Press. ISBN 978-0262015202.
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