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{{short description|A 1990s European proposal of a robotic spaceplane}}
{{short description|1990s European proposal of a robotic spaceplane}}
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{{Infobox Space Shuttle
{{Infobox Space Shuttle
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'''Hopper''' was a proposed [[European Space Agency]] (ESA) orbital [[spaceplane]] and [[reusable launch vehicle]]. The Hopper was a [[FESTIP]] (Future European Space Transportation Investigations Programme) system study design<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.esa.int/esapub/bulletin/bullet97/dujarric.pdf |title=Possible Future European Launchers, A Process of Convergence |journal=ESA Bulletin |publisher=European Space Agency |first=C. |last=Dujarric |issue=97 |pages=11–19 |date=March 1999}}</ref>
'''Hopper''' was a proposed [[European Space Agency]] (ESA) orbital [[spaceplane]] and [[reusable launch vehicle]]. The Hopper was a [[FESTIP]] (Future European Space Transportation Investigations Programme) system study design.<ref name="dujarric-feb1999">{{Cite journal |last=Dujarric |first=C. |date=February 1999 |title=Possible Future European Launchers - A Process of Convergence |url=https://www.esa.int/esapub/bulletin/bullet97/dujarric.pdf |url-status=live |journal=ESA Bulletin |publisher=[[European Space Agency]] |issue=97 |pages=11–19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231016070951/https://www.esa.int/esapub/bulletin/bullet97/dujarric.pdf |archive-date=16 October 2023 }}</ref>


Hopper was one of several proposals developed by the ESA to function as a European reusable launch vehicle (RLV), which was envisioned to be used for the inexpensive delivery of [[satellite]] payloads into orbit as early as 2015.<ref name="NewScientist" >McKee, Maggie. [https://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn4975 "Europe's space shuttle passes early test."] ''[[New Scientist]]'', 10 May 2004.</ref> A prototype of Hopper, known as ('''EADS''') '''Phoenix''', was a German-led European project which involved the construction and testing of a one-seventh scale model of the larger Hopper. On 8 May 2004, a single test flight of the Phoenix was conducted at the [[North European Aerospace Test range]] in Kiruna, [[Sweden]].<ref name = "BBC 2014">[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/3699848.stm "Launching the next generation of rockets."] ''[[BBC News]]'', 1 October 2004.</ref>
Hopper was one of several proposals for a reusable launch vehicle (RLV) developed by the ESA. The proposed reusable launch vehicles were to be used for the inexpensive delivery of [[satellite]] payloads into orbit as early as 2015.<ref name="NewScientist">{{cite magazine |last1=Mckee |first1=Maggie |title=Europe's space shuttle passes early test |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn4975-europes-space-shuttle-passes-early-test/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231016070948/https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn4975-europes-space-shuttle-passes-early-test/ |archive-date=16 October 2023 |date=10 May 2004 |url-status=live |magazine=[[New Scientist]] }}</ref> A prototype of Hopper, known as ('''EADS''') '''Phoenix''', was a German-led European project which involved the construction and testing of a one-seventh scale model of the proposed Hopper. On 8 May 2004, a single test flight of the Phoenix was conducted at the [[North European Aerospace Test range]] in Kiruna, [[Sweden]], which was followed by more tests later that month.<ref name="BBC 2014">{{cite news |title=Launching the next generation of rockets |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/3699848.stm |work=[[BBC News]] |date=1 October 2004 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231016070948/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/3699848.stm |archive-date=16 October 2023 |url-status=live }}</ref>


==Development==
==Development==
===Background===
===Background===
From the 1980s onwards, there was growing international interest in the development of reusable spacecraft; at this time, only the [[superpower]]s of the era, the [[Soviet Union]] and the [[United States]], had developed this capability.<ref name = "ARD ESA"/> European nations such as Britain and France embarked on their own national programmes to produce [[spaceplane]]s, such as [[HOTOL]] and [[Hermes (spacecraft)|Hermes]], while attempting to attract the backing of the multinational [[European Space Agency]] (ESA). While these programmes ultimately did not garner enough support to continue development, there was still demand within a number of the ESA's member states to pursue the development of reusable space vehicles.<ref name = "ARD ESA">[http://cds.cern.ch/record/411209/files/cer-000338706.pdf "The Atmospheric Reentry Demonstrator."] ''[[European Space Agency]]'', October 1998. BR-138.</ref> During the 1990s, in addition to the development and operation of several technology demonstrator programmes, such as the [[Atmospheric Reentry Demonstrator]] (ARD), the ESA were also working on the production of a long-term framework for the eventual development of a viable reusable spacecraft, known as the [[Future Launchers Preparatory Programme]] (FLPP).<ref name = "pezze 36">G. Pezzellaa et al. 2010. p. 36.</ref>
From the 1980s onwards, there was growing international interest in the development of reusable spacecraft; at the time, only the [[superpower]]s of the era, the [[Soviet Union]] and the [[United States]], had developed this capability.<ref name = "ARD ESA"/> European nations such as the [[United Kingdom]] and [[France]] embarked on their own national programs to produce spaceplanes, such as [[HOTOL]] and [[Hermes (spacecraft)|Hermes]], while attempting to attract the backing of the multinational [[European Space Agency]] (ESA). While these programs ultimately did not garner enough support to continue development, there was still demand within a number of the ESA's member states to pursue the development of reusable space vehicles.<ref name = "ARD ESA">[https://cds.cern.ch/record/411209/files/cer-000338706.pdf "The Atmospheric Reentry Demonstrator."] ''[[European Space Agency]]'', October 1998. BR-138.</ref> During the 1990s, in addition to the development and operation of several technology demonstrator programs, such as the [[Atmospheric Reentry Demonstrator]] (ARD), the ESA were also working on the production of a long-term framework for the eventual development of a viable reusable spacecraft, known as the [[Future Launchers Preparatory Programme]] (FLPP).<ref name = "pezze 36">G. Pezzellaa et al. 2010. p. 36.</ref>


Under FLPP, the ESA and European industrial partners performed detailed investigations of several partially-reusable launch vehicle concepts; the aim of the program was to prepare a suitable vehicle to, upon a favourable decision by the ESA's member-nations, proceed with the production of a Next Generation Launcher (NGL).<ref name = "pezze 36"/> A total of four launch concepts were studied, these were named as the Horizontal Take-Off (HTO) Hopper, the Vertical Take-Off (VTO) Hopper, the Reusable First Stage (RFS), and the [[liquid fly-back booster]] (LFBB). Each of these concept vehicles consisted of a reusable winged [[Booster (rocketry)|booster]], which was paired with an expendable upper stage, to deliver a payload in [[geostationary transfer orbit]] (GTO).<ref name = "pezze 36"/>
Under FLPP, the ESA and European industrial partners performed detailed investigations of several partially-reusable launch vehicle concepts; the aim of the program was to prepare a suitable vehicle to, upon a favorable decision by the ESA's member-nations, proceed with the production of a Next Generation Launcher (NGL).<ref name = "pezze 36"/> A total of four launch concepts were studied: the Horizontal Take-Off (HTO) Hopper, the Vertical Take-Off (VTO) Hopper, the Reusable First Stage (RFS), and the [[liquid fly-back booster]]. Each of these concept vehicles consisted of a reusable winged [[Booster (rocketry)|booster]], which was paired with an expendable upper stage, to deliver a payload in [[geostationary transfer orbit]].<ref name = "pezze 36"/>


The HTO variant of Hopper was designed for horizontal take-off, the first portion of which was to be achieved via a [[rocket sled]] arrangement.<ref name = "pezze 36"/> It possessed relatively conventional wing-body configuration, one atypical feature was the nose of the spacecraft, which possessed a deliberately low [[Camber (aerodynamics)|camber]] so that the required size of the [[elevon]]s for desired [[Trim tab|trim]] functionality could be reduced while also resulting in an improved internal structure, such as in the accommodation of the [[Landing gear|nose gear]].<ref name = "pezze 36"/> Aerodynamically, the HTO Hopper configuration features a rounded [[delta wing|delta]] [[planform]] wing at a 60-degree [[leading edge]] sweep, which was matched with a central [[vertical stabilizer]] and a flat-bottomed underside for the purpose of maximising the spacecraft's performance during [[hypersonic]] flight.<ref name = "pezze 36"/>
The HTO Hopper variant was designed for horizontal take-off, the first portion of which was to be achieved via a [[rocket sled]] arrangement.<ref name = "pezze 36"/> It possessed a relatively conventional wing-body configuration, although one atypical feature was the nose of the spacecraft, which possessed a deliberately low [[Camber (aerodynamics)|camber]] so that the required size of the [[elevon]]s for desired [[Trim tab|trim]] functionality could be reduced while also resulting in an improved internal structure, such as in the accommodation of the [[Landing gear|nose gear]].<ref name = "pezze 36"/> Aerodynamically, the HTO Hopper configuration features a rounded [[delta wing|delta]] [[planform]] wing at a 60-degree [[leading edge]] sweep, which was matched with a central [[vertical stabilizer]] and a flat-bottomed underside for the purpose of maximizing the spacecraft's performance during [[hypersonic]] flight.<ref name = "pezze 36"/>


The alternative VTO variant of Hopper was designed for vertical take-off, being launched conventionally via an [[expendable launch system]].<ref name = "pezze 37"/> It features a relatively traditional slender [[missile]]-like body, but differed in the presence of a small delta wing at a 45-degree leading edge sweep and a central vertical stabilizer arrangement. In terms of its structure, the VTO Hopper possessed a circular cross section complete with a loft fillet on the underside of the craft which functioned to accommodate both the wings and bodyflap; it also featured a booster which was designed to carry on the payload upon the nose of the fuselage.<ref name = "pezze 37">G. Pezzellaa et al. 2010. p. 37.</ref> Studies determined that both the HTO and the VTO Hopper concepts possessed a relatively similar reentry load environment.<ref name = "pezze 38 39">G. Pezzellaa et al. 2010. pp. 38-39.</ref>
The alternative VTO Hopper variant was designed for vertical take-off, being launched conventionally via an [[expendable launch system]].<ref name = "pezze 37"/> It featured a relatively traditional slender [[missile]]-like body but differed in the presence of a small delta wing at a 45-degree leading edge sweep and a central vertical stabilizer arrangement. In terms of its structure, the VTO Hopper possessed a circular cross section complete with a loft fillet on the underside of the craft which functioned to accommodate both the wings and body flap; it also featured a booster which was designed to carry the payload upon the nose of the fuselage.<ref name = "pezze 37">G. Pezzellaa et al. 2010. p. 37.</ref> Studies determined that both the HTO and the VTO variant concepts possessed a relatively similar reentry load environment.<ref name = "pezze 38 39">G. Pezzellaa et al. 2010. pp. 38-39.</ref>


===HTO Hopper - Selection===
===HTO Hopper - Selection===
The HTO version of Hopper was adopted for further development work under another ESA initiative in the form of the [[FESTIP]] (Future European Space Transportation Investigations Programme) system design study.<ref>[http://www.esa.int/esapub/bulletin/bullet97/dujarric.pdf "Possible Future European Launchers, A Process of Convergence - ESA Bulletin Number 97."] ''ESA'', March 1999.</ref> During 1998, it was decided the design of Hopper fulfilled all of the established requirements.<ref name = "airbus 2004"/> At this point, the spacecraft was to be composed of a single-stage reusable vehicle which would not attain orbital velocity itself. Hopper reportedly held the promise of delivering lower cost orbital deployment of payloads.<ref name = "BBC 2014"/> An EADS spokesperson stated that a reusable launch vehicle like Hopper could halve the cost of sending a satellite into orbit, which reportedly had been determined to be around $15,000 [[USD]] per kilogram of payload in 2004.<ref name="NewScientist" />
The HTO Hopper was adopted for further development work under another ESA initiative in the form of the [[FESTIP]] (Future European Space Transportation Investigations Programme) system design study.<ref name="dujarric-feb1999" /> During 1998, it was decided the design of Hopper fulfilled all of the established requirements.<ref name = "airbus 2004"/> At this point, the spacecraft was to be composed of a single-stage reusable vehicle which would not attain orbital velocity itself. Hopper reportedly held the promise of delivering lower cost orbital deployment of payloads.<ref name = "BBC 2014"/> An EADS spokesperson stated that a reusable launch vehicle like Hopper could halve the cost of sending a satellite into orbit, which reportedly had been determined to be around {{Currency|15,000|USD}} per kilogram of payload in 2004.<ref name="NewScientist" />


The envisioned mission profile of Hopper would have involved several phases. The launch phase was to be achieved by using a 4&nbsp;km [[magnetism|magnetic]] horizontal track, which was to be purpose-built for the craft at the [[Guiana Space Centre]] in [[French Guiana]], that would accelerate the spacecraft up to launch speed.<ref name = "BBC 2014"/><ref name = "airbus 2004"/> Upon reaching an altitude of 130&nbsp;km, the vehicle would fire an expendable [[rocket]]-powered upper stage in order to attain [[orbital speed]]; once it had achieved the necessary high and speed, it would have released its [[satellite]] payload, which would then independently ascend higher still to reach the desired orbit.<ref name = "BBC 2014"/> Reportedly, Hopper was designed to deliver 7.5 tonne satellites into an orbit of 130&nbsp;km above the surface of the Earth.<ref name = "BBC 2014"/> Following the release of its payload, the vehicle would have then glided down in a controller descent; it was intended for the spacecraft to land at a pre-prepared island facility in the [[Atlantic Ocean]], after which it would have been transported back to [[French Guiana]] by ship for further flights.<ref name="NewScientist" /><ref name = "BBC 2014"/>
The envisioned mission profile of Hopper would have involved several phases. The launch phase was to be achieved by using a 4&nbsp;km [[magnetism|magnetic]] horizontal track, which was to be purpose-built at the [[Guiana Space Centre]] in [[French Guiana]], that would accelerate the spacecraft up to launch speed.<ref name = "BBC 2014"/><ref name = "airbus 2004"/> Upon reaching an altitude of 130&nbsp;km, the vehicle would fire an expendable [[rocket]]-powered upper stage to attain [[orbital speed]]; once it had achieved the necessary height and speed, it would have released its [[satellite]] payload, which would independently ascend higher still to reach the desired orbit.<ref name = "BBC 2014"/> Reportedly, Hopper was designed to deliver 7.5 tonne satellites into an orbit of 130&nbsp;km above the surface of the Earth.<ref name = "BBC 2014"/> Following the release of its payload, the vehicle would have then glided down in a controller descent. It was intended that the spacecraft would land at a predetermined island facility in the [[Atlantic Ocean]], after which it would have been transported back to French Guiana by ship for further flights.<ref name="NewScientist" /><ref name = "BBC 2014"/>


Multinational aerospace [[Conglomerate (company)|conglomerate]] [[EADS]] was responsible for project management on Hopper, as well as for the development of the entirety of the project's software-based elements.<ref name = "airbus 2004"/> A number of other partner companies were also involved in the spacecraft's development. Reportedly, both the ESA and EADS had originally intended to complete development of Hopper between 2015 and 2020.<ref name = "airbus 2004"/> After the first glide test using the ''Phoenix'' prototype on May 2004, no further updates on the programme were forthcoming; it is believed that work on Hopper has been eventually discontinued.{{Citation needed|date=January 2009}}
Multinational aerospace [[Conglomerate (company)|conglomerate]] [[EADS]] was responsible for the project management of Hopper, as well as for the development of the project's software-based elements.<ref name = "airbus 2004"/> A number of other partner companies were also involved in the spacecraft's development. Reportedly, both the ESA and EADS had originally intended to complete development of Hopper between 2015 and 2020.<ref name = "airbus 2004"/> After the first glide test using the ''Phoenix'' prototype in May 2004, no further updates on the programme were forthcoming; it is believed that work on Hopper has been discontinued.{{Citation needed|date=January 2009}}


[[File:Phoenix prototype glider preserved at Airbus Bremen.jpg|thumb|Phoenix prototype glider preserved at Airbus Bremen]]
==Prototype - Phoenix==
==Prototype - Phoenix==


The ''Phoenix RLV'' launcher, the prototype of Hopper launcher, was developed and produced as a portion of the wider [[ASTRA programme]] of the [[German Aerospace Center]] (DLR), a €40 million project founded by the German [[Politics of Germany|Federal Government]], [[EADS Astrium Space Transportation]] and the state [[Bremen (state)|Free Hanseatic City of Bremen]]. Reportedly, EADS and the State of Bremen invested at least €8.2 million and €4.3 million in the ASTRA programme, respectively. A further contribution of €16 million was sourced from partner companies on the programme, such as the [[Bremen]]-based [[OHB-System]], the DLR and the Federal Ministry for Education and Research. During 2000, construction of the prototype commenced.<ref name = "airbus 2004">[http://company.airbus.com/news-media/press-releases/Airbus-Group/Financial_Communication/2004/05/en_20040510_ila_sp_sp_phoenix.html "PHOENIX: Future prospects in space transport through reusable launch systems."] ''Airbus'', 10 May 2004.</ref>
The ''Phoenix RLV'' launcher, the prototype of the Hopper launcher, was announced by [[DASA]] in June 1999<ref name = "FlightGlobal 1999">[https://www.flightglobal.com/germany-plans-rlv-flights/27327.article "Germany plans RLV flights"] ''Flight Global', 23 June 1999.</ref> to be developed and produced as a portion of the wider [[ASTRA program]] of the [[German Aerospace Center]] (DLR), a {{Currency|40 million|EUR|passthrough=yes}} project founded by the [[Cabinet of Germany|German Federal Government]], EADS' [[Astrium]] subsidiary and the state of [[Bremen (state)|Bremen]]. Reportedly, EADS and the state of Bremen invested at least €8.2 million and €4.3 million respectively in the ASTRA programme. A further contribution of €16 million was sourced from partner companies on the program, such as the [[Bremen]]-based [[OHB-System]], the DLR and the Federal Ministry for Education and Research. Construction of the prototype began in 2000.<ref name = "airbus 2004">[http://company.airbus.com/news-media/press-releases/Airbus-Group/Financial_Communication/2004/05/en_20040510_ila_sp_sp_phoenix.html "PHOENIX: Future prospects in space transport through reusable launch systems."] ''Airbus'', 10 May 2004.</ref>


The ''Phoenix RLV'' prototype was {{convert|6.9|m|ft|abbr=off|sp=us}} long, had a weight of {{convert|1,200|kg|lb|abbr=off}}, and a wingspan of {{convert|3.9|m|ft|abbr=off|sp=us}}. During its design, an emphasis had been placed on minimising [[Aerodynamic drag|drag]] by making the vehicle as small as possible.<ref name = "airbus 2004"/> The interior space of the craft's fuselage was occupied by various avionics and onboard system, providing [[navigation]], data transfer, energy supply, and [[artificial intelligence]] functions to allow it to automatically perform its data-gathering mission.<ref name = "BBC 2014"/> The final version of the vehicle was expected to be able to support the reentry forces, generated heat, and be able to glide from an altitude of {{convert|129|km|mi|sp=us}}. During April 2004, integration and systems testing work upon the Phoenix prototype had been completed.<ref name = "airbus 2004"/>
The ''Phoenix RLV'' was {{convert|6.9|m|ft|abbr=off|sp=us}} long, had a weight of {{convert|1,200|kg|lb|abbr=off}}, and a wingspan of {{convert|3.9|m|ft|abbr=off|sp=us}}. During its design, an emphasis had been placed on minimizing [[Aerodynamic drag|drag]] by making the vehicle as small as possible.<ref name = "airbus 2004"/> The fuselage interior was occupied by various avionics and onboard systems, providing [[navigation]], data transfer, energy supply, and [[artificial intelligence]] functions to allow it to automatically perform its data-gathering mission.<ref name = "BBC 2014"/> Phoenix was one-sixth the size of the planned Hopper vehicle.<ref name="glide-2004">{{Cite news |date=9 May 2004 |title=European Space Shuttle Glides To Success |url=https://www.dw.com/en/european-space-shuttle-glides-to-success/a-1196314 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220813001508/https://www.dw.com/en/european-space-shuttle-glides-to-success/a-1196314 |archive-date=13 August 2022 |work=[[Deutsche Welle]] }}</ref> The final version of the vehicle was expected to be able to support the reentry forces and heat, and be able to glide from an altitude of {{convert|129|km|mi|sp=us}}. Integration and system testing works were completed in April 2004.<ref name = "airbus 2004"/>


===Drop test - May 2004===
===Drop tests - May 2004===
On Saturday 8 May 2004, the Phoenix prototype underwent a large-scale drop-test at the [[North European Aerospace Test range]] in Kiruna, {{convert|1,240|km|mi|abbr=on}} north of [[Stockholm]], [[Sweden]]. The vehicle was dropped from a height of {{convert|2.4|km|ft}}, having been lifted to the appropriate altitude by a helicopter. Following a guided 90 second glide, the prototype reportedly landed with precision and without incident.<ref>[http://www.ssc.se/?id=6949 "Phoenix Flight Day."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724011718/http://www.ssc.se/?id=6949 |date=2011-07-24 }} ''Swedish Space Corporation'', 8 May 2004.</ref><ref name = "BBC 2014"/> The primary aim of the test was to assess the [[glider aircraft|glider]] potential of the craft. More specifically, the Phoenix explored various methods of performing automatic landings that would not involve any intervention by human controllers; as such, guidance was provided by cues from multiple means of navigation, including [[GPS]] satellites, [[Radar altimeter|radar]] and [[Lidar|laser altimeter]]s, as well as various [[Pressure sensor|pressure]] and [[Airspeed indicator|speed sensor]]s. According to EADS spokesman Mathias Spude, the prototype had landed within three centimeters of the intended target.<ref name="NewScientist" />
On Saturday, May 8, 2004, the Phoenix prototype underwent a large-scale drop-test at the [[North European Aerospace Test range]] in [[Kiruna]], Sweden. The vehicle was lifted by helicopter and dropped from a height of {{convert|2.4|km|ft}}. Following a 90-second guided glide, the prototype reportedly landed with precision and without incident.<ref>[http://www.ssc.se/?id=6949 "Phoenix Flight Day."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724011718/http://www.ssc.se/?id=6949 |date=2011-07-24 }} ''Swedish Space Corporation'', 8 May 2004.</ref><ref name = "BBC 2014"/> The primary aim of the test was to assess the [[glider aircraft|glider]] potential of the craft. More specifically, the Phoenix explored various methods of performing automatic landings that would not involve any human intervention; guidance was provided by multiple means of navigation, including [[GPS]] satellites, [[Radar altimeter|radar]] and [[Lidar|laser altimeter]]s, and various [[Pressure sensor|pressure]] and [[Airspeed indicator|speed sensor]]s. According to EADS spokesman Mathias Spude, the prototype had landed within three centimeters of the intended target.<ref name="NewScientist" />


In addition to the initial drop-test, further tests had already been scheduled, including three that were planned to occur during the following two weeks, which were to built towards the testing of more challenging landings, said to involve the spacecraft being dropped from different angles or orientations relative to the landing site.<ref name="NewScientist" /> Furthermore, the project had an anticipated milestone of eventually releasing the prototype from an altitude of 25 kilometres within three years. In the long term, if successful and viable, the landing technology tested on Phoenix was to be incorporated into a follow-on re-usable vehicle, which was to be named ''Socrates''. While not envisioned to serve as an orbital vehicle, Socrates was to be capable of flying at up to 10 times the [[supersonic|speed of sound]], as well as of performing very rapid turnaround times between flights as a stepping stone towards reusability.<ref name="NewScientist" /> However, EADS noted prior to the flight that further flights of Hopper would be pending on the craft's performance during the initial flight.<ref name = "airbus 2004"/> As no such further flights occurred, it can be assumed that the performance may not have been satisfactory and thus little value was seen in conducting further flight tests.{{Citation needed|date=September 2017}}{{dubious}}
Additional tests had already been scheduled, including three that were planned to occur during the following two weeks, which were to build towards the testing of more challenging landings (involving the spacecraft being dropped from different angles or orientations relative to the landing site).<ref name="NewScientist" /> Furthermore, the project had an anticipated milestone of releasing the prototype from an altitude of {{Convert|25|km|ft|abbr=}} within three years. However, [[Airbus|EADS]] noted prior to the flight that further tests would be dependent on the craft's performance during the initial flight.<ref name = "airbus 2004"/>


Two further test flights were conducted - on May 13 and May 16.<ref>
Two further test flights were conducted on May 13 (a repeat of the May 8 drop test) and May 16.<ref>
IAC Vancouver, October 2004: "Reusable RLV Demonstrator Vehicles Phoenix Flight Test Results and Perspectives", W. Gockel et al.
IAC Vancouver, October 2004: "Reusable RLV Demonstrator Vehicles Phoenix Flight Test Results and Perspectives", W. Gockel et al.
AAAF Arcachon, March 2005: "Synthesis Phoenix Flight Test Performance and Analysis", W. Gockel et al.
AAAF Arcachon, March 2005: "Synthesis Phoenix Flight Test Performance and Analysis", W. Gockel et al.
AAIA Capua, May 2005: "Phoenix Project and Program Continuation Plan", P. Kyr and W. Gockel
AAIA Capua, May 2005: "Phoenix Project and Program Continuation Plan", P. Kyr and W. Gockel
IAC Fukuoka October 2005: "Phoenix Demonstrator Logic", P. Kyr and J. Sommer </ref>
IAC Fukuoka October 2005: "Phoenix Demonstrator Logic", P. Kyr and J. Sommer</ref>

==Longer term - Socrates==
In the long term, if successful and viable, the landing technology tested on Phoenix was to be incorporated into a follow-on re-usable vehicle, which was to be named ''Socrates''. While not envisioned to serve as an orbital vehicle, ''Socrates'' was to be capable of flying at up to 10 times the [[supersonic|speed of sound]], as well as of performing very rapid turnaround times between flights as a steppingstone towards re-usability.<ref name="NewScientist" />


==See also==
==See also==
Line 67: Line 72:
* {{annotated link|Rocket sled launch}}
* {{annotated link|Rocket sled launch}}
* {{annotated link|Liquid Fly-back Booster}}
* {{annotated link|Liquid Fly-back Booster}}
* [[German space programme]]


==References==
==References==
Line 77: Line 83:
{{refend}}
{{refend}}


* {{cite book
* {{cite conference
| last1=Gockel
| last1=Gockel
| first1=Wilhelm
| first1=Wilhelm
Line 86: Line 92:
| last4=Roenneke
| last4=Roenneke
| first4=Axel
| first4=Axel
| conference=55th International Astronautical Congress of the International Astronautical Federation, the International Academy of Astronautics, and the International Institute of Space Law
| title= REUSABLE RLV DEMONSTRATOR VEHICLES - PHOENIX FLIGHT TEST RESULTS AND PERSPECTIVES
| location=Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| work= Proceedings of the 55th International Astronautical Congress 2004
| title=Reusable RLV Demonstrateur Vehicles - Phoenix Flight Test Results and Perspectives
| year= 2004
| date=October 2004
| language= en
| DOI= 10.2514/6.IAC-04-V.6.04
| doi= 10.2514/6.IAC-04-V.6.04
}}
}}


==External links==
==External links==
* [http://www.dw-world.de/dw/article/0,,1196314,00.html European Space Shuttle Glides To Success]
* [http://www.dw-world.de/dw/article/0,,1196314,00.html ''European Space Shuttle Glides To Success'' 9 May 2004] - details & photo
* Glide test images: [https://web.archive.org/web/20070612170957/http://www.zarm.uni-bremen.de/2forschung/raumfahrt/astra/index.htm Zarm.uni-bremen.de], [https://archive.is/20071224080624/http://spacetec.zarm.uni-bremen.de/~markus/PhoenixFreifluege/www.ssc.se/esrange/pressreleases/pictures/phoenix04.shtml Spacetec.zarm.uni-bremen.de]
* Glide test images: [https://web.archive.org/web/20070612170957/http://www.zarm.uni-bremen.de/2forschung/raumfahrt/astra/index.htm Zarm.uni-bremen.de], [https://archive.today/20071224080624/http://spacetec.zarm.uni-bremen.de/~markus/PhoenixFreifluege/www.ssc.se/esrange/pressreleases/pictures/phoenix04.shtml Spacetec.zarm.uni-bremen.de]


{{Reusable launch systems}}
{{Reusable launch systems}}

Latest revision as of 11:18, 18 January 2024

Hopper
LandESA
Contract awardEADS, German Aerospace Center
StatusCanceled

Hopper was a proposed European Space Agency (ESA) orbital spaceplane and reusable launch vehicle. The Hopper was a FESTIP (Future European Space Transportation Investigations Programme) system study design.[1]

Hopper was one of several proposals for a reusable launch vehicle (RLV) developed by the ESA. The proposed reusable launch vehicles were to be used for the inexpensive delivery of satellite payloads into orbit as early as 2015.[2] A prototype of Hopper, known as (EADS) Phoenix, was a German-led European project which involved the construction and testing of a one-seventh scale model of the proposed Hopper. On 8 May 2004, a single test flight of the Phoenix was conducted at the North European Aerospace Test range in Kiruna, Sweden, which was followed by more tests later that month.[3]

Development

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Background

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From the 1980s onwards, there was growing international interest in the development of reusable spacecraft; at the time, only the superpowers of the era, the Soviet Union and the United States, had developed this capability.[4] European nations such as the United Kingdom and France embarked on their own national programs to produce spaceplanes, such as HOTOL and Hermes, while attempting to attract the backing of the multinational European Space Agency (ESA). While these programs ultimately did not garner enough support to continue development, there was still demand within a number of the ESA's member states to pursue the development of reusable space vehicles.[4] During the 1990s, in addition to the development and operation of several technology demonstrator programs, such as the Atmospheric Reentry Demonstrator (ARD), the ESA were also working on the production of a long-term framework for the eventual development of a viable reusable spacecraft, known as the Future Launchers Preparatory Programme (FLPP).[5]

Under FLPP, the ESA and European industrial partners performed detailed investigations of several partially-reusable launch vehicle concepts; the aim of the program was to prepare a suitable vehicle to, upon a favorable decision by the ESA's member-nations, proceed with the production of a Next Generation Launcher (NGL).[5] A total of four launch concepts were studied: the Horizontal Take-Off (HTO) Hopper, the Vertical Take-Off (VTO) Hopper, the Reusable First Stage (RFS), and the liquid fly-back booster. Each of these concept vehicles consisted of a reusable winged booster, which was paired with an expendable upper stage, to deliver a payload in geostationary transfer orbit.[5]

The HTO Hopper variant was designed for horizontal take-off, the first portion of which was to be achieved via a rocket sled arrangement.[5] It possessed a relatively conventional wing-body configuration, although one atypical feature was the nose of the spacecraft, which possessed a deliberately low camber so that the required size of the elevons for desired trim functionality could be reduced while also resulting in an improved internal structure, such as in the accommodation of the nose gear.[5] Aerodynamically, the HTO Hopper configuration features a rounded delta planform wing at a 60-degree leading edge sweep, which was matched with a central vertical stabilizer and a flat-bottomed underside for the purpose of maximizing the spacecraft's performance during hypersonic flight.[5]

The alternative VTO Hopper variant was designed for vertical take-off, being launched conventionally via an expendable launch system.[6] It featured a relatively traditional slender missile-like body but differed in the presence of a small delta wing at a 45-degree leading edge sweep and a central vertical stabilizer arrangement. In terms of its structure, the VTO Hopper possessed a circular cross section complete with a loft fillet on the underside of the craft which functioned to accommodate both the wings and body flap; it also featured a booster which was designed to carry the payload upon the nose of the fuselage.[6] Studies determined that both the HTO and the VTO variant concepts possessed a relatively similar reentry load environment.[7]

HTO Hopper - Selection

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The HTO Hopper was adopted for further development work under another ESA initiative in the form of the FESTIP (Future European Space Transportation Investigations Programme) system design study.[1] During 1998, it was decided the design of Hopper fulfilled all of the established requirements.[8] At this point, the spacecraft was to be composed of a single-stage reusable vehicle which would not attain orbital velocity itself. Hopper reportedly held the promise of delivering lower cost orbital deployment of payloads.[3] An EADS spokesperson stated that a reusable launch vehicle like Hopper could halve the cost of sending a satellite into orbit, which reportedly had been determined to be around US$15,000 per kilogram of payload in 2004.[2]

The envisioned mission profile of Hopper would have involved several phases. The launch phase was to be achieved by using a 4 km magnetic horizontal track, which was to be purpose-built at the Guiana Space Centre in French Guiana, that would accelerate the spacecraft up to launch speed.[3][8] Upon reaching an altitude of 130 km, the vehicle would fire an expendable rocket-powered upper stage to attain orbital speed; once it had achieved the necessary height and speed, it would have released its satellite payload, which would independently ascend higher still to reach the desired orbit.[3] Reportedly, Hopper was designed to deliver 7.5 tonne satellites into an orbit of 130 km above the surface of the Earth.[3] Following the release of its payload, the vehicle would have then glided down in a controller descent. It was intended that the spacecraft would land at a predetermined island facility in the Atlantic Ocean, after which it would have been transported back to French Guiana by ship for further flights.[2][3]

Multinational aerospace conglomerate EADS was responsible for the project management of Hopper, as well as for the development of the project's software-based elements.[8] A number of other partner companies were also involved in the spacecraft's development. Reportedly, both the ESA and EADS had originally intended to complete development of Hopper between 2015 and 2020.[8] After the first glide test using the Phoenix prototype in May 2004, no further updates on the programme were forthcoming; it is believed that work on Hopper has been discontinued.[citation needed]

Phoenix prototype glider preserved at Airbus Bremen

Prototype - Phoenix

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The Phoenix RLV launcher, the prototype of the Hopper launcher, was announced by DASA in June 1999[9] to be developed and produced as a portion of the wider ASTRA program of the German Aerospace Center (DLR), a €40 million project founded by the German Federal Government, EADS' Astrium subsidiary and the state of Bremen. Reportedly, EADS and the state of Bremen invested at least €8.2 million and €4.3 million respectively in the ASTRA programme. A further contribution of €16 million was sourced from partner companies on the program, such as the Bremen-based OHB-System, the DLR and the Federal Ministry for Education and Research. Construction of the prototype began in 2000.[8]

The Phoenix RLV was 6.9 meters (23 feet) long, had a weight of 1,200 kilograms (2,600 pounds), and a wingspan of 3.9 meters (13 feet). During its design, an emphasis had been placed on minimizing drag by making the vehicle as small as possible.[8] The fuselage interior was occupied by various avionics and onboard systems, providing navigation, data transfer, energy supply, and artificial intelligence functions to allow it to automatically perform its data-gathering mission.[3] Phoenix was one-sixth the size of the planned Hopper vehicle.[10] The final version of the vehicle was expected to be able to support the reentry forces and heat, and be able to glide from an altitude of 129 kilometers (80 mi). Integration and system testing works were completed in April 2004.[8]

Drop tests - May 2004

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On Saturday, May 8, 2004, the Phoenix prototype underwent a large-scale drop-test at the North European Aerospace Test range in Kiruna, Sweden. The vehicle was lifted by helicopter and dropped from a height of 2.4 kilometres (7,900 ft). Following a 90-second guided glide, the prototype reportedly landed with precision and without incident.[11][3] The primary aim of the test was to assess the glider potential of the craft. More specifically, the Phoenix explored various methods of performing automatic landings that would not involve any human intervention; guidance was provided by multiple means of navigation, including GPS satellites, radar and laser altimeters, and various pressure and speed sensors. According to EADS spokesman Mathias Spude, the prototype had landed within three centimeters of the intended target.[2]

Additional tests had already been scheduled, including three that were planned to occur during the following two weeks, which were to build towards the testing of more challenging landings (involving the spacecraft being dropped from different angles or orientations relative to the landing site).[2] Furthermore, the project had an anticipated milestone of releasing the prototype from an altitude of 25 kilometres (82,000 ft) within three years. However, EADS noted prior to the flight that further tests would be dependent on the craft's performance during the initial flight.[8]

Two further test flights were conducted on May 13 (a repeat of the May 8 drop test) and May 16.[12]

Longer term - Socrates

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In the long term, if successful and viable, the landing technology tested on Phoenix was to be incorporated into a follow-on re-usable vehicle, which was to be named Socrates. While not envisioned to serve as an orbital vehicle, Socrates was to be capable of flying at up to 10 times the speed of sound, as well as of performing very rapid turnaround times between flights as a steppingstone towards re-usability.[2]

See also

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References

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Citations

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  1. ^ a b Dujarric, C. (February 1999). "Possible Future European Launchers - A Process of Convergence" (PDF). ESA Bulletin (97). European Space Agency: 11–19. Archived (PDF) from the original on 16 October 2023.
  2. ^ a b c d e f Mckee, Maggie (10 May 2004). "Europe's space shuttle passes early test". New Scientist. Archived from the original on 16 October 2023.
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h "Launching the next generation of rockets". BBC News. 1 October 2004. Archived from the original on 16 October 2023.
  4. ^ a b "The Atmospheric Reentry Demonstrator." European Space Agency, October 1998. BR-138.
  5. ^ a b c d e f G. Pezzellaa et al. 2010. p. 36.
  6. ^ a b G. Pezzellaa et al. 2010. p. 37.
  7. ^ G. Pezzellaa et al. 2010. pp. 38-39.
  8. ^ a b c d e f g h "PHOENIX: Future prospects in space transport through reusable launch systems." Airbus, 10 May 2004.
  9. ^ "Germany plans RLV flights" Flight Global', 23 June 1999.
  10. ^ "European Space Shuttle Glides To Success". Deutsche Welle. 9 May 2004. Archived from the original on 13 August 2022.
  11. ^ "Phoenix Flight Day." Archived 2011-07-24 at the Wayback Machine Swedish Space Corporation, 8 May 2004.
  12. ^ IAC Vancouver, October 2004: "Reusable RLV Demonstrator Vehicles Phoenix Flight Test Results and Perspectives", W. Gockel et al. AAAF Arcachon, March 2005: "Synthesis Phoenix Flight Test Performance and Analysis", W. Gockel et al. AAIA Capua, May 2005: "Phoenix Project and Program Continuation Plan", P. Kyr and W. Gockel IAC Fukuoka October 2005: "Phoenix Demonstrator Logic", P. Kyr and J. Sommer

Bibliography

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  • Gockel, Wilhelm; Kyr, Peter; Janovsky, Rolf; Roenneke, Axel (October 2004). Reusable RLV Demonstrateur Vehicles - Phoenix Flight Test Results and Perspectives. 55th International Astronautical Congress of the International Astronautical Federation, the International Academy of Astronautics, and the International Institute of Space Law. Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. doi:10.2514/6.IAC-04-V.6.04.
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