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{{short description|Wind pollination}}
{{main|Pollination syndrome}}
{{main|Pollination syndrome}}
{{Multiple image
{{Multiple image
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| caption1 = The flowers of wind-pollinated flowering plants, such as this saw-tooth oak (''[[Quercus acutissima]]''), are less showy than insect-pollinated flowers.
| caption1 = The flowers of wind-pollinated flowering plants, such as this saw-tooth oak (''[[Quercus acutissima]]''), are less showy than insect-pollinated flowers.
}}
}}
'''Anemophily''' or '''wind pollination''' is a form of [[pollination]] whereby [[pollen]] is distributed by [[wind]].<ref name="Shukla">{{cite book |author1=A. K. Shukla |author2=M. R. Vijayaraghavan |author3=Bharti Chaudhry |year=1998 |title=Biology Of Pollen |publisher=[[APH Publishing]] |isbn=9788170249245 |chapter=Abiotic pollination |pages=67–69 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jfSlwa0BnDgC&pg=PA67}}</ref> Almost all [[gymnosperm]]s are anemophilous, as are many plants in the order [[Poales]], including [[Poaceae|grasses]], [[Cyperaceae|sedges]] and [[Juncaceae|rushes]].<ref name="Shukla"/> Other common anemophilous plants are [[oak]]s, [[sweet chestnut]]s, [[alder]]s and members of the family [[Juglandaceae]] (hickory or walnut family).
'''Anemophily''' or '''wind pollination''' is a form of [[pollination]] whereby [[pollen]] is distributed by [[wind]].<ref name="Shukla">{{cite book |author1=A. K. Shukla |author2=M. R. Vijayaraghavan |author3=Bharti Chaudhry |year=1998 |title=Biology Of Pollen |publisher=[[APH Publishing]] |isbn=9788170249245 |chapter=Abiotic pollination |pages=67–69 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jfSlwa0BnDgC&pg=PA67}}</ref> Almost all [[gymnosperm]]s are anemophilous, as are many plants in the order [[Poales]], including [[Poaceae|grasses]], [[Cyperaceae|sedges]], and [[Juncaceae|rushes]].<ref name="Shukla"/> Other common anemophilous plants are [[oak]]s, [[pecan]]s, [[pistachio]]s, [[sweet chestnut]]s, [[alder]]s and members of the family [[Juglandaceae]] (hickory or walnut family).<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=Resources|first=University of California, Division of Agriculture and Natural|title=Wind|url=https://ucanr.edu/sites/PollenNation/Meet_The_Pollinators/Wind|access-date=2020-12-01|website=ucanr.edu|language=en-US}}</ref> Approximately 12% of plants across the globe are pollinated by anemophily, including [[Cereal|cereal crops]] like [[rice]] and [[Maize|corn]] and other prominent crop plants like [[wheat]], [[rye]], [[barley]], and [[oat]]s.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|title=Wind Pollination|url=http://seeds.ca/pollinator/bestpractices/wind_pollination.html|access-date=2020-12-15|website=seeds.ca}}</ref> In addition, many [[pine]]s, [[spruce]]s, and [[fir]]s are wind-pollinated.<ref name=":0" />


==Syndrome==
==Syndrome==
[[File:Pine releasing pollen into the wind in Tuntorp 1.jpg|thumb|A [[Pinus sylvestris|pine]] with male flowers releasing pollen into the wind]]
Features of the wind-pollination syndrome include a lack of scent production, a lack of showy floral parts (resulting in inconspicuous flowers), reduced production of [[nectar]], and the production of enormous numbers of pollen grains.<ref>{{cite book |author =Dave Moore |chapter=Insects of palm flowers and fruits |editor=F.W. Howard |editor2=D. Moore |editor3=R.M. Giblin-Davis |editor4=R.G. Abad |year=2001 |title=Insects on Palms |publisher=[[CAB International]] |isbn=9780851997056 |pages=233–266 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IL5jorrwFLYC&pg=PA233}}</ref> This distinguishes them from [[entomophily|entomophilous]] and [[zoophily|zoophilous]] species (whose pollen is spread by [[insect]]s and [[vertebrate]]s respectively).
Features of the wind-pollination syndrome include a lack of scent production, a lack of showy floral parts (resulting in small, inconspicuous flowers), reduced production of [[nectar]], and the production of enormous numbers of pollen grains.<ref>{{cite book |author =Dave Moore |chapter=Insects of palm flowers and fruits |editor=F.W. Howard |editor2=D. Moore |editor3=R.M. Giblin-Davis |editor4=R.G. Abad |year=2001 |title=Insects on Palms |publisher=[[CAB International]] |isbn=9780851997056 |pages=233–266 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IL5jorrwFLYC&pg=PA233}}</ref> This distinguishes them from [[entomophily|entomophilous]] and [[zoophily|zoophilous]] species (whose pollen is spread by [[insect]]s and [[vertebrate]]s respectively).{{cn|date=February 2023}}


Anemophilous [[pollen]] grains are light and non-sticky, so that they can be transported by air currents. They are typically {{convert|20|-|60|um|4}} in diameter, although the pollen grains of ''[[Pinus]]'' species can be much larger and much less dense.<ref name="Shukla"/> Anemophilous plants possess well-exposed [[stamen]]s so that the pollens are exposed to wind currents and also have large and feathery [[stigma (botany) | stigma]] to easily trap airborne pollen grains. Pollen from anemophilous plants tends to be smaller and lighter than pollen from entomophilous ones, with very low nutritional value to insects. However, insects sometimes gather pollen from staminate anemophilous flowers at times when higher-[[protein]] pollens from entomophilous flowers are scarce. Anemophilous pollens may also be inadvertently captured by [[bee]]s' [[electrostatic]] field. This may explain why, though bees are not observed to visit [[ragweed]] flowers, its [[Melissopalynology|pollen is often found]] in [[honey]] made during the ragweed floral bloom. Other flowers that are generally anemophilous are observed to be actively worked by bees, with solitary bees often visiting [[Poaceae|grass]] flowers, and the larger [[honeybee]]s and [[bumblebee]]s frequently gathering pollen from [[maize|corn]] tassels and other grains.
Anemophilous [[pollen]] grains are smooth, light, and non-sticky, so that they can be transported by air currents.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|title=Wind and Water Pollination|url=https://www.fs.fed.us/wildflowers/pollinators/wind.shtml|access-date=2020-12-15|website=www.fs.fed.us}}</ref> Wind-pollinating plants have no predisposition to attract pollinating organisms.<ref name=":0" /> They freely expel a myriad of these pollen grains, and only a small percentage of them ends up captured by the female floral structures on wind-pollinated plants.<ref name=":1" /> They are typically {{convert|20|-|60|um|4}} in diameter, although the pollen grains of ''[[Pinus]]'' species can be much larger and much less dense.<ref name="Shukla"/> Anemophilous plants possess lengthy, well-exposed [[stamen]]s to catch and distribute pollen.<ref name=":0" /> These stamens are exposed to wind currents and also have large, feathery [[Stigma (botany)|stigma]] to easily trap airborne pollen grains.<ref name=":2" /> Pollen from anemophilous plants tends to be smaller and lighter than pollen from entomophilous ones, with very low nutritional value to insects due to their low protein content.<ref name=":0" /> However, insects sometimes gather pollen from staminate anemophilous flowers at times when higher-[[protein]] pollens from entomophilous flowers are scarce. Anemophilous pollens may also be inadvertently captured by [[bee]]s' [[electrostatic]] field. This may explain why, though bees are not observed to visit [[ragweed]] flowers, its [[Melissopalynology|pollen is often found]] in [[honey]] made during the ragweed floral bloom. Other flowers that are generally anemophilous are observed to be actively worked by bees, with solitary bees often visiting [[Poaceae|grass]] flowers, and the larger [[honeybee]]s and [[bumblebee]]s frequently gathering pollen from [[maize|corn]] tassels and other grains.{{cn|date=February 2023}}


Anemophily is an [[adaptation]] that helps to separate the male and female reproductive systems of a single plant, reducing the effects of [[inbreeding]].<ref>{{cite journal |author =J. D. Ackerman |year=2000 |title=Abiotic pollen and pollination: ecological, functional, and evolutionary perspectives |journal=[[Plant Systematics and Evolution]] |volume=222 |issue=1–4 |pages=167–185 |doi=10.1007/BF00984101}}</ref> It often accompanies [[dioecy]] – the presence of male and female reproductive structures on separate plants.
Anemophily is an [[adaptation]] that helps to separate the male and female reproductive systems of a single plant, reducing the effects of [[inbreeding]].<ref>{{cite journal |author =J. D. Ackerman |year=2000 |title=Abiotic pollen and pollination: ecological, functional, and evolutionary perspectives |journal=[[Plant Systematics and Evolution]] |volume=222 |issue=1–4 |pages=167–185 |doi=10.1007/BF00984101}}</ref> It often accompanies [[dioecy]] – the presence of male and female reproductive structures on separate plants.{{cn|date=February 2023}} Anemophily is adaptively beneficial because it promotes [[outcrossing]] and thus the avoidance of [[inbreeding depression]] that can occur due to the expression of recessive deleterious [[mutation]]s in inbred progeny plants.<ref>Charlesworth D, Willis JH. The genetics of inbreeding depression. Nat Rev Genet. 2009 Nov;10(11):783-96. doi: 10.1038/nrg2664. PMID: 19834483</ref>


==Allergies==
==Allergies==
Almost all pollens that are [[allergen]]s are from anemophilous species.<ref name="Emberlin">{{cite book |author =Jean Emberlin |editor1=A. Barry Kay |editor2=Allen P. Kaplan |editor3=Jean Bousquet |editor4=Patrick G. Holt |year=2009 |series=Allergy and Allergic Diseases |volume=1 |title=The Scientific Basis of Allergy |edition=2nd |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]] |isbn=9781444300925 |chapter=Grass, tree, and weed pollen |pages=942–962 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q_3T1ZXvP5YC&pg=PA943}}</ref> Grasses ([[Poaceae]]) are the most important producers of aeroallergens in most temperate regions, with lowland or meadow species producing more pollen than upland or [[moorland]] species.<ref name="Emberlin"/>
Almost all pollens that are [[allergen]]s are from anemophilous species.<ref name="Emberlin">{{cite book |author =Jean Emberlin |editor1=[[Barry Kay (immunologist)|A. Barry Kay]] |editor2=Allen P. Kaplan |editor3=Jean Bousquet |editor4=Patrick G. Holt |year=2009 |series=Allergy and Allergic Diseases |volume=1 |title=The Scientific Basis of Allergy |edition=2nd |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]] |isbn=9781444300925 |chapter=Grass, tree, and weed pollen |pages=942–962 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q_3T1ZXvP5YC&pg=PA943}}</ref> People allergic to the pollen produced by anemophilous plants often have symptoms of hay fever.<ref name=":0" /> Grasses ([[Poaceae]]) are the most important producers of aeroallergens in most temperate regions, with lowland or meadow species producing more pollen than upland or [[moorland]] species.<ref name="Emberlin"/> In Morocco, it was found that asthma caused by pollen from Poaceae accounted for 10% of the clinical respiratory diseases that patients faced.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last1=Aboulaich|first1=Nadia|last2=Bouziane|first2=Hassan|last3=Kadiri|first3=Mohamed|last4=del Mar Trigo|first4=María|last5=Riadi|first5=Hassane|last6=Kazzaz|first6=Mohamed|last7=Merzouki|first7=Abderrahman|date=2008-12-09|title=Pollen production in anemophilous species of the Poaceae family in Tetouan (NW Morocco)|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10453-008-9106-2|journal=Aerobiologia|language=en|volume=25|issue=1|pages=27|doi=10.1007/s10453-008-9106-2|issn=1573-3025}}</ref> The nature of how species of Poaceae grasses flower results in an increase in the time that the allergenic pollen circulates through the air, which is not favorable to people who are hypersensitive to it.<ref name=":3" />


==References==
==References==

Latest revision as of 04:44, 28 April 2024

Main article: Pollination syndrome
Wind-pollination (anemophily) syndrome
The flowers of wind-pollinated flowering plants, such as this saw-tooth oak (Quercus acutissima), are less showy than insect-pollinated flowers.
Anemophilous plants, such as this pine (Pinus) produce large quantities of pollen, which is carried on the wind.

Anemophily or wind pollination is a form of pollination whereby pollen is distributed by wind.[1] Almost all gymnosperms are anemophilous, as are many plants in the order Poales, including grasses, sedges, and rushes.[1] Other common anemophilous plants are oaks, pecans, pistachios, sweet chestnuts, alders and members of the family Juglandaceae (hickory or walnut family).[2] Approximately 12% of plants across the globe are pollinated by anemophily, including cereal crops like rice and corn and other prominent crop plants like wheat, rye, barley, and oats.[3] In addition, many pines, spruces, and firs are wind-pollinated.[2]

Syndrome

[edit]
A pine with male flowers releasing pollen into the wind

Features of the wind-pollination syndrome include a lack of scent production, a lack of showy floral parts (resulting in small, inconspicuous flowers), reduced production of nectar, and the production of enormous numbers of pollen grains.[4] This distinguishes them from entomophilous and zoophilous species (whose pollen is spread by insects and vertebrates respectively).[citation needed]

Anemophilous pollen grains are smooth, light, and non-sticky, so that they can be transported by air currents.[5] Wind-pollinating plants have no predisposition to attract pollinating organisms.[2] They freely expel a myriad of these pollen grains, and only a small percentage of them ends up captured by the female floral structures on wind-pollinated plants.[3] They are typically 20–60 micrometres (0.0008–0.0024 in) in diameter, although the pollen grains of Pinus species can be much larger and much less dense.[1] Anemophilous plants possess lengthy, well-exposed stamens to catch and distribute pollen.[2] These stamens are exposed to wind currents and also have large, feathery stigma to easily trap airborne pollen grains.[5] Pollen from anemophilous plants tends to be smaller and lighter than pollen from entomophilous ones, with very low nutritional value to insects due to their low protein content.[2] However, insects sometimes gather pollen from staminate anemophilous flowers at times when higher-protein pollens from entomophilous flowers are scarce. Anemophilous pollens may also be inadvertently captured by bees' electrostatic field. This may explain why, though bees are not observed to visit ragweed flowers, its pollen is often found in honey made during the ragweed floral bloom. Other flowers that are generally anemophilous are observed to be actively worked by bees, with solitary bees often visiting grass flowers, and the larger honeybees and bumblebees frequently gathering pollen from corn tassels and other grains.[citation needed]

Anemophily is an adaptation that helps to separate the male and female reproductive systems of a single plant, reducing the effects of inbreeding.[6] It often accompanies dioecy – the presence of male and female reproductive structures on separate plants.[citation needed] Anemophily is adaptively beneficial because it promotes outcrossing and thus the avoidance of inbreeding depression that can occur due to the expression of recessive deleterious mutations in inbred progeny plants.[7]

Allergies

[edit]

Almost all pollens that are allergens are from anemophilous species.[8] People allergic to the pollen produced by anemophilous plants often have symptoms of hay fever.[2] Grasses (Poaceae) are the most important producers of aeroallergens in most temperate regions, with lowland or meadow species producing more pollen than upland or moorland species.[8] In Morocco, it was found that asthma caused by pollen from Poaceae accounted for 10% of the clinical respiratory diseases that patients faced.[9] The nature of how species of Poaceae grasses flower results in an increase in the time that the allergenic pollen circulates through the air, which is not favorable to people who are hypersensitive to it.[9]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b c A. K. Shukla; M. R. Vijayaraghavan; Bharti Chaudhry (1998). "Abiotic pollination". Biology Of Pollen. APH Publishing. pp. 67–69. ISBN 9788170249245.
  2. ^ a b c d e f Resources, University of California, Division of Agriculture and Natural. "Wind". ucanr.edu. Retrieved 2020-12-01.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  3. ^ a b "Wind Pollination". seeds.ca. Retrieved 2020-12-15.
  4. ^ Dave Moore (2001). "Insects of palm flowers and fruits". In F.W. Howard; D. Moore; R.M. Giblin-Davis; R.G. Abad (eds.). Insects on Palms. CAB International. pp. 233–266. ISBN 9780851997056.
  5. ^ a b "Wind and Water Pollination". www.fs.fed.us. Retrieved 2020-12-15.
  6. ^ J. D. Ackerman (2000). "Abiotic pollen and pollination: ecological, functional, and evolutionary perspectives". Plant Systematics and Evolution. 222 (1–4): 167–185. doi:10.1007/BF00984101.
  7. ^ Charlesworth D, Willis JH. The genetics of inbreeding depression. Nat Rev Genet. 2009 Nov;10(11):783-96. doi: 10.1038/nrg2664. PMID: 19834483
  8. ^ a b Jean Emberlin (2009). "Grass, tree, and weed pollen". In A. Barry Kay; Allen P. Kaplan; Jean Bousquet; Patrick G. Holt (eds.). The Scientific Basis of Allergy. Allergy and Allergic Diseases. Vol. 1 (2nd ed.). John Wiley & Sons. pp. 942–962. ISBN 9781444300925.
  9. ^ a b Aboulaich, Nadia; Bouziane, Hassan; Kadiri, Mohamed; del Mar Trigo, María; Riadi, Hassane; Kazzaz, Mohamed; Merzouki, Abderrahman (2008-12-09). "Pollen production in anemophilous species of the Poaceae family in Tetouan (NW Morocco)". Aerobiologia. 25 (1): 27. doi:10.1007/s10453-008-9106-2. ISSN 1573-3025.
[edit]
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