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| hymeniumType = smooth
| hymeniumType = smooth
| capShape = convex
| capShape = convex
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| howEdible=edible
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| howEdible2=caution
| whichGills = NA
| whichGills = NA
| stipeCharacter = bare
| stipeCharacter = bare
| sporePrintColor = yellow
| sporePrintColor = yellow
| ecologicalType = saprotrophic
| ecologicalType = saprotrophic
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| howEdible = edible
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| howEdible2 = poisonous
}}
}}


'''''Verpa bohemica''''' is a species of [[fungus]] in the family [[Morchellaceae]]. The [[synonym (biology)|synonym]] '''''Ptychoverpa bohemica''''' is often used by European mycologists and it is commonly known as the '''early morel''' or the '''wrinkled thimble-cap.''' The [[mushroom]] has a pale yellow or brown thimble-shaped [[pileus (mycology)|cap]]—{{convert|2|to|4|cm|in|1|abbr=on|frac=8}} in diameter by {{convert|2|to|5|cm|in|1|abbr=on|frac=8}} long—that has a surface wrinkled and ribbed with brain-like convolutions. A feature distinguishing the species from [[Morchella|true morels]] (genus ''Morchella''), the cap hangs free from the top of the [[stipe (mycology)|stem]], which is lighter in color, brittle, and up to {{convert|12|cm|in|1|abbr=on|frac=8}} long by {{convert|1|to|2.5|cm|in|1|abbr=on|frac=8}} thick. Microscopically, the mushroom is distinguished by its large [[spore]]s, typically 60–80 by 15–18 [[µm]], and the presence of only two spores per [[ascus]].
'''''Verpa bohemica''''' is a species of [[fungus]] in the family [[Morchellaceae]]. The [[synonym (biology)|synonym]] '''''Ptychoverpa bohemica''''' is often used by European mycologists and it is commonly known as the '''early morel''' or the '''wrinkled thimble-cap.''' The [[mushroom]] has a pale yellow or brown thimble-shaped [[pileus (mycology)|cap]]—{{convert|2|to|4|cm|in|1|abbr=on|frac=8}} in diameter by {{convert|2|to|5|cm|in|1|abbr=on|frac=8}} long—that has a surface wrinkled and ribbed with brain-like convolutions. A feature distinguishing the species from [[Morchella|true morels]] (genus ''Morchella''), the cap hangs free from the top of the [[stipe (mycology)|stem]], which is lighter in color, brittle, and up to {{convert|12|cm|in|1|abbr=on|frac=8}} long by {{convert|1|to|2.5|cm|in|1|abbr=on|frac=8}} thick. Microscopically, the mushroom is distinguished by its large [[spore]]s, typically 60–80 by 15–18 [[μm]], and the presence of only two spores per [[ascus]].


''V. bohemica'' is found in northern North America, Europe, and Asia. It fruits in early spring, growing on the ground in woods following the snowmelt, before the appearance of true morels. Although widely considered [[edible mushroom|edible]], if incorrectly prepared, consumption of the mushroom may lead to [[mushroom poisoning|poisoning]] in susceptible individuals; symptoms include [[wikt:gastrointestinal|gastrointestinal]] upset and lack of muscular coordination.
''Verpa bohemica'' is found in northern North America, Europe, and Asia. It fruits in early spring, growing on the ground in woods following the snowmelt, before the appearance of true morels. Although widely considered [[edible mushroom|edible]], if incorrectly prepared, consumption of the mushroom may lead to [[mushroom poisoning|poisoning]] in susceptible individuals; symptoms include [[wikt:gastrointestinal|gastrointestinal]] upset and lack of muscular coordination.


==Taxonomy==
==Taxonomy==
The species was first [[species description|described]] in the scientific literature by the Czech physician and mycologist [[Julius Vincenz von Krombholz]] in 1828, under the name ''Morchella bohemica''.<ref name="Krombholz 1828"/> The German naturalist [[Joseph Schröter]] transferred it to the genus ''[[Verpa]]'' in 1893.<ref name="Schroter 1893"/> ''Ptychoverpa bohemica'' is a [[synonym (taxonomy)|synonym]] that was published by Frenchman [[Jean Louis Émile Boudier]] in his 1907 treatise on the [[Discomycetes]] of Europe;<ref name="Boudier 1907"/> the name is still occasionally used, especially in European publications.<ref name="urlMushroomExpert"/> Boudier believed that the large, curved [[ascospore]]s and the rare and short [[paraphyses]] were sufficiently distinct to warrant a new genus to contain the single species.<ref name="Boudier 1907"/><ref name="Boudier 1892"/> ''Ptychoverpa'' has also been [[biological classification|classified]] as a [[section (botany)|section]] of ''Verpa''.<ref name="Underwood 1892"/> The section is characterized by the presence of thick longitudinal ridges on the cap that can be simple or forked.<ref name="Underwood 1899"/> The species was first discovered in Canada by Alfred Brooker Klugh shortly before 1910<ref>{{cite book|last1=Estey|first1=Ralph H|title=Essays on the Early History of Plant Pathology and Mycology in Canada|date=1994|page=264|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_tstGOViLLsC&pg=PA264|isbn=9780773564404}}</ref> where it was referred to by another synonym, ''Morchella bispora''.<ref>{{cite web|title=Morchella bispora|url=http://www.mycobank.org/BioloMICS.aspx?TableKey=14682616000000067&Rec=232007|website=Mycobank|access-date=27 April 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Morchella bispora|url=http://www.indexfungorum.org/names/NamesRecord.asp?RecordID=189229|website=Index Fungorum|access-date=27 April 2018}}</ref>
The species was first [[species description|described]] in the scientific literature by the Czech physician and mycologist [[Julius Vincenz von Krombholz]] in 1828, under the name ''Morchella bohemica''.<ref name="Krombholz 1828"/> The German naturalist [[Joseph Schröter]] transferred it to the genus ''[[Verpa]]'' in 1893.<ref name="Schroter 1893"/> ''Ptychoverpa bohemica'' is a [[synonym (taxonomy)|synonym]] that was published by Frenchman [[Jean Louis Émile Boudier]] in his 1907 treatise on the [[Discomycetes]] of Europe;<ref name="Boudier 1907"/> the name is still occasionally used, especially in European publications.<ref name="urlMushroomExpert"/> Boudier believed that the large, curved [[ascospore]]s and the rare and short [[paraphyses]] were sufficiently distinct to warrant a new genus to contain the single species.<ref name="Boudier 1907"/><ref name="Boudier 1892"/> ''Ptychoverpa'' has also been [[biological classification|classified]] as a [[section (botany)|section]] of ''Verpa''.<ref name="Underwood 1892"/> The section is characterized by the presence of thick longitudinal ridges on the cap that can be simple or forked.<ref name="Underwood 1899"/> The species was first discovered in Canada by Alfred Brooker Klugh shortly before 1910<ref>{{cite book|last1=Estey|first1=Ralph H|title=Essays on the Early History of Plant Pathology and Mycology in Canada|date=1994|page=264|publisher=McGill-Queen's Press - MQUP |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_tstGOViLLsC&pg=PA264|isbn=9780773564404}}</ref> where it was referred to by another synonym, ''Morchella bispora''.<ref>{{cite web|title=Morchella bispora|url=http://www.mycobank.org/BioloMICS.aspx?TableKey=14682616000000067&Rec=232007|website=Mycobank|access-date=27 April 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Morchella bispora|url=http://www.indexfungorum.org/names/NamesRecord.asp?RecordID=189229|website=Index Fungorum|access-date=27 April 2018}}</ref>


===Etymology===
===Etymology===
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The [[pileus (mycology)|cap]] of this fungus (known technically as an [[apothecium]]) is {{convert|2|to|4|cm|in|1|abbr=off|frac=8}} in diameter by {{convert|2|to|5|cm|in|1|abbr=on|frac=8}} long, with a conical or bell shape. It is folded into longitudinal ridges that often fuse together (''[[anastomose]]'') in a vein-like network. The cap is attached to the stem at the top only—hanging from the top of the [[Stipe (mycology)|stipe]], with the lobed edge free from the stem—and varies in color from yellowish brown to reddish brown; the underside of the cap is pale. The [[stipe (mycology)|stem]] is {{convert|6|to|12|cm|in|1|abbr=on|frac=8}} long by {{convert|1|to|2.5|cm|in|1|abbr=on|frac=8}} thick, cream-white in color, and tapers upward so that the stem is thicker at the base than at the top.<ref name="Healy 2008"/> Although the stem is initially loosely stuffed with cottony [[hypha]]e, it eventually becomes hollow in maturity; overall, the mushroom is rather fragile.<ref name="Schalkwijk-Barendsen 1991"/> The [[spore print|spore deposit]] is yellow, and the [[trama (mycology)|flesh]] is white.<ref name="RogersMushrooms"/>
The [[pileus (mycology)|cap]] of this fungus (known technically as an [[apothecium]]) is {{convert|2|to|4|cm|in|1|abbr=off|frac=8}} in diameter by {{convert|2|to|5|cm|in|1|abbr=on|frac=8}} long, with a conical or bell shape. It is folded into longitudinal ridges that often fuse together (''[[anastomose]]'') in a vein-like network. The cap is attached to the stem at the top only—hanging from the top of the [[Stipe (mycology)|stipe]], with the lobed edge free from the stem—and varies in color from yellowish brown to reddish brown; the underside of the cap is pale. The [[stipe (mycology)|stem]] is {{convert|6|to|12|cm|in|1|abbr=on|frac=8}} long by {{convert|1|to|2.5|cm|in|1|abbr=on|frac=8}} thick, cream-white in color, and tapers upward so that the stem is thicker at the base than at the top.<ref name="Healy 2008"/> Although the stem is initially loosely stuffed with cottony [[hypha]]e, it eventually becomes hollow in maturity; overall, the mushroom is rather fragile.<ref name="Schalkwijk-Barendsen 1991"/> The [[spore print|spore deposit]] is yellow, and the [[trama (mycology)|flesh]] is white.<ref name="RogersMushrooms"/>


Relative to other typical mushroom species, the [[spores]] of ''V.&nbsp;bohemica'' are huge, typically measuring 60–80 by 15–18&nbsp;[[µm]]. They are elliptical, smooth, sometimes curved, and appear [[hyaline]] (translucent) to yellowish.<ref name="Healy 2008"/> The spores, which number two (more rarely three)<ref name="Horgen 1985"/> per [[ascus]] are characteristic for this species.<ref name="McKnight 1987"/> The smooth, elliptical asci measure 275–350&nbsp;µm long by 16–23&nbsp;µm wide.<ref name="Kuo 2005"/> The British-Canadian mycologist [[Arthur Henry Reginald Buller]] determined that the asci are [[heliotropic]]—they bend toward light. As he noted, "I cut transverse sections though their pilei, examined these sections under the microscope, and at once perceived that in all the hymenial grooves and depressions the asci were curved outwards so that their opercula must have faced the strongest rays of light to which the ends of the asci has been subjected in the places where the fruit-bodies developed."<ref name="Buller 1909"/> This response to the stimulus of light is significant because it permits a fruit body to point and later discharge its asci towards open spaces, thus increasing the chances that the spores will be dispersed by wind.<ref name="Buller 1909"/> The [[paraphyses]] are thick and club-shaped, with diameters of 7–8&nbsp;µm at their tips.<ref name="Seaver 1942"/>
Relative to other typical mushroom species, the [[spores]] of ''V.&nbsp;bohemica'' are huge, typically measuring 60–80 by 15–18&nbsp;[[μm]]. They are elliptical, smooth, sometimes curved, and appear [[hyaline]] (translucent) to yellowish.<ref name="Healy 2008"/> The spores, which number two (more rarely three)<ref name="Horgen 1985"/> per [[ascus]] are characteristic for this species.<ref name="McKnight 1987"/> The smooth, elliptical asci measure 275–350&nbsp;μm long by 16–23&nbsp;μm wide.<ref name="Kuo 2005"/> The British-Canadian mycologist [[Arthur Henry Reginald Buller]] determined that the asci are [[heliotropic]]—they bend toward light. As he noted, "I cut transverse sections though their pilei, examined these sections under the microscope, and at once perceived that in all the hymenial grooves and depressions the asci were curved outwards so that their opercula must have faced the strongest rays of light to which the ends of the asci has been subjected in the places where the fruit-bodies developed."<ref name="Buller 1909"/> This response to the stimulus of light is significant because it permits a fruit body to point and later discharge its asci towards open spaces, thus increasing the chances that the spores will be dispersed by wind.<ref name="Buller 1909"/> The [[paraphyses]] are thick and club-shaped, with diameters of 7–8&nbsp;μm at their tips.<ref name="Seaver 1942"/>


{{gallery|mode=packed
{{gallery|mode=packed
|Verpa-bohemica-Xsection.jpg|Stems of young fruit bodies are initially stuffed with soft, cottony tissue.
|Verpa-bohemica-Xsection.jpg|Stems of young fruit bodies are initially stuffed with soft, cottony tissue.
|Verpa bohemica 84787.jpg|The spores are large, measuring up to 80 µm long.
|Verpa bohemica 84787.jpg|The spores are large, measuring up to 80 μm long.
}}
}}


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| width2 = {{#expr: (160 * 2736 / 3648) round 0}}
| width2 = {{#expr: (160 * 2736 / 3648) round 0}}
}}
}}
The closely related species ''[[Verpa conica]]'' typically has a smooth cap, although specimens with wrinkled caps are known. ''V.&nbsp;conica'' may be distinguished microscopically by its eight-spored asci.<ref name="Arora 1986"/> Its North American range extends much further south than ''V.&nbsp;bohemica''.<ref name="Kuo 2005"/> Another similar group of species are the "half-free" morels (e.g. ''[[Morchella populiphila]]'', [[Morchella punctipes|''M.&nbsp;punctipes'']],<ref>{{Cite book |last=[[Audubon]] |title=Mushrooms of North America |publisher=[[Knopf]] |year=2023 |isbn=978-0-593-31998-7 |pages=37}}</ref> and ''[[Morchella semilibera|M.&nbsp;semilibera]]''), which have a honeycombed cap attached to the stalk for about half of its length, and with ridges that are darker than the pits. Additionally, a cross-sectioned stem of a specimen of ''M.&nbsp;semilibera'' is hollow, while ''V.&nbsp;bohemica'' usually has cottony wisps in the stem,<ref name="urlMushroomExpert"/> and ''M.&nbsp;semilibera'' usually has vertical perforations near the base, while ''V.&nbsp;bohemica'' lacks them. ''V.&nbsp;bohemica'' may be reliably distinguished from all similar species by its much larger spores.<ref name="Bessette 1992"/>
The closely related ''[[Verpa conica]]'' typically has a smooth cap, but it can be wrinkled; ''V.&nbsp;conica'' may be distinguished microscopically by its eight-spored asci.<ref name="Arora 1986"/> Its North American range extends much further south than ''V.&nbsp;bohemica''.<ref name="Kuo 2005"/>
Another similar group of species are the "half-free" morels, e.g. ''[[Morchella semilibera]]'', ''[[Morchella populiphila|M.&nbsp;populiphila]]'', and [[Morchella punctipes|''M.&nbsp;punctipes'']].<ref>{{Cite book |last=[[Audubon]] |title=Mushrooms of North America |publisher=[[Knopf]] |year=2023 |isbn=978-0-593-31998-7 |pages=37}}</ref> These typically have a honeycombed cap attached to the stalk for about half of its length, and with ridges that are darker than the pits. In cross-section, the stem of ''M.&nbsp;semilibera'' stem is hollow, while that of ''V.&nbsp;bohemica'' usually has cottony wisps;<ref name="urlMushroomExpert" /> ''M.&nbsp;semilibera'' usually has vertical perforations near the base, while ''V.&nbsp;bohemica'' does not.<ref name="Bessette 1992" />
''Verpa bohemica'' may be reliably distinguished from all similar species by its much larger spores.<ref name="Bessette 1992" />


==Distribution, habitat and ecology==
==Distribution, habitat and ecology==
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==Edibility==
==Edibility==
Despite being sold (usually frozen) in Russia, the [[edible mushroom|edibility]] of ''V.&nbsp;bohemica'' is debated. Although it is eaten by many, consumption of large amounts in a single sitting, or on successive days, has been reported to cause poisoning in susceptible individuals.<ref name="Orr 1979" /> Symptoms include gastrointestinal upset and lack of muscular coordination, similar to the effects reported by some individuals after consuming the false morel species ''[[Gyromitra esculenta]]''.<ref name="Horgen 1985" /> The responsible toxin in ''G.&nbsp;esculenta'' is [[gyromitrin]]; it was suspected that ''V.&nbsp;bohemica'' may be able to synthesize low levels of the toxin,<ref name="Lincoff 1977" /> but this has yet to be experimentally detected.<ref name=":0">{{cite journal |author1=Paolo Davoli |author2=Nicola Sitta |date=2015 |title=Early Morels and Little Friars, or a Short Essay on the Edibility of Verpa bohemica |url=http://www.fungimag.com/spring-2015-articles/Early%20Morels%20LR.pdf |journal=Fungi |volume=8 |pages=4–9 |access-date=14 March 2022}}</ref> Overconsumption of the mushroom has been reported to induce [[coma]].<ref name="Maybrier 2011" /> There are also reports of alcohol intolerance ([[disulfiram-like reaction]]) after consumption.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lagrange |first1=E |last2=Vernoux |first2=JP |date=29 July 2020 |title=Warning on False or True Morels and Button Mushrooms with Potential Toxicity Linked to Hydrazinic Toxins: An Update. |journal=Toxins |volume=12 |issue=8 |page=482 |doi=10.3390/toxins12080482 |pmc=7472412 |pmid=32751277 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
Despite being sold (usually frozen) in Russia, the [[edible mushroom|edibility]] of ''Verpa'' is debated. Although it is eaten by many, consumption of large amounts in a single sitting, or on successive days, has been reported to cause poisoning in susceptible individuals.<ref name="Orr 1979" /> Symptoms include gastrointestinal upset and lack of muscular coordination, similar to the effects reported by some individuals after consuming the false morel species ''[[Gyromitra esculenta]]''.<ref name="Horgen 1985" /> The responsible toxin in ''G.&nbsp;esculenta'' is [[gyromitrin]]; it was suspected that ''V.&nbsp;bohemica'' may be able to synthesize low levels of the toxin,<ref name="Lincoff 1977" /> but this has yet to be experimentally detected.<ref name=":0">{{cite journal |author1=Paolo Davoli |author2=Nicola Sitta |date=2015 |title=Early Morels and Little Friars, or a Short Essay on the Edibility of Verpa bohemica |url=http://www.fungimag.com/spring-2015-articles/Early%20Morels%20LR.pdf |journal=Fungi |volume=8 |pages=4–9 |access-date=14 March 2022}}</ref> Overconsumption of the mushroom has been reported to induce [[coma]].<ref name="Maybrier 2011" /> There are also reports of alcohol intolerance ([[disulfiram-like reaction]]) after consumption.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lagrange |first1=E |last2=Vernoux |first2=JP |date=29 July 2020 |title=Warning on False or True Morels and Button Mushrooms with Potential Toxicity Linked to Hydrazinic Toxins: An Update. |journal=Toxins |volume=12 |issue=8 |page=482 |doi=10.3390/toxins12080482 |pmc=7472412 |pmid=32751277 |doi-access=free}}</ref>


According to one report, the edibility of ''Verpa'' is similar to that of ''Morchella''.<ref name=":0" /> It should always be cooked thoroughly and, if being eaten for the first time, restricted to small portions to test tolerance.<ref name="McKnight 1987" /> Some advocate only eating the caps and discarding the stems.<ref name="Pelouch 2008" /> Opinions on the flavor of the mushrooms vary, ranging from "strong but not on a par with true morels",<ref name="Arora 1986" /> to "pleasant",<ref name="RogersMushrooms" /> to "not distinctive".<ref name="urlMushroomExpert" />
According to one report, the edibility of ''Verpa'' is similar to that of ''Morchella''.<ref name=":0" /> It should always be cooked thoroughly and, if being eaten for the first time, restricted to small portions to test tolerance.<ref name="McKnight 1987" /> Some advocate only eating the caps and discarding the stems.<ref name="Pelouch 2008" /> Opinions on the flavor of the mushrooms vary, ranging from "strong but not on a par with true morels",<ref name="Arora 1986" /> to "pleasant",<ref name="RogersMushrooms" /> to "not distinctive".<ref name="urlMushroomExpert" />
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<ref name="Horgen 1985">{{cite book |vauthors=Horgen PA, Ammirati JF, Traquair JA |title=Poisonous Mushrooms of the Northern United States and Canada |publisher=University of Minnesota Press |location=Minneapolis, Minnesota |year=1985 |page=337 |isbn=0-8166-1407-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nhWbsGB7z4cC&pg=RA1-PA337}}</ref>
<ref name="Horgen 1985">{{cite book |vauthors=Horgen PA, Ammirati JF, Traquair JA |title=Poisonous Mushrooms of the Northern United States and Canada |publisher=University of Minnesota Press |location=Minneapolis, Minnesota |year=1985 |page=337 |isbn=0-8166-1407-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nhWbsGB7z4cC&pg=RA1-PA337}}</ref>


<ref name="Krivosheina 2008">{{cite journal|title=Macromycete fruit bodies as a habitat for dipterans (Insecta, Diptera) |journal=Entomological Review |year=2008 |author=Krivosheina NP. |volume=88 |issue=7 |pages=778–92 |doi=10.1134/S0013873808070038|s2cid=38633000 }}</ref>
<ref name="Krivosheina 2008">{{cite journal|title=Macromycete fruit bodies as a habitat for dipterans (Insecta, Diptera) |journal=Entomological Review |year=2008 |author=Krivosheina NP. |volume=88 |issue=7 |pages=778–92 |doi=10.1134/S0013873808070038}}</ref>


<ref name="Krombholz 1828">{{cite journal |author=von Krombholz JV. |title=Böhmische Morchel, ganz offene Morchel. — ''Morchella bohemica''. KRLZ. böhm. Kačenky |journal=Naturgetreue Abbildungen und Beschreibungen der Essbaren, Schädlichen und Verdächtigen Schwämme |issue=1 |year=1831 |pages=3–5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DhYWAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA3}}</ref>
<ref name="Krombholz 1828">{{cite journal |author=von Krombholz JV. |title=Böhmische Morchel, ganz offene Morchel. — ''Morchella bohemica''. KRLZ. böhm. Kačenky |journal=Naturgetreue Abbildungen und Beschreibungen der Essbaren, Schädlichen und Verdächtigen Schwämme |issue=1 |year=1831 |pages=3–5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DhYWAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA3}}</ref>
Line 100: Line 104:
<ref name="Kuo 2005">{{cite book |author=Kuo M. |title=Morels |publisher=The University of Michigan Press |location=Ann Arbor, Michigan |year=2005 |pages=184–5 |isbn=0-472-03036-1}}</ref>
<ref name="Kuo 2005">{{cite book |author=Kuo M. |title=Morels |publisher=The University of Michigan Press |location=Ann Arbor, Michigan |year=2005 |pages=184–5 |isbn=0-472-03036-1}}</ref>


<ref name="Kuo 2007">{{cite book |author=Kuo M. |title=100 Edible Mushrooms |publisher=The University of Michigan Press |location=Ann Arbor, Michigan |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-472-03126-9 |url=https://archive.org/details/100ediblemushroo00kuom }}</ref>
<ref name="Kuo 2007">{{cite book |author=Kuo M. |title=100 Edible Mushrooms |publisher=The University of Michigan Press |location=Ann Arbor, Michigan |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-472-03126-9 |url=https://archive.org/details/100ediblemushroo00kuom}}</ref>


<ref name="Lincoff 1977">{{cite book |vauthors=Lincoff G, Mitchel DH |title=Toxic and Hallucinogenic Mushroom Poisoning: a Handbook for Physicians and Mushroom Hunters |publisher=Van Nostrand Reinhold |location=New York, New York |page=[https://archive.org/details/toxichallucinoge0000linc/page/171 171] |year=1977 |isbn=978-0-442-24580-1 |url=https://archive.org/details/toxichallucinoge0000linc/page/171 }}</ref>
<ref name="Lincoff 1977">{{cite book |vauthors=Lincoff G, Mitchel DH |title=Toxic and Hallucinogenic Mushroom Poisoning: a Handbook for Physicians and Mushroom Hunters |publisher=Van Nostrand Reinhold |location=New York, New York |page=[https://archive.org/details/toxichallucinoge0000linc/page/171 171] |year=1977 |isbn=978-0-442-24580-1 |url=https://archive.org/details/toxichallucinoge0000linc/page/171}}</ref>


<ref name="Maybrier 2011">{{cite book|author1=Maybrier M, Maybrier M.|title=Morel Hunting |year=2011 |publisher=Stackpole Books |location=Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania |isbn=978-0-8117-0834-0 |page=18 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xVZ5Yme9WysC&pg=PA18}}</ref>
<ref name="Maybrier 2011">{{cite book|author1=Maybrier M, Maybrier M.|title=Morel Hunting |year=2011 |publisher=Stackpole Books |location=Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania |isbn=978-0-8117-0834-0 |page=18 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xVZ5Yme9WysC&pg=PA18}}</ref>

Latest revision as of 19:04, 18 May 2024

Verpa bohemica
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Fungi
Division: Ascomycota
Class: Pezizomycetes
Order: Pezizales
Family: Morchellaceae
Genus: Verpa
Species:
V. bohemica
Binomial name
Verpa bohemica
Synonyms[1]
  • Morchella bohemica Krombh. (1828)
  • Ptychoverpa bohemica (Krombh.) Boud. (1907)
Verpa bohemica
View the Mycomorphbox template that generates the following list
Smooth hymenium
Cap is convex
Hymenium attachment is not applicable
Stipe is bare
Spore print is yellow
Ecology is saprotrophic
Edibility is edible but not recommended

Verpa bohemica is a species of fungus in the family Morchellaceae. The synonym Ptychoverpa bohemica is often used by European mycologists and it is commonly known as the early morel or the wrinkled thimble-cap. The mushroom has a pale yellow or brown thimble-shaped cap—2 to 4 cm (3⁄4 to 1+5⁄8 in) in diameter by 2 to 5 cm (3⁄4 to 2 in) long—that has a surface wrinkled and ribbed with brain-like convolutions. A feature distinguishing the species from true morels (genus Morchella), the cap hangs free from the top of the stem, which is lighter in color, brittle, and up to 12 cm (4+3⁄4 in) long by 1 to 2.5 cm (3⁄8 to 1 in) thick. Microscopically, the mushroom is distinguished by its large spores, typically 60–80 by 15–18 μm, and the presence of only two spores per ascus.

Verpa bohemica is found in northern North America, Europe, and Asia. It fruits in early spring, growing on the ground in woods following the snowmelt, before the appearance of true morels. Although widely considered edible, if incorrectly prepared, consumption of the mushroom may lead to poisoning in susceptible individuals; symptoms include gastrointestinal upset and lack of muscular coordination.

Taxonomy

[edit]

The species was first described in the scientific literature by the Czech physician and mycologist Julius Vincenz von Krombholz in 1828, under the name Morchella bohemica.[2] The German naturalist Joseph Schröter transferred it to the genus Verpa in 1893.[3] Ptychoverpa bohemica is a synonym that was published by Frenchman Jean Louis Émile Boudier in his 1907 treatise on the Discomycetes of Europe;[4] the name is still occasionally used, especially in European publications.[5] Boudier believed that the large, curved ascospores and the rare and short paraphyses were sufficiently distinct to warrant a new genus to contain the single species.[4][6] Ptychoverpa has also been classified as a section of Verpa.[7] The section is characterized by the presence of thick longitudinal ridges on the cap that can be simple or forked.[8] The species was first discovered in Canada by Alfred Brooker Klugh shortly before 1910[9] where it was referred to by another synonym, Morchella bispora.[10][11]

Etymology

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The specific epithet bohemica refers to Bohemia (now a part of the Czech Republic),[12] where Krombholz originally collected the species.[2] The mushroom is commonly known as the "early morel",[13] "early false morel", or the "wrinkled thimble-cap".[14] Ptychoverpa is derived from the Ancient Greek ptyx (genitive form ptychos), meaning "fold", layer", or "plate".[15]

Description

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The cap of this fungus (known technically as an apothecium) is 2 to 4 centimetres (3⁄4 to 1+5⁄8 inches) in diameter by 2 to 5 cm (3⁄4 to 2 in) long, with a conical or bell shape. It is folded into longitudinal ridges that often fuse together (anastomose) in a vein-like network. The cap is attached to the stem at the top only—hanging from the top of the stipe, with the lobed edge free from the stem—and varies in color from yellowish brown to reddish brown; the underside of the cap is pale. The stem is 6 to 12 cm (2+3⁄8 to 4+3⁄4 in) long by 1 to 2.5 cm (3⁄8 to 1 in) thick, cream-white in color, and tapers upward so that the stem is thicker at the base than at the top.[16] Although the stem is initially loosely stuffed with cottony hyphae, it eventually becomes hollow in maturity; overall, the mushroom is rather fragile.[17] The spore deposit is yellow, and the flesh is white.[18]

Relative to other typical mushroom species, the spores of V. bohemica are huge, typically measuring 60–80 by 15–18 μm. They are elliptical, smooth, sometimes curved, and appear hyaline (translucent) to yellowish.[16] The spores, which number two (more rarely three)[19] per ascus are characteristic for this species.[13] The smooth, elliptical asci measure 275–350 μm long by 16–23 μm wide.[20] The British-Canadian mycologist Arthur Henry Reginald Buller determined that the asci are heliotropic—they bend toward light. As he noted, "I cut transverse sections though their pilei, examined these sections under the microscope, and at once perceived that in all the hymenial grooves and depressions the asci were curved outwards so that their opercula must have faced the strongest rays of light to which the ends of the asci has been subjected in the places where the fruit-bodies developed."[21] This response to the stimulus of light is significant because it permits a fruit body to point and later discharge its asci towards open spaces, thus increasing the chances that the spores will be dispersed by wind.[21] The paraphyses are thick and club-shaped, with diameters of 7–8 μm at their tips.[22]

  • Stems of young fruit bodies are initially stuffed with soft, cottony tissue.
    Stems of young fruit bodies are initially stuffed with soft, cottony tissue.
  • The spores are large, measuring up to 80 μm long.
    The spores are large, measuring up to 80 μm long.

Similar species

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Lookalike species include the half-free morel (left) and Verpa conica (right).

The closely related Verpa conica typically has a smooth cap, but it can be wrinkled; V. conica may be distinguished microscopically by its eight-spored asci.[23] Its North American range extends much further south than V. bohemica.[20]

Another similar group of species are the "half-free" morels, e.g. Morchella semilibera, M. populiphila, and M. punctipes.[24] These typically have a honeycombed cap attached to the stalk for about half of its length, and with ridges that are darker than the pits. In cross-section, the stem of M. semilibera stem is hollow, while that of V. bohemica usually has cottony wisps;[5] M. semilibera usually has vertical perforations near the base, while V. bohemica does not.[25]

Verpa bohemica may be reliably distinguished from all similar species by its much larger spores.[25]

Distribution, habitat and ecology

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The fungus has a wide distribution throughout northern North America;[5] its range extends south to the Great Lakes in the Midwestern United States, and south to northern California on the West Coast.[20] In Europe, the fungus is widely distributed, and has been collected from Austria,[26] the Czech Republic,[27] Denmark,[26] Finland,[28] Germany,[29] Norway,[30] Poland,[31] Russia, [32] Romania, Slovenia,[26] Spain,[26] Sweden,[33] and Ukraine.[34] In Asia, it has been recorded from India[35] and Turkey.[36]

The fruit bodies of V. bohemica grow singly or scattered on the ground in woods in early spring, often before the appearance of the morel, and throughout the morel season.[5] It is often found along riverbanks, near cottonwoods, willows and aspens, often buried in plant litter.[14] The fungus prefers to fruit in moist areas with ample sunlight.[37] Its minimum growth temperature is 3 °C (37 °F), with an optimum of 22 °C (72 °F), and a maximum of about 30 °C (86 °F).[38] A study of carbon and nitrogen isotope ratios indicated that Verpa bohemica is saprobic, that is, obtaining nutrients from decomposing organic matter.[39] It has been suggested, however, that the fungus is mycorrhizal for at least part of its life cycle.[40]

A 10-year study of the distribution, time of fruiting and habitats of morel and false morel population in Iowa showed that early false morels are the first morels to fruit in the spring, appearing shortly after leaves begin to form on deciduous trees. Narrow-head morels (Morchella angusticeps) fruit next, followed by the yellow or white morels (Morchella esculenta), then lastly Morchella crassipes.[41] The fruit bodies serve as a habitat for breeding dipterans (flies), including Porricondyla media, Pegomya geniculata, and Trichocera annulata.[42]

Edibility

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Despite being sold (usually frozen) in Russia, the edibility of Verpa is debated. Although it is eaten by many, consumption of large amounts in a single sitting, or on successive days, has been reported to cause poisoning in susceptible individuals.[43] Symptoms include gastrointestinal upset and lack of muscular coordination, similar to the effects reported by some individuals after consuming the false morel species Gyromitra esculenta.[19] The responsible toxin in G. esculenta is gyromitrin; it was suspected that V. bohemica may be able to synthesize low levels of the toxin,[44] but this has yet to be experimentally detected.[45] Overconsumption of the mushroom has been reported to induce coma.[46] There are also reports of alcohol intolerance (disulfiram-like reaction) after consumption.[47]

According to one report, the edibility of Verpa is similar to that of Morchella.[45] It should always be cooked thoroughly and, if being eaten for the first time, restricted to small portions to test tolerance.[13] Some advocate only eating the caps and discarding the stems.[48] Opinions on the flavor of the mushrooms vary, ranging from "strong but not on a par with true morels",[23] to "pleasant",[18] to "not distinctive".[5]

References

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  1. ^ "Verpa bohemica (Krombh.) J. Schröt. 1893". MycoBank. International Mycological Association. Retrieved 2010-12-27.
  2. ^ a b von Krombholz JV. (1831). "Böhmische Morchel, ganz offene Morchel. — Morchella bohemica. KRLZ. böhm. Kačenky". Naturgetreue Abbildungen und Beschreibungen der Essbaren, Schädlichen und Verdächtigen Schwämme (1): 3–5.
  3. ^ Schröter J. (1893). Kryptogamen-Flora von Schlesien [Cryptogamic flora of Silesia] (in German). Vol. 3. Breslau, Germany: J.U. Kern's Verlag. p. 25.
  4. ^ a b Boudier JLÉ. (1907). Histoire et Classification des Discomycètes d'Europe (in French). Paris, France: Klincksieck. p. 34.
  5. ^ a b c d e Kuo M. (January 2005). "Verpa bohemica". MushroomExpert.Com. Retrieved 2011-05-03.
  6. ^ Boudier É. (1892). "Note sur les Morchella Bohemica Kromb. et voisons". Bulletin de la Société Mycologique de France (in French). 8: 141–4.
  7. ^ Underwood L. (1892). "North American Helvellales". Minnesota Botanical Studies. Reports of the Survey. Botanical Series II. 2: 485.
  8. ^ Underwood LM. (1899). Moulds, Mildews, and Mushrooms; A Guide to the Systematic Study of the Fungi and Mycetozoa and their Literature. New York, New York: H. Holt. p. 65.
  9. ^ Estey, Ralph H (1994). Essays on the Early History of Plant Pathology and Mycology in Canada. McGill-Queen's Press - MQUP. p. 264. ISBN 9780773564404.
  10. ^ "Morchella bispora". Mycobank. Retrieved 27 April 2018.
  11. ^ "Morchella bispora". Index Fungorum. Retrieved 27 April 2018.
  12. ^ Smith AH, Weber NS (1980). The Mushroom Hunter's Field Guide. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan Press. p. 38. ISBN 0-472-85610-3.
  13. ^ a b c McKnight VB, McKnight KH (1987). A Field Guide to Mushrooms, North America. Boston, Massachusetts: Houghton Mifflin. p. 42. ISBN 0-395-91090-0.
  14. ^ a b Ammirati JF, McKenny M, Stuntz DE (1987). The New Savory Wild Mushroom. Seattle, Washington: University of Washington Press. p. 214. ISBN 0-295-96480-4.
  15. ^ Scarborough J. (1992). Medical and Biological Terminologies: Classical Origins. Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press. p. 74. ISBN 978-0-8061-3029-3.
  16. ^ a b Healy RA, Huffman DR, Tiffany LH, Knaphaus G (2008). Mushrooms and Other Fungi of the Midcontinental United States (Bur Oak Guide). Iowa City, Iowa: University of Iowa Press. p. 295. ISBN 978-1-58729-627-7.
  17. ^ Schalkwijk-Barendsen HME. (1991). Mushrooms of Western Canada. Edmonton, Alberta: Lone Pine Publishing. p. 178. ISBN 0-919433-47-2.
  18. ^ a b Phillips R. "Verpa bohemica". Rogers Plants Ltd. Retrieved 2011-05-03.
  19. ^ a b Horgen PA, Ammirati JF, Traquair JA (1985). Poisonous Mushrooms of the Northern United States and Canada. Minneapolis, Minnesota: University of Minnesota Press. p. 337. ISBN 0-8166-1407-5.
  20. ^ a b c Kuo M. (2005). Morels. Ann Arbor, Michigan: The University of Michigan Press. pp. 184–5. ISBN 0-472-03036-1.
  21. ^ a b Buller AHR. (1958). Researches on Fungi. Vol. 6. New York, New York: Hafner Publishing. pp. 323–4.
  22. ^ Seaver FJ. (1942). The North American cup-fungi (Operculates) (Supplement ed.). New York, New York: Self published. p. 244.
  23. ^ a b Arora D. (1986). Mushrooms Demystified: A Comprehensive Guide to the Fleshy Fungi. Berkeley, California: Ten Speed Press. p. 794. ISBN 0-89815-169-4.
  24. ^ Audubon (2023). Mushrooms of North America. Knopf. p. 37. ISBN 978-0-593-31998-7.
  25. ^ a b Bessette A, Fischer DH (1992). Edible Wild Mushrooms of North America: a Field-to-Kitchen Guide. Austin, Texas: University of Texas Press. p. 137. ISBN 0-292-72080-7.
  26. ^ a b c d "Species: Ptychoverpa bohemica (Krombh.) Boud. 1907". Global Biodiversity Information Facility. Retrieved 2011-06-17.
  27. ^ Svrček M. (1981). "Katalog operkulátních diskomycetů (Pezizales) Československa II. (O-W)" [List of operculate discomycetes Pezizales recorded from Czechoslovakia 2. O-W]. Ceska Mykologie (in Czech). 35 (2): 64–89.
  28. ^ Granmo A, Skifte O, Nilssen AC (1982). "Ptychoverpa bohemica Pezizales in Norway and Finland". Karstenia. 22 (2): 43–8. doi:10.29203/ka.1982.214. ISSN 0453-3402.
  29. ^ O'Donnell K, Cigelnik E, Weber NS, Trappe JM (1997). "Phylogenetic relationships among ascomycetous truffles and the true and false morels inferred from 18S and 28S ribosomal DNA sequence analysis". Mycologia. 89 (1): 48–65. doi:10.2307/3761172. JSTOR 3761172. Archived from the original on 2016-01-24. Retrieved 2011-06-04.
  30. ^ Often A, Torkelsen AE (1990). "Ptychoverpa bohemica new record found in South Norway". Blyttia (in Norwegian). 48 (4): 173–5. ISSN 0006-5269.
  31. ^ Skirgiello A. (1960). "Discomycètes de printemps de Bialowieza" [Spring Discomycetes of Bialowieza]. Monographiae Botanicae (in French). 10 (2): 3–19.
  32. ^ Skryabina AA. (1975). "Fructification of some species of edible fungi from the family Helvellaceae in the Slobodsky Roan of the Kirov Oblast". Rastitel'nye Resursy. 11 (4): 552–5. ISSN 0033-9946.
  33. ^ Ryman S. (1978). "Swedish Pezizales of spring and early summer". Svensk Botanisk Tidskrift (in Swedish). 72 (4): 327–40. ISSN 0039-646X.
  34. ^ Minter DW, Hayova VP, Minter TJ, Tykhonenko YY. "Verpa bohemica (Krombh.) J. Schröt". Electronic Distribution Maps of Ukrainian Fungi. Archived from the original on 2011-09-27. Retrieved 2011-05-06.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  35. ^ Wani W, Pala SA, Boda RH, Mir RA (2010). "Morels in Southern Kashmir Himalya". Journal of Mycology and Plant Pathology. 40 (4): 540–6. ISSN 0971-9393.
  36. ^ Dogan HH, Ozturk C, Kasik G, Aktas S (2007). "Macrofungi distribution of Mut province in Turkey". Pakistan Journal of Botany. 39 (1): 293–308. ISSN 0556-3321.
  37. ^ Skirgiello A. (1967). "Materiały do poznania rozmieszczenia geograficznego grzybów wyższych w Europie. II" [Contribution to the knowledge of geographical distribution of higher fungi in Europe: II]. Acta Mycologica (in Polish). 3: 243–9.
  38. ^ Gilman JC. (1916). "Cabbage yellow and the relation of temperature to its occurrence". Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden. 3 (1): 25–84 (see p. 55). doi:10.2307/2990072. JSTOR 2990072.
  39. ^ Hobbie EA, Weber NS, Trappe JM (2001). "Mycorrhizal vs saprotrophic status of fungi: the isotopic evidence". New Phytologist. 150 (3): 601–10. doi:10.1046/j.1469-8137.2001.00134.x.
  40. ^ Kuo M. (2007). 100 Edible Mushrooms. Ann Arbor, Michigan: The University of Michigan Press. ISBN 978-0-472-03126-9.
  41. ^ Tiffany LJ, Knaphaus G, Huffman DM (1998). "Distribution and ecology of the morels and false morels of Iowa". Journal of the Iowa Academy of Science. 105 (1): 1–15. Archived from the original (abstract) on 2012-08-29.
  42. ^ Krivosheina NP. (2008). "Macromycete fruit bodies as a habitat for dipterans (Insecta, Diptera)". Entomological Review. 88 (7): 778–92. doi:10.1134/S0013873808070038.
  43. ^ Orr DB, Orr RT (1979). Mushrooms of Western North America. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. p. 36. ISBN 0-520-03656-5.
  44. ^ Lincoff G, Mitchel DH (1977). Toxic and Hallucinogenic Mushroom Poisoning: a Handbook for Physicians and Mushroom Hunters. New York, New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. p. 171. ISBN 978-0-442-24580-1.
  45. ^ a b Paolo Davoli; Nicola Sitta (2015). "Early Morels and Little Friars, or a Short Essay on the Edibility of Verpa bohemica" (PDF). Fungi. 8: 4–9. Retrieved 14 March 2022.
  46. ^ Maybrier M, Maybrier M. (2011). Morel Hunting. Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania: Stackpole Books. p. 18. ISBN 978-0-8117-0834-0.
  47. ^ Lagrange, E; Vernoux, JP (29 July 2020). "Warning on False or True Morels and Button Mushrooms with Potential Toxicity Linked to Hydrazinic Toxins: An Update". Toxins. 12 (8): 482. doi:10.3390/toxins12080482. PMC 7472412. PMID 32751277.
  48. ^ Pelouch M, Pelouch L (2008). How to Find Morels. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan Press. p. 71. ISBN 978-0-472-03274-7.
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