Bipyramid: Difference between revisions
Dedhert.Jr (talk | contribs) merging into one section again with the renaming section of "Construction and properties": this section describe how the bipyramid are constructed and what are the examples; the symmetry and the dual are the properties of polyhedron, and volume is techincailly the metric property. Maybe this could be added more about the surface area, but unfortunately I don't think there is no source explained about it. |
m →Definition and properties: plural |
||
(35 intermediate revisions by 4 users not shown) | |||
Line 1: | Line 1: | ||
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2020}} |
|||
{{short description|Polyhedron formed by joining mirroring pyramids base-to-base}} |
{{short description|Polyhedron formed by joining mirroring pyramids base-to-base}} |
||
{{redirect|Dipyramid|the mountain|Dipyramid (Alaska)}} |
{{redirect|Dipyramid|the mountain|Dipyramid (Alaska)}} |
||
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2020}} |
|||
In geometry, a '''bipyramid''', |
In geometry, a '''bipyramid''', '''dipyramid''', or '''double pyramid''' is a [[polyhedron]] formed by fusing two [[Pyramid (geometry)|pyramids]] together [[base (geometry)|base]]-to-base. The [[polygon]]al base of each pyramid must therefore be the same, and unless otherwise specified the base vertices are usually [[coplanar]] and a bipyramid is usually ''symmetric'', meaning the two pyramids are [[mirror image]]s across their common base plane. When each [[apex (geometry)|apex]] ({{plural form|apices}}, the off-base vertices) of the bipyramid is on a line perpendicular to the base and passing through its center, it is a ''right'' bipyramid;{{efn|name=right pyramids}} otherwise it is ''oblique''. When the base is a [[regular polygon]], the bipyramid is also called ''regular''. |
||
== |
== Definition and properties == |
||
{{multiple image |
{{multiple image |
||
| total_width = 500 |
| total_width = 500 |
||
Line 13: | Line 13: | ||
| footer = The triangular bipyramid, octahedron, and pentagonal bipyramid. |
| footer = The triangular bipyramid, octahedron, and pentagonal bipyramid. |
||
}} |
}} |
||
A bipyramid is a polyhedron constructed by |
A bipyramid is a polyhedron constructed by fusing two [[Pyramid (geometry)|pyramids]] which share the same [[polygon]]al [[base (geometry)|base]];{{r|aarts}} a pyramid is in turn constructed by connecting each vertex of its base to a single new [[vertex (geometry)|vertex]] (the [[apex (geometry)|apex]]) not lying in the plane of the base, for an {{nowrap|1=<math>n</math>-}}gonal base forming <math>n</math> triangular faces in addition to the base face. An {{nowrap|1=<math>n</math>-}}gonal bipyramid thus has <math>2n</math> faces, <math>3n</math> edges, and <math>n + 2</math> vertices. {{anchor|1=Right and oblique bipyramid}}More generally, a right pyramid is a pyramid where the apices are on the perpendicular line through the [[centroid]] of an arbitrary polygon or the [[incenter]] of a [[tangential polygon]], depending on the source.{{efn|name=right pyramids}} Likewise, a ''right bipyramid'' is a polyhedron constructed by attaching two symmetrical right bipyramid bases; bipyramids whose apices are not on this line are called ''oblique bipyramids''.{{r|polya}} |
||
When the two pyramids are mirror images, the bipyramid is called ''symmetric''. It is called ''regular'' if its base is a regular polygon.{{r|aarts}} When the base is a regular polygon and the apices are on the perpendicular line through its center (a ''regular right bipyramid'') then all of its faces are [[isosceles triangle]]s; sometimes the name ''bipyramid'' refers specifically to symmetric regular right bipyramids,{{r|montroll}} Examples of such bipyramids are the [[triangular bipyramid]], [[octahedron]] (square bipyramid) and [[pentagonal bipyramid]]. In the case all of their edges are equal in length, these shapes consist of [[equilateral triangle]] faces, making them [[deltahedron|deltahedra]];{{r|trigg|uehara}} the triangular bipyramid and the pentagonal bipyramid are [[Johnson solid]]s, and the regular octahedron is a [[Platonic solid]].{{r|cromwell}} |
|||
[[File:Dual Cube-Octahedron.svg|thumb|180px|The octahedron is dual to the cube]] |
[[File:Dual Cube-Octahedron.svg|thumb|180px|The octahedron is dual to the cube]] |
||
The bipyramids have [[prismatic symmetry]], the [[dihedral group]] of <math> D_{nh} </math> of order <math> |
The symmetric regular right bipyramids have [[prismatic symmetry]], the [[dihedral group]] of <math> D_{nh} </math> of order <math> 4n </math>: their appearance is symmetrical by rotating around the [[axis of symmetry]] and reflecting across the mirror plane.{{r|fsz}} Because the appearance looks the same under such symmetries, and all of the faces are [[Congruence (geometry)|congruent]], the bipyramids are [[Isohedral figure|isohedral]].{{r|cpsb|mclean}} They are the [[dual polyhedron|dual polyhedra]] of [[Prism (geometry)|prisms]] and the prisms are the dual of bipyramids as well: the bipyramids vertices correspond to the faces of the prism, and the edges between pairs of vertices of one correspond to the edges between pairs of faces of the other, and vice versa;{{r|sibley}} the prisms shares the same symmetry as the bipyramids.{{r|king}} The regular octahedron is more symmetric still, as its base vertices and apices are indistinguishable and can be exchanged by reflections or rotations: the octahedron and its dual the [[cube]] have [[octahedral symmetry]].{{r|armstrong}} |
||
The [[volume]] of a bipyramid is |
The [[volume]] of a symmetric bipyramid is |
||
<math display=block> \frac{2}{3}Bh, </math> |
<math display=block> \frac{2}{3}Bh, </math> |
||
where {{mvar|B}} is the area of the base and {{mvar|h}} the height from the base plane to any apex. In the case of a regular {{nowrap|1=<math>n</math>-}}sided polygon with side length <math> s </math> and whose altitude is <math> h </math>, the volume of such bipyramid is: |
where {{mvar|B}} is the area of the base and {{mvar|h}} the height from the base plane to any apex. In the case of a regular {{nowrap|1=<math>n</math>-}}sided polygon with side length <math> s </math> and whose altitude is <math> h </math>, the volume of such bipyramid is: |
||
<math display=block> \frac{n}{6}hs^2 \cot |
<math display=block> \frac{n}{6}hs^2 \cot \frac{\pi}{n}. </math> |
||
== Related and other types of bipyramid == |
== Related and other types of bipyramid == |
||
{{multiple image |
|||
| total_width = 350 |
|||
| image1 = Concave quadrilateral bipyramid.png |caption1=A concave tetragonal bipyramid |
|||
| image2 = Asymmetric hexagonal bipyramid.png |caption2= An asymmetric hexagonal bipyramid |
|||
}} |
|||
=== Concave bipyramids === |
=== Concave bipyramids === |
||
A |
A ''concave bipyramid'' has a [[concave polygon]] base, and one example is a concave tetragonal bipyramid or an irregular concave octahedron. A bipyramid with an arbitrary polygonal base could be considered a ''right'' bipyramid if the apices are on a line perpendicular to the base passing through the base's [[centroid]]. |
||
{| class=wikitable |
|||
|+ style="text-align:center;"|Example concave bipyramid: |
|||
|- align=center |
|||
!Name |
|||
| concave tetragonal <br> (symmetric) bipyramid |
|||
|- align=center valign=center |
|||
!Image |
|||
|[[File:Concave quadrilateral bipyramid.png|120px]] |
|||
|} |
|||
=== Asymmetric |
=== Asymmetric bipyramids === |
||
An |
An ''asymmetric bipyramid'' has apices which are not mirrored across the base plane; for a right bipyramid this only happens if each apex is a different distance from the base. |
||
The [[Dual polyhedron|dual]] of an asymmetric right {{mvar|n}}-gonal bipyramid is an {{mvar|n}}-gonal [[frustum]]. |
|||
An '''inverted ''right'' bipyramid''' joins two ''right'' pyramids with congruent bases but unequal heights, base-to-base, but on the same side of their common base. |
|||
A regular asymmetric right {{mvar|n}}-gonal bipyramid has symmetry group {{math|C<sub>''n''v</sub>}}, of order {{math|2''n''}}. |
|||
A regular asymmetric/inverted right {{mvar|n}}-gonal bipyramid has symmetry group {{math|C<sub>''n''v</sub>}}, of order {{math|2''n''}}. |
|||
{| class=wikitable |
|||
|+ style="text-align:center;"|Example regular right hexagonal bipyramids: |
|||
!Asymmetric |
|||
!Inverted |
|||
|- align=center |
|||
|[[File:Asymmetric hexagonal bipyramid.png|120px]] |
|||
|[[File:Inverted asymmetric hexagonal bipyramid.png|160px]] |
|||
|} |
|||
=== Scalene triangle bipyramids === |
=== Scalene triangle bipyramids === |
||
Line 67: | Line 55: | ||
Example with {{math|1=2''n'' = 2×4}}: |
Example with {{math|1=2''n'' = 2×4}}: |
||
:An isotoxal right (symmetric) ditetragonal bipyramid has four vertical planes of symmetry of two kinds, intersecting in a (vertical) {{math|4}}-fold rotation axis; perpendicular to them is a fifth plane of symmetry (horizontal); at the intersection of the four vertical planes with the horizontal plane are four (horizontal) {{math|2}}-fold rotation axes of two kinds, each perpendicular to a plane of symmetry; two vertical planes bisect the angles between two horizontal axes; and there is a centre of inversion symmetry.{{sfn|Spencer|1911|loc=2. Tegragonal system, holosymmetric class, fig. 46, p. 577 (p. 599 on Wikisource)}} |
:An isotoxal right (symmetric) ditetragonal bipyramid has four vertical planes of symmetry of two kinds, intersecting in a (vertical) {{math|4}}-fold rotation axis; perpendicular to them is a fifth plane of symmetry (horizontal); at the intersection of the four vertical planes with the horizontal plane are four (horizontal) {{math|2}}-fold rotation axes of two kinds, each perpendicular to a plane of symmetry; two vertical planes bisect the angles between two horizontal axes; and there is a centre of inversion symmetry.{{sfn|Spencer|1911|loc=2. Tegragonal system, holosymmetric class, fig. 46, p. 577 (p. 599 on Wikisource)}} |
||
For at most two particular values of <math>z_A = |z_{A'}|,</math> the faces of such a '''scalene''' triangle bipyramid may be [[Isosceles triangle|'''isosceles''']].{{Citation needed|date=July 2021}} |
|||
Double example: |
Double example: |
||
Line 109: | Line 95: | ||
=== Scalenohedra === |
=== Scalenohedra === |
||
[[File:EB1911 Crystallography Fig. 68.—Scalenohedron.jpg|thumb|Example: ditrigonal scalenohedron ({{math|1=2''n'' = 2×3}})]] |
[[File:EB1911 Crystallography Fig. 68.—Scalenohedron.jpg|thumb|Example: ditrigonal scalenohedron ({{math|1=2''n'' = 2×3}})]] |
||
A '''scalenohedron''' is similar to a bipyramid; the difference is that the scalenohedra has a zig-zag pattern in the middle edges.{{r|kp}} |
|||
A ''regular right symmetric'' '''di'''-{{mvar|n}}-gonal '''scalenohedron''' is defined by a [[Regular skew polygon|''regular'' zigzag skew]] {{math|'''2'''''n''}}-gon base, two ''symmetric'' apices ''right'' above and ''right'' below the base center, and triangle faces connecting each basal edge to each apex. |
|||
It has two apices and {{math|2''n''}} basal vertices, {{math|4''n''}} faces, and {{math|6''n''}} edges; it is topologically identical to a {{math|2''n''}}-gonal bipyramid, but its {{math|2''n''}} basal vertices alternate in two rings above and below the center.<ref name=uwgb>{{Cite web|date=2013-09-18|title=The 48 Special Crystal Forms|url=https://www.uwgb.edu/dutchs/symmetry/xlforms.htm|access-date=2020-11-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130918103121/https://www.uwgb.edu/dutchs/symmetry/xlforms.htm|archive-date=18 September 2013}}</ref> |
It has two apices and {{math|2''n''}} basal vertices, {{math|4''n''}} faces, and {{math|6''n''}} edges; it is topologically identical to a {{math|2''n''}}-gonal bipyramid, but its {{math|2''n''}} basal vertices alternate in two rings above and below the center.<ref name=uwgb>{{Cite web|date=2013-09-18|title=The 48 Special Crystal Forms|url=https://www.uwgb.edu/dutchs/symmetry/xlforms.htm|access-date=2020-11-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130918103121/https://www.uwgb.edu/dutchs/symmetry/xlforms.htm|archive-date=18 September 2013}}</ref> |
||
Line 230: | Line 216: | ||
\end{align}</math> |
\end{align}</math> |
||
=== |
=== Star bipyramids === |
||
A '''''star'' bipyramid''' has a [[star polygon]] base, and is self-intersecting.<ref>{{cite journal |last= Rankin |first=John R. |year=1988 |title= Classes of polyhedra defined by jet graphics |journal=Computers & Graphics |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=239–254 |doi=10.1016/0097-8493(88)90036-2}}</ref> |
|||
A self-intersecting or '''''star'' bipyramid''' has a [[Star polygon|''star'' polygon]] base. |
|||
A ''regular right symmetric'' star bipyramid is defined by a ''regular'' star polygon base, two ''symmetric'' apices ''right'' above and ''right'' below the base center, and thus one-to-one ''symmetric'' triangle faces connecting each basal edge to each apex. |
|||
A regular right symmetric star bipyramid has [[Congruence (geometry)|congruent]] [[Isosceles triangle|isosceles]] triangle faces, and is [[Isohedral figure|isohedral]]. |
A regular right symmetric star bipyramid has [[Congruence (geometry)|congruent]] [[Isosceles triangle|isosceles]] triangle faces, and is [[Isohedral figure|isohedral]]. |
||
For at most one particular value of <math>z_A = |z_{A'}|,</math> the faces of such a regular star bipyramid may be equilateral. |
|||
A {{math|''p''/''q''}}-bipyramid has [[Coxeter diagram]] {{CDD|node_f1|2x|node_f1|p|rat|q|node}}. |
A {{math|''p''/''q''}}-bipyramid has [[Coxeter diagram]] {{CDD|node_f1|2x|node_f1|p|rat|q|node}}. |
||
{| class=wikitable |
{| class=wikitable |
||
|+ style="text-align:center;"|Example |
|+ style="text-align:center;"|Example star bipyramids: |
||
|- align=center |
|- align=center |
||
!Base |
!Base |
||
Line 255: | Line 237: | ||
|[[File:7-3 dipyramid.png|125px]] |
|[[File:7-3 dipyramid.png|125px]] |
||
|[[File:8-3 dipyramid.png|125px]] |
|[[File:8-3 dipyramid.png|125px]] |
||
|- |
|||
|colspan=5| |
|||
|- align=center |
|||
!Base |
|||
!9/2-gon |
|||
!9/4-gon |
|||
!10/3-gon |
|||
!11/2-gon |
|||
|- align=center |
|||
!Image |
|||
|[[File:9-2 dipyramid.png|125px]] |
|||
|[[File:9-4 dipyramid.png|125px]] |
|||
|[[File:10-3 dipyramid.png|125px]] |
|||
|[[File:11-2 dipyramid.png|125px]] |
|||
|- |
|||
|colspan=5| |
|||
|- align=center |
|||
!Base |
|||
!11/3-gon |
|||
!11/4-gon |
|||
!11/5-gon |
|||
!12/5-gon |
|||
|- align=center |
|||
!Image |
|||
|[[File:11-3 dipyramid.png|125px]] |
|||
|[[File:11-4 dipyramid.png|125px]] |
|||
|[[File:11-5 dipyramid.png|125px]] |
|||
|[[File:12-5 dipyramid.png|125px]] |
|||
|} |
|} |
||
=== Scalene triangle star bipyramids === |
|||
An ''isotoxal right symmetric'' {{math|'''2'''''p''/''q''}}-gonal '''''star'' bipyramid''' is defined by an [[Isotoxal figure|''isotoxal'']] in-out ''star'' {{math|'''2'''''p''/''q''}}-gon base, two ''symmetric'' apices ''right'' above and ''right'' below the base center, and thus one-to-one ''symmetric'' triangle faces connecting each basal edge to each apex. |
|||
An isotoxal right symmetric {{math|2''p''/''q''}}-gonal star bipyramid has [[Congruence (geometry)|congruent]] [[Triangle|scalene]] triangle faces, and is [[Isohedral figure|isohedral]]. It can be seen as another type of a {{math|2''p''/''q''}}-gonal right symmetric [[#Star scalenohedron|''star scalenohedron'']], with an isotoxal in-out star polygon base. |
|||
For at most two particular values of <math>z_A = |z_{A'}|,</math> the faces of such a '''scalene''' triangle star bipyramid may be [[Isosceles triangle|'''isosceles''']]. |
|||
{| class=wikitable |
|||
|+ style="text-align:center;"|Example isotoxal right symmetric star bipyramid: |
|||
!Base |
|||
!Isotoxal in-out 8/3-gon |
|||
|- align=center |
|||
!Image |
|||
|[[File:8-3-bipyramid-inout.png|150px]] |
|||
|} |
|||
=== Star scalenohedra === |
|||
A ''regular right symmetric'' {{math|'''2'''''p''/''q''}}-gonal '''''star'' scalenohedron''' is defined by a [[Regular skew polygon|''regular'' zigzag skew]] ''star'' {{math|'''2'''''p''/''q''}}-gon base, two ''symmetric'' apices ''right'' above and ''right'' below the base center, and triangle faces connecting each basal edge to each apex. |
|||
A regular right symmetric {{math|2''p''/''q''}}-gonal star scalenohedron has [[Congruence (geometry)|congruent]] [[Triangle|scalene]] triangle faces, and is [[Isohedral figure|isohedral]]. It can be seen as another type of a right symmetric {{math|2''p''/''q''}}-gonal star bipyramid, with a regular zigzag skew star polygon base. |
|||
For at most two particular values of <math>z_A = |z_{A'}|,</math> the faces of such a star '''scaleno'''hedron may be [[Isosceles triangle|'''isosceles''']]. |
|||
If the star {{math|2''p''/''q''}}-gon base is both [[Isotoxal figure|isotoxal]] in-out and zigzag skew, then '''not''' all faces of the isotoxal right symmetric star scalenohedron are congruent. |
|||
{| class=wikitable |
|||
|+ style="text-align:center;"|Examples of right symmetric star scalenohedra: |
|||
!Base |
|||
!Regular <br> zigzag skew 8/3-gon |
|||
!Isotoxal in-out <br> zigzag skew 8/3-gon |
|||
|- align=center |
|||
!Image |
|||
|[[File:8-3-bipyramid zigzag.png|150px]] |
|||
|[[File:8-3-dipyramid zigzag inout.png|150px]] |
|||
|} |
|||
For some particular values of {{math|1=''z{{sub|A}}'' = {{!}}''z{{sub|A'}}''{{!}}}}, half the faces of such a star '''scaleno'''hedron may be [[Isosceles triangle|'''isosceles''']] or [[Equilateral triangle|'''equilateral''']]. |
|||
Example with four different edge lengths: |
|||
*The star scalenohedron with isotoxal in-out zigzag skew {{math|8/3}}-gon base vertices {{math|''U''{{sub|0}}, ''U''{{sub|1}}, ''U''{{sub|2}}, ''U''{{sub|3}}, ''V''{{sub|0}}, ''V''{{sub|1}}, ''V''{{sub|2}}, ''V''{{sub|3}}}} and with right symmetric apices {{mvar|A, A'}} <math display=block>\begin{alignat}{5} |
|||
U_0 &= (1,0,1), &\quad V_0 &= (2,2,-1), &\quad A &= (0,0,3), \\[3mu] |
|||
U_1 &= (0,1,1), &\quad V_1 &= (-2,2,-1), &\quad A' &= (0,0,-3), \\[3mu] |
|||
U_2 &= (-1,0,1), &\quad V_2 &= (-2,-2,-1), \\[3mu] |
|||
U_3 &= (0,-1,1), &\quad V_3 &= (2,-2,-1), \vphantom{x_{|}} |
|||
\end{alignat}</math> has congruent scalene upper faces, and congruent isosceles lower faces; thus not all its faces are congruent. Indeed: |
|||
**Upper apical edge lengths: <math display=block>\begin{align} |
|||
\overline{AU_0} &= \overline{AU_1} = \overline{AU_2} = \overline{AU_3} = \sqrt{5} \,, \\[2pt] |
|||
\overline{AV_0} &= \overline{AV_1} = \overline{AV_2} = \overline{AV_3} = 2\sqrt{6} \,; |
|||
\end{align}</math> |
|||
**Base edge length: <math display=block> |
|||
\overline{U_0V_1} = \overline{V_1U_3} = \overline{U_3V_0} = \overline{V_0U_2} = \overline{U_2V_3} = \overline{V_3U_1} = \overline{U_1V_2} = \overline{V_2U_0} = \sqrt{17} \,; |
|||
</math> |
|||
**Lower apical edge lengths:<math display=block>\begin{align} |
|||
\overline{A'U_0} &= \overline{A'U_1} = \overline{A'U_2} = \overline{A'U_3} = \sqrt{17} \,, \\[2pt] |
|||
\overline{A'V_0} &= \overline{A'V_1} = \overline{A'V_2} = \overline{A'V_3} = 2\sqrt{3} \,. |
|||
\end{align}</math> |
|||
Example with three different edge lengths: |
|||
*The star scalenohedron with isotoxal in-out zigzag skew {{math|8/3}}-gon base vertices {{math|''U''{{sub|0}}, ''U''{{sub|1}}, ''U''{{sub|2}}, ''U''{{sub|3}}, ''V''{{sub|0}}, ''V''{{sub|1}}, ''V''{{sub|2}}, ''V''{{sub|3}}}} and with right symmetric apices {{mvar|A, A'}} <math display=block>\begin{alignat}{5} |
|||
U_0 &= \left( 4,0,\sqrt{2} \right), &\quad V_0 &= \left( 6,6,-\sqrt{2} \right), &\quad A &= \left( 0,0,7\sqrt{2} \right), \\ |
|||
U_1 &= \left( 0,4,\sqrt{2} \right), &\quad V_1 &= \left( -6,6,-\sqrt{2} \right), &\quad A' &= \left( 0,0,-7\sqrt{2} \right), \\ |
|||
U_2 &= \left( -4,0,\sqrt{2} \right), &\quad V_2 &= \left( -6,-6,-\sqrt{2} \right), \\ |
|||
U_3 &= \left( 0,-4,\sqrt{2} \right), &\quad V_3 &= \left( 6,-6,-\sqrt{2} \right), |
|||
\end{alignat}</math> has congruent scalene upper faces, and congruent equilateral lower faces; thus not all its faces are congruent. Indeed: |
|||
**Upper apical edge lengths: <math display=block>\begin{align} |
|||
\overline{AU_0} &= \overline{AU_1} = \overline{AU_2} = \overline{AU_3} = 2\sqrt{22} \,, \\[2pt] |
|||
\overline{AV_0} &= \overline{AV_1} = \overline{AV_2} = \overline{AV_3} = 10\sqrt{2} \,; |
|||
\end{align}</math> |
|||
**Base edge length: <math display=block> |
|||
\overline{U_0V_1} = \overline{V_1U_3} = \overline{U_3V_0} = \overline{V_0U_2} = \overline{U_2V_3} = \overline{V_3U_1} = \overline{U_1V_2} = \overline{V_2U_0} = 12; |
|||
</math> |
|||
**Lower apical edge length(s): <math display=block>\begin{align} |
|||
\overline{A'U_0} &= \overline{A'U_1} = \overline{A'U_2} = \overline{A'U_3} = 12, \\[2pt] |
|||
\overline{A'V_0} &= \overline{A'V_1} = \overline{A'V_2} = \overline{A'V_3} = 12. |
|||
\end{align}</math> |
|||
== 4-polytopes with bipyramidal cells == |
== 4-polytopes with bipyramidal cells == |
||
Line 377: | Line 255: | ||
N_\overline{EE} \arccos C_\overline{EE} &\le 2\pi, \\[4pt] |
N_\overline{EE} \arccos C_\overline{EE} &\le 2\pi, \\[4pt] |
||
N_\overline{AE} \arccos C_\overline{AE} &\le 2\pi. |
N_\overline{AE} \arccos C_\overline{AE} &\le 2\pi. |
||
\end{align}</math> |
\end{align}</math> |
||
{| class=wikitable |
{| class=wikitable |
||
Line 514: | Line 392: | ||
==Other dimensions== |
==Other dimensions== |
||
[[File:Romb_deltoid.svg|thumb|upright=0.8|A rhombus is a 2-dimensional analog of a right symmetric bipyramid]] |
|||
In general, a ''bipyramid'' can be seen as an {{mvar|n}}-[[polytope]] constructed with a {{math|(''n'' − 1)}}-polytope in a [[hyperplane]] with two points in opposite directions and equal perpendicular distances from the hyperplane. If the {{math|(''n'' − 1)}}-polytope is a regular polytope, it will have identical [[Pyramid (geometry)|pyramidal]] [[Facet (geometry)|facets]]. |
|||
A generalized {{mvar|n}}-dimensional "bipyramid" is any {{mvar|n}}-[[polytope]] constructed from an {{math|(''n'' − 1)}}-polytope ''base'' lying in a [[hyperplane]], with every base vertex connected by an edge to two ''apex'' vertices. If the {{math|(''n'' − 1)}}-polytope is a regular polytope and the apices are equidistant from its center along the line perpendicular to the base hyperplane, it will have identical [[Pyramid (geometry)|pyramidal]] [[Facet (geometry)|facets]]. |
|||
A 2-dimensional |
A 2-dimensional analog of a right symmetric bipyramid is formed by joining two [[Congruence (geometry)|congruent]] [[isosceles triangle]]s base-to-base to form a [[rhombus]]. More generally, a [[kite (geometry)|kite]] is a 2-dimensional analog of a (possibly asymmetric) right bipyramid, and any quadrilateral is a 2-dimensional analog of a general bipyramid. |
||
=== Polyhedral bipyramids=== |
|||
A ''polyhedral bipyramid'' is a [[4-polytope]] with a [[polyhedron]] base, and an apex point. |
|||
An example is the [[16-cell]], which is an octahedral bipyramid, {{math|{ } + {3,4},}} and more generally an {{mvar|n}}-[[Orthoplex#Higher dimensions|orthoplex]] is an {{math|(''n'' − 1)}}-orthoplex bipyramid, {{math|{ } + {3<sup>''n''−2</sup>,4}.}} |
|||
Other bipyramids include the [[tetrahedral bipyramid]], {{math|{ } + {3,3},}} [[icosahedral bipyramid]], {{math|{ } + {3,5},}} and [[dodecahedral bipyramid]], {{math|{ } + {5,3},}} the first two having all regular cells, they are also [[Blind polytope]]s. |
|||
==See also== |
==See also== |
||
Line 529: | Line 401: | ||
== Notes == |
== Notes == |
||
{{notelist |
{{notelist|refs= |
||
{{efn|name=right pyramids|1=The center of a regular polygon is unambiguous, but for irregular polygons sources disagree. Some sources only allow a right pyramid to have a regular polygon as a base. Others define a right pyramid as having its apices on a line perpendicular to the base and passing through its [[centroid]]. {{harvp|Polya|1954}} restricts right pyramids to those with a [[tangential polygon]] for a base, with the apices on a line perpendicular to the base and passing through the [[incenter]].}} |
|||
== References == |
|||
=== Citations === |
|||
}} |
|||
== Citations == |
|||
{{reflist|refs= |
{{reflist|refs= |
||
Line 555: | Line 430: | ||
| isbn = 978-1-4757-4034-9 |
| isbn = 978-1-4757-4034-9 |
||
| doi = 10.1007/978-1-4757-4034-9 |
| doi = 10.1007/978-1-4757-4034-9 |
||
}}</ref> |
|||
<ref name="cpsb">{{cite book |
|||
| last1 = Chang | first1 = Ch. |
|||
| last2 = Patzer | first2 = A. B. C. |
|||
| last3 = Sülzle | first3 = D. |
|||
| last4 = Hauer | first4 = H. |
|||
| contribution = Onion-Like Inorganic Fullerenes from a Polyhedral Perspective |
|||
| contribution-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=BLZZEAAAQBAJ&pg=RA3-SA15-PA4 |
|||
| year = |
|||
| editor-last = Sattler | editor-first = Klaus D. |
|||
| title = 21st Century Nanoscience: A Handbook |
|||
| page = 15-4 |
|||
| publisher = Taylor & Francis |
|||
}}</ref> |
}}</ref> |
||
Line 588: | Line 477: | ||
| doi = 10.1007/978-94-011-1202-4 |
| doi = 10.1007/978-94-011-1202-4 |
||
| isbn = 978-94-011-1202-4 |
| isbn = 978-94-011-1202-4 |
||
}}</ref> |
|||
<ref name="kp">{{cite book |
|||
| last1 = Klein | first1 = Cornelis |
|||
| last2 = Philpotts | first2 = Anthony R. |
|||
| year = 2013 |
|||
| title = Earth Materials: Introduction to Mineralogy and Petrology |
|||
| publisher = Cambridge University Press |
|||
| page = 108 |
|||
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=V7nUnYKmrxgC&pg=PA108 |
|||
}}</ref> |
|||
<ref name="mclean">{{cite journal |
|||
| last = McLean | first = K. Robin |
|||
| year = 1990 |
|||
| title = Dungeons, dragons, and dice |
|||
| journal = The Mathematical Gazette |
|||
| volume = 74 | issue = 469 | pages = 243–256 |
|||
| doi = 10.2307/3619822 |
|||
| jstor = 3619822 |
|||
| s2cid = 195047512 |
|||
}}</ref> |
}}</ref> |
||
Line 646: | Line 556: | ||
}} |
}} |
||
== Works Cited == |
|||
===General references=== |
|||
*{{cite book | author= Anthony Pugh | year= 1976 | title= Polyhedra: A visual approach | publisher= University of California Press Berkeley | location= California | isbn= 0-520-03056-7 }} Chapter 4: Duals of the Archimedean polyhedra, prisms and antiprisms |
*{{cite book | author= Anthony Pugh | year= 1976 | title= Polyhedra: A visual approach | publisher= University of California Press Berkeley | location= California | isbn= 0-520-03056-7 }} Chapter 4: Duals of the Archimedean polyhedra, prisms and antiprisms |
||
*{{cite EB1911|wstitle= Crystallography |volume= 07 |pages = 569–591 |last1= Spencer |first1= Leonard James |author-link= Leonard James Spencer}} |
*{{cite EB1911|wstitle= Crystallography |volume= 07 |pages = 569–591 |last1= Spencer |first1= Leonard James |author-link= Leonard James Spencer}} |
Revision as of 02:30, 2 June 2024
In geometry, a bipyramid, dipyramid, or double pyramid is a polyhedron formed by fusing two pyramids together base-to-base. The polygonal base of each pyramid must therefore be the same, and unless otherwise specified the base vertices are usually coplanar and a bipyramid is usually symmetric, meaning the two pyramids are mirror images across their common base plane. When each apex (pl. apices, the off-base vertices) of the bipyramid is on a line perpendicular to the base and passing through its center, it is a right bipyramid;[a] otherwise it is oblique. When the base is a regular polygon, the bipyramid is also called regular.
Definition and properties
A bipyramid is a polyhedron constructed by fusing two pyramids which share the same polygonal base;[1] a pyramid is in turn constructed by connecting each vertex of its base to a single new vertex (the apex) not lying in the plane of the base, for an -gonal base forming triangular faces in addition to the base face. An -gonal bipyramid thus has faces, edges, and vertices. More generally, a right pyramid is a pyramid where the apices are on the perpendicular line through the centroid of an arbitrary polygon or the incenter of a tangential polygon, depending on the source.[a] Likewise, a right bipyramid is a polyhedron constructed by attaching two symmetrical right bipyramid bases; bipyramids whose apices are not on this line are called oblique bipyramids.[2]
When the two pyramids are mirror images, the bipyramid is called symmetric. It is called regular if its base is a regular polygon.[1] When the base is a regular polygon and the apices are on the perpendicular line through its center (a regular right bipyramid) then all of its faces are isosceles triangles; sometimes the name bipyramid refers specifically to symmetric regular right bipyramids,[3] Examples of such bipyramids are the triangular bipyramid, octahedron (square bipyramid) and pentagonal bipyramid. In the case all of their edges are equal in length, these shapes consist of equilateral triangle faces, making them deltahedra;[4][5] the triangular bipyramid and the pentagonal bipyramid are Johnson solids, and the regular octahedron is a Platonic solid.[6]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Dual_Cube-Octahedron.svg/180px-Dual_Cube-Octahedron.svg.png)
The symmetric regular right bipyramids have prismatic symmetry, the dihedral group of of order : their appearance is symmetrical by rotating around the axis of symmetry and reflecting across the mirror plane.[7] Because the appearance looks the same under such symmetries, and all of the faces are congruent, the bipyramids are isohedral.[8][9] They are the dual polyhedra of prisms and the prisms are the dual of bipyramids as well: the bipyramids vertices correspond to the faces of the prism, and the edges between pairs of vertices of one correspond to the edges between pairs of faces of the other, and vice versa;[10] the prisms shares the same symmetry as the bipyramids.[11] The regular octahedron is more symmetric still, as its base vertices and apices are indistinguishable and can be exchanged by reflections or rotations: the octahedron and its dual the cube have octahedral symmetry.[12]
The volume of a symmetric bipyramid is where B is the area of the base and h the height from the base plane to any apex. In the case of a regular -sided polygon with side length and whose altitude is , the volume of such bipyramid is:
Related and other types of bipyramid
Concave bipyramids
A concave bipyramid has a concave polygon base, and one example is a concave tetragonal bipyramid or an irregular concave octahedron. A bipyramid with an arbitrary polygonal base could be considered a right bipyramid if the apices are on a line perpendicular to the base passing through the base's centroid.
Asymmetric bipyramids
An asymmetric bipyramid has apices which are not mirrored across the base plane; for a right bipyramid this only happens if each apex is a different distance from the base.
The dual of an asymmetric right n-gonal bipyramid is an n-gonal frustum.
A regular asymmetric right n-gonal bipyramid has symmetry group Cnv, of order 2n.
Scalene triangle bipyramids
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fb/EB1911_Crystallography_Fig._46_Ditetragonal_Bipyramid.jpg)
An isotoxal right (symmetric) di-n-gonal bipyramid is a right (symmetric) 2n-gonal bipyramid with an isotoxal flat polygon base: its 2n basal vertices are coplanar, but alternate in two radii.
All its faces are congruent scalene triangles, and it is isohedral. It can be seen as another type of a right symmetric di-n-gonal scalenohedron, with an isotoxal flat polygon base.
An isotoxal right (symmetric) di-n-gonal bipyramid has n two-fold rotation axes through opposite basal vertices, n reflection planes through opposite apical edges, an n-fold rotation axis through apices, a reflection plane through base, and an n-fold rotation-reflection axis through apices,[13] representing symmetry group Dnh, [n,2], (*22n), of order 4n. (The reflection about the base plane corresponds to the 0° rotation-reflection. If n is even, then there is an inversion symmetry about the center, corresponding to the 180° rotation-reflection.)
Example with 2n = 2×3:
- An isotoxal right (symmetric) ditrigonal bipyramid has three similar vertical planes of symmetry, intersecting in a (vertical) 3-fold rotation axis; perpendicular to them is a fourth plane of symmetry (horizontal); at the intersection of the three vertical planes with the horizontal plane are three similar (horizontal) 2-fold rotation axes; there is no center of inversion symmetry,[14] but there is a center of symmetry: the intersection point of the four axes.
Example with 2n = 2×4:
- An isotoxal right (symmetric) ditetragonal bipyramid has four vertical planes of symmetry of two kinds, intersecting in a (vertical) 4-fold rotation axis; perpendicular to them is a fifth plane of symmetry (horizontal); at the intersection of the four vertical planes with the horizontal plane are four (horizontal) 2-fold rotation axes of two kinds, each perpendicular to a plane of symmetry; two vertical planes bisect the angles between two horizontal axes; and there is a centre of inversion symmetry.[15]
Double example:
- The bipyramid with isotoxal 2×2-gon base vertices U, U', V, V' and right symmetric apices A, A' has its faces isosceles. Indeed:
- Upper apical edge lengths:
- Base edge lengths:
- Lower apical edge lengths (equal to upper edge lengths):
- The bipyramid with same base vertices, but with right symmetric apices also has its faces isosceles. Indeed:
- Upper apical edge lengths:
- Base edge length (equal to previous example):
- Lower apical edge lengths (equal to upper edge lengths):
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/EB1911_Crystallography_Figs._54_%26_55_Orthorhombic_Bipyramids.jpg/220px-EB1911_Crystallography_Figs._54_%26_55_Orthorhombic_Bipyramids.jpg)
In crystallography, isotoxal right (symmetric) didigonal[b] (8-faced), ditrigonal (12-faced), ditetragonal (16-faced), and dihexagonal (24-faced) bipyramids exist.[13][16]
Scalenohedra
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/20/EB1911_Crystallography_Fig._68.%E2%80%94Scalenohedron.jpg)
A scalenohedron is similar to a bipyramid; the difference is that the scalenohedra has a zig-zag pattern in the middle edges.[17]
It has two apices and 2n basal vertices, 4n faces, and 6n edges; it is topologically identical to a 2n-gonal bipyramid, but its 2n basal vertices alternate in two rings above and below the center.[16]
All its faces are congruent scalene triangles, and it is isohedral. It can be seen as another type of a right symmetric di-n-gonal bipyramid, with a regular zigzag skew polygon base.
A regular right symmetric di-n-gonal scalenohedron has n two-fold rotation axes through opposite basal mid-edges, n reflection planes through opposite apical edges, an n-fold rotation axis through apices, and a 2n-fold rotation-reflection axis through apices (about which 1n rotations-reflections globally preserve the solid),[13] representing symmetry group Dnv = Dnd, [2+,2n], (2*n), of order 4n. (If n is odd, then there is an inversion symmetry about the center, corresponding to the 180° rotation-reflection.)
Example with 2n = 2×3:
- A regular right symmetric ditrigonal scalenohedron has three similar vertical planes of symmetry inclined to one another at 60° and intersecting in a (vertical) 3-fold rotation axis, three similar horizontal 2-fold rotation axes, each perpendicular to a plane of symmetry, a center of inversion symmetry,[18] and a vertical 6-fold rotation-reflection axis.
Example with 2n = 2×2:
- A regular right symmetric didigonal scalenohedron has only one vertical and two horizontal 2-fold rotation axes, two vertical planes of symmetry, which bisect the angles between the horizontal pair of axes, and a vertical 4-fold rotation-reflection axis;[19] it has no center of inversion symmetry.
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/EB1911_Crystallography_Figs._50_%26_51.jpg/220px-EB1911_Crystallography_Figs._50_%26_51.jpg)
For at most two particular values of the faces of such a scalenohedron may be isosceles.
Double example:
- The scalenohedron with regular zigzag skew 2×2-gon base vertices U, U', V, V' and right symmetric apices A, A' has its faces isosceles. Indeed:
- Upper apical edge lengths:
- Base edge length:
- Lower apical edge lengths (equal to upper edge lengths swapped):
- The scalenohedron with same base vertices, but with right symmetric apices also has its faces isosceles. Indeed:
- Upper apical edge lengths:
- Base edge length (equal to previous example):
- Lower apical edge lengths (equal to upper edge lengths swapped):
In crystallography, regular right symmetric didigonal (8-faced) and ditrigonal (12-faced) scalenohedra exist.[13][16]
The smallest geometric scalenohedra have eight faces, and are topologically identical to the regular octahedron. In this case (2n = 2×2), in crystallography, a regular right symmetric didigonal (8-faced) scalenohedron is called a tetragonal scalenohedron.[13][16]
Let us temporarily focus on the regular right symmetric 8-faced scalenohedra with h = r, i.e. Their two apices can be represented as A, A' and their four basal vertices as U, U', V, V': where z is a parameter between 0 and 1.
At z = 0, it is a regular octahedron; at z = 1, it has four pairs of coplanar faces, and merging these into four congruent isosceles triangles makes it a disphenoid; for z > 1, it is concave.
z = 0.1 | z = 0.25 | z = 0.5 | z = 0.95 | z = 1.5 |
---|---|---|---|---|
![]() |
![]() |
![]() |
![]() |
![]() |
If the 2n-gon base is both isotoxal in-out and zigzag skew, then not all faces of the isotoxal right symmetric scalenohedron are congruent.
Example with five different edge lengths:
- The scalenohedron with isotoxal in-out zigzag skew 2×2-gon base vertices U, U', V, V' and right symmetric apices A, A' has congruent scalene upper faces, and congruent scalene lower faces, but not all its faces are congruent. Indeed:
- Upper apical edge lengths:
- Base edge length:
- Lower apical edge lengths:
For some particular values of zA = |zA'|, half the faces of such a scalenohedron may be isosceles or equilateral.
Example with three different edge lengths:
- The scalenohedron with isotoxal in-out zigzag skew 2×2-gon base vertices U, U', V, V' and right symmetric apices A, A' has congruent scalene upper faces, and congruent equilateral lower faces; thus not all its faces are congruent. Indeed:
- Upper apical edge lengths:
- Base edge length:
- Lower apical edge length(s):
Star bipyramids
A star bipyramid has a star polygon base, and is self-intersecting.[20]
A regular right symmetric star bipyramid has congruent isosceles triangle faces, and is isohedral.
A p/q-bipyramid has Coxeter diagram .
Base | 5/2-gon | 7/2-gon | 7/3-gon | 8/3-gon |
---|---|---|---|---|
Image | ![]() |
![]() |
![]() |
![]() |
4-polytopes with bipyramidal cells
The dual of the rectification of each convex regular 4-polytopes is a cell-transitive 4-polytope with bipyramidal cells. In the following:
- A is the apex vertex of the bipyramid;
- E is an equator vertex;
- EE is the distance between adjacent vertices on the equator (equal to 1);
- AE is the apex-to-equator edge length;
- AA is the distance between the apices.
The bipyramid 4-polytope will have VA vertices where the apices of NA bipyramids meet. It will have VE vertices where the type E vertices of NE bipyramids meet.
- bipyramids meet along each type AE edge.
- bipyramids meet along each type EE edge.
- is the cosine of the dihedral angle along an AE edge.
- is the cosine of the dihedral angle along an EE edge.
As cells must fit around an edge,
4-polytope properties | Bipyramid properties | |||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Dual of rectified polytope |
Coxeter diagram |
Cells | VA | VE | NA | NE | | | Bipyramid cell |
Coxeter diagram |
AA | AE[c] | | |
R. 5-cell | ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() |
10 | 5 | 5 | 4 | 6 | 3 | 3 | Triangular | ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() |
0.667 | |||
R. tesseract | ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() |
32 | 16 | 8 | 4 | 12 | 3 | 4 | Triangular | ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() |
0.624 | |||
R. 24-cell | ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() |
96 | 24 | 24 | 8 | 12 | 4 | 3 | Triangular | ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() |
0.745 | |||
R. 120-cell | ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() |
1200 | 600 | 120 | 4 | 30 | 3 | 5 | Triangular | ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() |
0.613 | |||
R. 16-cell | ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() |
24 [d] | 8 | 16 | 6 | 6 | 3 | 3 | Square | ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() |
1 | |||
R. cubic honeycomb |
![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() |
∞ | ∞ | ∞ | 6 | 12 | 3 | 4 | Square | ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() |
0.866 | |||
R. 600-cell | ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() |
720 | 120 | 600 | 12 | 6 | 3 | 3 | Pentagonal | ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() |
1.447 |
Other dimensions
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Romb_deltoid.svg/180px-Romb_deltoid.svg.png)
A generalized n-dimensional "bipyramid" is any n-polytope constructed from an (n − 1)-polytope base lying in a hyperplane, with every base vertex connected by an edge to two apex vertices. If the (n − 1)-polytope is a regular polytope and the apices are equidistant from its center along the line perpendicular to the base hyperplane, it will have identical pyramidal facets.
A 2-dimensional analog of a right symmetric bipyramid is formed by joining two congruent isosceles triangles base-to-base to form a rhombus. More generally, a kite is a 2-dimensional analog of a (possibly asymmetric) right bipyramid, and any quadrilateral is a 2-dimensional analog of a general bipyramid.
See also
Notes
- ^ a b The center of a regular polygon is unambiguous, but for irregular polygons sources disagree. Some sources only allow a right pyramid to have a regular polygon as a base. Others define a right pyramid as having its apices on a line perpendicular to the base and passing through its centroid. Polya (1954) restricts right pyramids to those with a tangential polygon for a base, with the apices on a line perpendicular to the base and passing through the incenter.
- ^ The smallest geometric di-n-gonal bipyramids have eight faces, and are topologically identical to the regular octahedron. In this case (2n = 2×2):
an isotoxal right (symmetric) didigonal bipyramid is called a rhombic bipyramid,[13][16] although all its faces are scalene triangles, because its flat polygon base is a rhombus. - ^ Given numerically due to more complex form.
- ^ The rectified 16-cell is the regular 24-cell and vertices are all equivalent – octahedra are regular bipyramids.
Citations
- ^ a b Aarts, J. M. (2008). Plane and Solid Geometry. Springer. p. 303. doi:10.1007/978-0-387-78241-6. ISBN 978-0-387-78241-6.
- ^ Polya, G. (1954). Mathematics and Plausible Reasoning: Induction and analogy in mathematics. Princeton University Press. p. 138.
- ^ Montroll, John (2009). Origami Polyhedra Design. A K Peters. p. 6. ISBN 9781439871065.
- ^ Trigg, Charles W. (1978). "An infinite class of deltahedra". Mathematics Magazine. 51 (1): 55–57. doi:10.1080/0025570X.1978.11976675. JSTOR 2689647. MR 1572246.
- ^ Uehara, Ryuhei (2020). Introduction to Computational Origami: The World of New Computational Geometry. Springer. p. 62. doi:10.1007/978-981-15-4470-5. ISBN 978-981-15-4470-5. S2CID 220150682.
- ^ Cromwell, Peter R. (1997). Polyhedra. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-55432-9.
- ^ Flusser, Jan; Suk, Tomas; Zitofa, Barbara (2017). 2D and 3D Image Analysis by Moments. John & Sons Wiley. p. 126.
- ^ Chang, Ch.; Patzer, A. B. C.; Sülzle, D.; Hauer, H. "Onion-Like Inorganic Fullerenes from a Polyhedral Perspective". In Sattler, Klaus D. (ed.). 21st Century Nanoscience: A Handbook. Taylor & Francis. p. 15-4.
- ^ McLean, K. Robin (1990). "Dungeons, dragons, and dice". The Mathematical Gazette. 74 (469): 243–256. doi:10.2307/3619822. JSTOR 3619822. S2CID 195047512.
- ^ Sibley, Thomas Q. (2015). Thinking Geometrically: A Survey of Geometries. Mathematical Association of American. p. 53.
- ^ King, Robert B. (1994). "Polyhedral Dynamics". In Bonchev, Danail D.; Mekenyan, O.G. (eds.). Graph Theoretical Approaches to Chemical Reactivity. Springer. doi:10.1007/978-94-011-1202-4. ISBN 978-94-011-1202-4.
- ^ Armstrong, M. A. (1988). Group and Symmetry. Springer. p. 39. doi:10.1007/978-1-4757-4034-9. ISBN 978-1-4757-4034-9.
- ^ a b c d e f "Crystal Form, Zones, Crystal Habit". Tulane.edu. Retrieved 16 September 2017.
- ^ Spencer 1911, 6. Hexagonal system, rhombohedral division, ditrigonal bipyramidal class, p. 581 (p. 603 on Wikisource).
- ^ Spencer 1911, 2. Tegragonal system, holosymmetric class, fig. 46, p. 577 (p. 599 on Wikisource).
- ^ a b c d e "The 48 Special Crystal Forms". 18 September 2013. Archived from the original on 18 September 2013. Retrieved 18 November 2020.
- ^ Klein, Cornelis; Philpotts, Anthony R. (2013). Earth Materials: Introduction to Mineralogy and Petrology. Cambridge University Press. p. 108.
- ^ Spencer 1911, 6. Hexagonal system, rhombohedral division, holosymmetric class, fig. 68, p. 580 (p. 602 on Wikisource).
- ^ Spencer 1911, p. 2. Tetragonal system, scalenohedral class, fig. 51, p. 577 (p. 599 on Wikisource).
- ^ Rankin, John R. (1988). "Classes of polyhedra defined by jet graphics". Computers & Graphics. 12 (2): 239–254. doi:10.1016/0097-8493(88)90036-2.
Works Cited
- Anthony Pugh (1976). Polyhedra: A visual approach. California: University of California Press Berkeley. ISBN 0-520-03056-7. Chapter 4: Duals of the Archimedean polyhedra, prisms and antiprisms
- Spencer, Leonard James (1911). . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 07 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 569–591.
External links
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png)
- Weisstein, Eric W. "Dipyramid". MathWorld.
- Weisstein, Eric W. "Isohedron". MathWorld.
- The Uniform Polyhedra
- Virtual Reality Polyhedra The Encyclopedia of Polyhedra