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Human multitasking is the concept that one can split their attention on more than one task or activity at the same time, such as speaking on the phone while driving a car.

Multitasking can result in time wasted due to human context switching (e.g., determining which step is next in the task just switched to) and becoming prone to errors due to insufficient attention. Some people may be proficient at the tasks in question and also be able to rapidly shift attention between the tasks, and therefore perform the tasks well; however, self-perception of being good at multitasking or getting more done while multitasking is frequently inaccurate.^[1]^[2]

Multitasking is mentally and physically stressful for everyone,^[3] to the point that multitasking is used in laboratory experiments to study stressful environments.^[4] Research suggests that people who are multitasking in a learning environment are worse at learning new information compared to those who do not have their attention divided among different tasks.^[5]^[6]^[7]

Etymology

The first published use of the word "multitask" appeared in an IBM paper describing the capabilities of the IBM System/360 in 1965.^[8] The term has since been applied to human tasks.

Forschung

Since the 1960s, psychologists have conducted experiments on the nature and limits of human multitasking. The simplest experimental design used to investigate human multitasking is the so-called psychological refractory period effect. Here, people are asked to make separate responses to each of two stimuli presented close together in time. An extremely general finding is a slowing in responses to the second-appearing stimulus.^[1]

Researchers have long suggested that there appears to be a processing bottleneck preventing the brain from working on certain key aspects of both tasks at the same time^[9] (e.g., (Gladstones, Regan & Lee 1989) (Pashler 1994)). Bottlenecking refers to the idea that because people only have a limited amount of attentional resources, the most important information is kept. Many researchers believe that the cognitive function subject to the most severe form of bottlenecking is the planning of actions and retrieval of information from memory.^[10] Psychiatrist Edward M. Hallowell^[11] has gone so far as to describe multitasking as a "mythical activity in which people believe they can perform two or more tasks simultaneously as effectively as one."

Others have researched multitasking in the area of learning. Richard E Mayer and Moreno studied the phenomenon of cognitive load in multimedia learning and concluded that it is difficult, if not impossible, to learn new information while engaging in multitasking.^[5] Reynol Junco and Shelia R Cotten Archived August 1, 2020, at the Wayback Machine examined how multitasking affects academic success and found that students who engaged in high levels of multitasking reported significant issues with their academic work.^[12] A more recent^[when?] study on the effects of multitasking on academic performance showed that using Facebook and text messaging while studying were negatively related to student grades, while online searching and emailing were not.

Some experiments have been done that demonstrate that it is possible to divide one's attention among several tasks, how successfully depends on several factors such as how much practice one has with it or the difficulty of the task. Walter Schneider and Robert Shiffrin performed an experiment in which they presented the participants with a memory set, which consists of target stimuli such as the number three. After being presented with the memory set they were rapidly shown 20 test frames which contained distractor stimuli. One of the slides they were shown contained one of the target stimuli from the memory set. With each trial, a new memory set and new test frames were presented. At the start of the experiment, participants averaged 55% in correctly identifying the target stimuli from the memory set. After 900 trials the participants were able to bring the average up to 90%. They reported that after about 600 trials the task became automatic and they were able to respond without thinking about it.^[13]

The brain's role

Because the brain cannot fully focus when multitasking, people take longer to complete tasks and are predisposed to error. When people attempt to complete many tasks at one time, “or [alternate] rapidly between them, errors go way up, and it takes far longer—often double the time or more—to get the jobs done than if they were done sequentially,” states Meyer.^[2] This is largely because "the brain is compelled to restart and refocus".^[14] A study by Meyer and David Kieras found that in the interim between each exchange, the brain makes no progress whatsoever. Therefore, multitasking people not only perform each task less suitably, but lose time in the process.

According to a study done by Jordan Grafman, chief of the cognitive neuroscience section at the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, "the most anterior part [of the brain] allows [a person] to leave something when it's incomplete and return to the same place and continue from there," while Brodmann Area 10, a part of the brain's frontal lobes, is important for establishing and attaining long-term goals.^[2] Focusing on multiple dissimilar tasks at once forces the brain to process all activity in its anterior. Though the brain is complex and can perform myriad tasks, it cannot multitask well.

Another study by René Marois, a psychologist at Vanderbilt University, discovered that the brain exhibits a "response selection bottleneck" when asked to perform several tasks at once. The brain must then decide which activity is most important, thereby taking more time. Psychologist David Meyer, of the University of Michigan, claims that instead of a "bottleneck," the brain experiences "adaptive executive control" which places priorities on each activity. These viewpoints differ in that while bottlenecking attempts to force many thoughts through the brain at once, adaptive executive control prioritizes tasks to maintain a semblance of order. The brain better understands this order and, as psychologists such as Dr. Meyer believe, can, therefore, be trained to multitask.^[15] It is not known exactly how the brain processes input and reacts to overstimulation.

Some research suggests that the human brain can be trained to multitask. A study published in Child Development by Monica Luciana, associate professor of psychology at the University of Minnesota, discovered that the brain's capability of categorizing competing information continues to develop until ages sixteen and seventeen. A study by Vanderbilt University found that multitasking is largely limited by "the speed with which our prefrontal cortex processes information." Paul E. Dux, the co-author of the study, believes that this process can become faster through proper training. The study trained seven people to perform two simple tasks, either separately or together, and conducted brain scans of the participants. The individuals multitasked poorly at first but, with training, were able to adeptly perform the tasks simultaneously. Brain scans of the participants indicate that the prefrontal cortex quickened its ability to process the information, enabling the individuals to multitask more efficiently. However, the study also suggests that the brain is incapable of performing multiple tasks at one time, even after extensive training.^[16] This study further indicates that, while the brain can become adept at processing and responding to certain information, it cannot truly multitask.

People have a limited ability to retain information, which worsens when the amount of information increases. For this reason, people alter information to make it more memorable, such as separating a ten-digit phone number into three smaller groups or dividing the alphabet into sets of three to five letters, a phenomenon known as chunking. George Miller, former psychologist at Harvard University, believes the limits to the human brain's capacity centers around "the number seven, plus or minus two." An illustrative example of this is a test in which a person must repeat numbers read aloud. While two or three numbers are easily repeated, fifteen numbers become more difficult. The person would, on average, repeat seven correctly.^[17] Brains are only capable of storing a limited amount of information in their short-term memories.

Laboratory-based studies of multi-tasking indicate that one motivation for switching between tasks is to increase the time spent on the task that produces the most reward (Payne, Duggan & Neth, 2007). This reward could be progress towards an overall task goal, or it could simply be the opportunity to pursue a more interesting or fun activity. Payne, Duggan, and Neth (2007) found that decisions to switch task reflected either the reward provided by the current task or the availability of a suitable opportunity to switch (i.e. the completion of a subgoal). A French fMRI study published in 2010 indicated preliminary support for the hypothesis that the brain can pursue at most two goals simultaneously, one for each frontal lobe (which has a goal-oriented area).^[18]

When studying the costs of multitasking there are typically two designs for or types of multitasking that are examined, task switching and dual tasking. Task switching involves shifting one’s attention from one thing to another. Dual tasking, on the other hand, is when attention is divided among multiple things at once. Studies have been done to specifically examine the brain when one is engaged in either type of multitasking. Through the use of MRI brain scans, researchers have found that frontoparietal regions are activated which would include the inferior frontal junction and the posterior parietal cortex.^[19]^[20] They also found that while each type of tasking uses different mechanisms there are also some underlying mechanisms and resources that they share.^[21]

Sex differences

Although some cultures believe that women are better at multitasking than men, there is little data available to support claims of a real sex difference. Most studies that do show any sex differences tend to find that the differences are small and inconsistent.^[22]

In 2018, a study in Norway tested everyday scenarios via videogames and found that "none of the multitasking measures (accuracy, total time, total distance covered by the avatar, a prospective memory score, and a distractor management score) showed any sex differences."^[23]

A 2019 study showed that there are not significant sex differences in multi-tasking across numerous tasks.^[24]

There have been attempts to produce evolutionary explanations for the popular belief.^[25]^[26]^[27] One story told by evolutionary biologists Silverman and Eals speculated that a sex-based division of labor into hunters and gatherers could favor the development of a difference in men and women's cognitive abilities, based on the hunter-gatherer tasks each sex performed in the prehistoric past. This is based on the outdated^[28] belief that prehistoric males were hunters, while women were gatherers and took care of the children, and that over time, there was a natural selection for women who could multitask, resulting in modern females being superior multitaskers.^[29]

In 2013, a brain connectivity study from Penn Medicine found major differences in men and women's neural wiring that researchers suggested indicated that sex plays a role in multitasking skills. They said that "[On] average, men are more likely better at learning and performing a single task at hand, like cycling or navigating directions, whereas women have superior memory and social cognition skills, making them more equipped for multitasking and creating solutions that work for a group."^[30]^[31] However, this study has been widely criticized because the differences could easily have been caused by increased head movement. Moreover, the link between the DTI data and behavioral performance is speculative.^{[citation needed]}

Continuous partial attention

Author Steven Berlin Johnson describes one kind of multitasking: “It usually involves skimming the surface of the incoming data, picking out the relevant details, and moving on to the next stream. You’re paying attention, but only partially. That lets you cast a wider net, but it also runs the risk of keeping you from really studying the fish."^[32] Multimedia pioneer Linda Stone coined the phrase "continuous partial attention" for this kind of processing.^[33] Continuous partial attention is multitasking where things do not get studied in depth.

Rapidly increasing technology fosters multitasking because it promotes multiple sources of input at a given time. Instead of exchanging old equipment like TV, print, and music, for new equipment such as computers, the Internet, and video games, children and teens combine forms of media and continually increase sources of input.^[34] According to studies by the Kaiser Family Foundation, in 1999 only 16 percent of time spent using media such as Internet, television, video games, telephones, text-messaging, or e-mail was combined. In 2005, 26 percent of the time these media were used together.^[15] This increase in simultaneous media usage decreases the amount of attention paid to each device. In 2005 it was found that 82 percent of American youth use the Internet by the seventh grade in school.^[35] A 2005 survey by the Kaiser Family Foundation found that, while their usage of media continued at a constant 6.5 hours per day, Americans ages 8 to 18 were crowding roughly 8.5 hours’ worth of media into their days due to multitasking. The survey showed that one quarter to one-third of the participants have more than one input “most of the time” while watching television, listening to music, or reading.^[2] The 2007 Harvard Business Review featured Linda Stone's idea of “continuous partial attention,” or, “constantly scanning for opportunities and staying on top of contacts, events, and activities in an effort to miss nothing”.^[15] As technology provides more distractions, attention is spread among tasks more thinly.

A prevalent example of this inattention to detail due to multitasking is apparent when people talk on cell phones while driving. One study found that having an accident is four times more likely when using a cell phone while driving.^[36] Another study compared reaction times for experienced drivers during a number of tasks, and found that the subjects reacted more slowly to brake lights and stop signs during phone conversations than during other simultaneous tasks.^[36] A 2006 study showed that drivers talking on cell phones were more involved in rear-end collisions and sped up slower than intoxicated drivers.^[37] When talking, people must withdraw their attention from the road in order to formulate responses. Because the brain cannot focus on two sources of input at one time, driving and listening or talking, constantly changing input provided by cell phones distracts the brain and increases the likelihood of accidents.^[38]

Supertasker

In 2010, a scientific study found that a small percent of the population appeared to be much better at multitasking than others, and these people were subsequently labeled "supertaskers".^[39] In 2015, another study supported the idea of supertaskers. This particular study showed that they tested people by making them drive on a driving simulator while at the same time memorizing words and solving math problems. As expected, most of the participants did much worse than their individual task test scores. The supertaskers, however, were able to multitask without major effects to their performance.

Popular commentary on practical multitasking

Barry Schwartz has noted that, given the media-rich landscape of the Internet era, it is tempting to get into a habit of dwelling in a constant sea of information with too many choices, which has been noted to have a negative effect on human happiness.^[40]

Observers of youth in modern society often comment upon the apparently advanced multitasking capabilities of the youngest generations of humans (Generation Y and Generation Z). While it is true that contemporary researchers find that youths in today's world exhibit high levels of multitasking, most experts believe that members of the Net Generation are not any better at multitasking than members of older generations.^[41] However, some studies from the 2010's argue that Generation Y is becoming better at media multitasking. Media multitasking is when media consumers view several media platforms at the same time; such as watching TV while browsing the internet.^[42] This is evidenced by the fact that they are gaining control over deciding which messages they pay attention to or not.^[43] Nonetheless, while there is a great deal of evidence showing the negative effects of multitasking on cognitive tasks,^[44]^[45]^[46]^[47] there is no evidence showing that multitasking has a positive or neutral effect on these tasks.

Many studies,^[48]^[49]^[50]^[51]^[52] literature,^[53] articles,^[54]^[55]^[56] and worldwide consulting firms,^[57] stress the fact that multitasking of any kind reduces the productivity and/or increases rate of errors, thus generating unnecessary frustrations.

In 2008, it was estimated that $650 billion^[58] a year is wasted in US businesses due to multitasking.

References

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^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Wallis, Claudia (March 19, 2006). "The Multitasking Generation" (PDF). Time. 167 (13): 48–55. PMID 16579497. Retrieved April 26, 2010.
^ Wetherell, Mark A.; Carter, Kirsty (April 2014). "The Multitasking Framework: The Effects of Increasing Workload on Acute Psychobiological Stress Reactivity". Stress and Health. 30 (2): 103–109. doi:10.1002/smi.2496. ISSN 1532-3005. PMID 23723144.
^ Heid, Markham (January 23, 2024). "That Smartphone in Your Hand Changes How You Walk". The New York Times. When scientists want to study stress, they often ask people to perform several tasks at once. That's because multitasking is a reliable way to stress people out.
^ ^a ^b Mayer, Richard E.; Moreno, Roxana (January 1, 2003). "Nine Ways to Reduce Cognitive Load in Multimedia Learning". Educational Psychologist. 38 (1): 43–52. doi:10.1207/s15326985ep3801_6. ISSN 0046-1520. S2CID 13667935.
^ Carrier, L. Mark; Rosen, Larry D.; Cheever, Nancy A.; Lim, Alex F. (March 1, 2015). "Causes, effects, and practicalities of everyday multitasking". Developmental Review. Special Issue: Living in the “Net” Generation: Multitasking, Learning, and Development. 35: 64–78. doi:10.1016/j.dr.2014.12.005. ISSN 0273-2297.
^ Peng, Yaoping; Tullis, Jonathan G. (December 1, 2021). "Dividing attention impairs metacognitive control more than monitoring". Psychonomic Bulletin & Review. 28 (6): 2064–2074. doi:10.3758/s13423-021-01950-9. ISSN 1531-5320. PMC 8205317. PMID 34131889.
^ IBM Operating System/360 Concepts and Facilities - Witt, Bernard I. & Lambert, Ward
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^ Goldstein, E. Bruce (2015). Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience. Cengage Learning. pp. 100–102. ISBN 978-1-285-76388-0.
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^ Strayer, David L.; Drews, Frank A.; Crouch, Dennis J. (Summer 2006). "A Comparison of the Cell Phone Driver and the Drunk Driver". Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society. 48 (2): 381–391. doi:10.1518/001872006777724471. PMID 16884056. S2CID 7863538.(subscription required)
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^ Crenshaw, Dave (2008). The myth of multitasking : how doing it all gets nothing done (1st ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. p. 144. ISBN 978-0-470-37225-8.
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External links

"Digital Nation". FRONTLINE. Season 28. Episode 7. February 2, 2010. PBS. WGBH. Retrieved August 2, 2022.
Richtel, Matt (June 6, 2010). "Hooked on Gadgets, and Paying a Mental Price". The New York Times. Retrieved December 30, 2014.
Hamilton, Jon (October 2, 2008). "Think You're Multi-tasking? Think Again". NPR. Retrieved December 30, 2014.
Konnikova, Maria (May 7, 2014). "Most People Can't Multitask, But a Few Are Exceptional". The New Yorker. Retrieved December 30, 2014.

[:0-1] Pashler Harold (1994). "Dual-task interference in simple tasks: Data and theory". Psychological Bulletin. 116 (2): 220–244. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.324.4916. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.116.2.220. PMID 7972591.

[Wallis-2] Wallis, Claudia (March 19, 2006). "The Multitasking Generation" (PDF). Time. 167 (13): 48–55. PMID 16579497. Retrieved April 26, 2010.

[3] Wetherell, Mark A.; Carter, Kirsty (April 2014). "The Multitasking Framework: The Effects of Increasing Workload on Acute Psychobiological Stress Reactivity". Stress and Health. 30 (2): 103–109. doi:10.1002/smi.2496. ISSN 1532-3005. PMID 23723144.

[4] Heid, Markham (January 23, 2024). "That Smartphone in Your Hand Changes How You Walk". The New York Times. When scientists want to study stress, they often ask people to perform several tasks at once. That's because multitasking is a reliable way to stress people out.

[:1-5] Mayer, Richard E.; Moreno, Roxana (January 1, 2003). "Nine Ways to Reduce Cognitive Load in Multimedia Learning". Educational Psychologist. 38 (1): 43–52. doi:10.1207/s15326985ep3801_6. ISSN 0046-1520. S2CID 13667935.

[6] Carrier, L. Mark; Rosen, Larry D.; Cheever, Nancy A.; Lim, Alex F. (March 1, 2015). "Causes, effects, and practicalities of everyday multitasking". Developmental Review. Special Issue: Living in the “Net” Generation: Multitasking, Learning, and Development. 35: 64–78. doi:10.1016/j.dr.2014.12.005. ISSN 0273-2297.

[7] Peng, Yaoping; Tullis, Jonathan G. (December 1, 2021). "Dividing attention impairs metacognitive control more than monitoring". Psychonomic Bulletin & Review. 28 (6): 2064–2074. doi:10.3758/s13423-021-01950-9. ISSN 1531-5320. PMC 8205317. PMID 34131889.

[8] IBM Operating System/360 Concepts and Facilities - Witt, Bernard I. & Lambert, Ward

[9] Goldstein, E. Bruce (2011). Cognitive Psychology: connecting mind, research, and everyday experience. Cengage Learning. pp. Chapter 4 (pgs 85–114).

[10] "Is multi-tasking a myth?". BBC News. August 20, 2010.

[11] Hallowell, Edward M.. Crazy Busy: Overstretched, Overbooked, and About to Snap! Strategies for Handling Your Fast-Paced Life. 2007. Ballantine Books. ISBN 0-345-48244-1

[12] Junco, Reynol (2012). "In-class multitasking and academic performance" (PDF). Computers in Human Behavior. Archived from the original (PDF) on April 3, 2013. Retrieved January 1, 2024.

[13] Goldstein, E. Bruce (2015). Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience. Cengage Learning. pp. 100–102. ISBN 978-1-285-76388-0.

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@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
 {{Short description|Ability to perform activities simultaneously}}
 {{Other uses|Multitasking (disambiguation)}}
-{{Lead too short|date=December 2021}}
 {{Use mdy dates|date=December 2012}}
 [[File:膝にPC 右手にガラケー 2011 (5861970938).jpg|thumb|Laptop and mobile phone]]
-'''Human multitasking''' is the concept that one can split their attention on more than one task or activity at the same time, such as speaking on the phone while driving a car. Multitasking can result in time wasted due to human context switching and becoming prone to errors due to [[Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder management|insufficient attention]]. If one becomes proficient at two tasks, it is possible to rapidly shift attention between the tasks and perform the tasks well.
+'''Human multitasking''' is the concept that one can split their attention on more than one task or activity at the same time, such as speaking on the phone while driving a car.
+Multitasking can result in time wasted due to human [[context switching]] (e.g., determining which step is next in the task just switched to) and becoming prone to errors due to [[Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder management|insufficient attention]]. Some people may be proficient at the tasks in question and also be able to rapidly shift attention between the tasks, and therefore perform the tasks well; however, self-perception of being good at multitasking or getting more done while multitasking is frequently inaccurate.<ref name=":0" /><ref name="Wallis" />
+Multitasking is mentally and physically stressful for everyone,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wetherell |first1=Mark A. |last2=Carter |first2=Kirsty |date=April 2014 |title=The Multitasking Framework: The Effects of Increasing Workload on Acute Psychobiological Stress Reactivity |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/smi.2496 |journal=Stress and Health |language=en |volume=30 |issue=2 |pages=103–109 |doi=10.1002/smi.2496 |pmid=23723144 |issn=1532-3005}}</ref> to the point that multitasking is used in laboratory experiments to study stressful environments.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Heid |first=Markham |date=23 January 2024 |title=That Smartphone in Your Hand Changes How You Walk |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2024/01/23/well/smartphone-walking-posture-mood.html |work=The New York Times |quote=When scientists want to study stress, they often ask people to perform several tasks at once. That’s because multitasking is a reliable way to stress people out.}}</ref>  Research suggests that people who are multitasking in a learning environment are worse at learning new information compared to those who do not have their attention divided among different tasks.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Carrier |first1=L. Mark |last2=Rosen |first2=Larry D. |last3=Cheever |first3=Nancy A. |last4=Lim |first4=Alex F. |date=2015-03-01 |title=Causes, effects, and practicalities of everyday multitasking |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273229714000513 |journal=Developmental Review |series=Special Issue: Living in the “Net” Generation: Multitasking, Learning, and Development |volume=35 |pages=64–78 |doi=10.1016/j.dr.2014.12.005 |issn=0273-2297}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Peng |first1=Yaoping |last2=Tullis |first2=Jonathan G. |date=2021-12-01 |title=Dividing attention impairs metacognitive control more than monitoring |url=https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-021-01950-9 |journal=Psychonomic Bulletin & Review |language=en |volume=28 |issue=6 |pages=2064–2074 |doi=10.3758/s13423-021-01950-9 |issn=1531-5320 |pmc=8205317 |pmid=34131889}}</ref>
 ==Etymology==
@@ Line 10: / Line 13: @@
 ==Research==
-Since the 1960s, psychologists have conducted experiments on the nature and limits of human multitasking. The simplest experimental design used to investigate human multitasking is the so-called [[psychological refractory period]] effect. Here, people are asked to make separate responses to each of two stimuli presented close together in time. An extremely general finding is a slowing in responses to the second-appearing stimulus.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Pashler Harold | year = 1994 | title = Dual-task interference in simple tasks: Data and theory. | journal = Psychological Bulletin | volume = 116 | issue = 2| pages = 220–244 | doi = 10.1037/0033-2909.116.2.220 | pmid = 7972591 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.324.4916 }}</ref>
+Since the 1960s, psychologists have conducted experiments on the nature and limits of human multitasking. The simplest experimental design used to investigate human multitasking is the so-called [[psychological refractory period]] effect. Here, people are asked to make separate responses to each of two stimuli presented close together in time. An extremely general finding is a slowing in responses to the second-appearing stimulus.<ref name=":0">{{cite journal | author = Pashler Harold | year = 1994 | title = Dual-task interference in simple tasks: Data and theory. | journal = Psychological Bulletin | volume = 116 | issue = 2| pages = 220–244 | doi = 10.1037/0033-2909.116.2.220 | pmid = 7972591 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.324.4916 }}</ref>
-Researchers have long suggested that there appears to be a processing bottleneck preventing the brain from working on certain key aspects of both tasks at the same time<ref>{{Cite book|last=Goldstein|first=E. Bruce|title=Cognitive Psychology: connecting mind, research, and everyday experience|publisher=Cengage Learning|year=2011|pages=Chapter 4 (pgs 85–114)}}</ref> (e.g., {{Harv|Gladstones|Regan|Lee|1989}} {{Harv|Pashler|1994}}). Bottlenecking refers to the idea that because people only have a limited amount of attentional resources, the most important information is kept. Many researchers believe that the cognitive function subject to the most severe form of bottlenecking is the planning of actions and retrieval of information from memory.<ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-11035055 | work=BBC News | title=Is multi-tasking a myth? | date=August 20, 2010}}</ref> Psychiatrist [[Edward Hallowell (psychiatrist)|Edward M. Hallowell]]<ref>Hallowell, Edward M.. ''Crazy Busy: Overstretched, Overbooked, and About to Snap! Strategies for Handling Your Fast-Paced Life''. 2007. Ballantine Books. {{ISBN|0-345-48244-1}}</ref> has gone so far as to describe multitasking as a "mythical activity in which people believe they can perform two or more tasks simultaneously as effectively as one."
+Researchers have long suggested that there appears to be a processing [[Bottleneck (engineering)|bottleneck]] preventing the brain from working on certain key aspects of both tasks at the same time<ref>{{Cite book|last=Goldstein|first=E. Bruce|title=Cognitive Psychology: connecting mind, research, and everyday experience|publisher=Cengage Learning|year=2011|pages=Chapter 4 (pgs 85–114)}}</ref> (e.g., {{Harv|Gladstones|Regan|Lee|1989}} {{Harv|Pashler|1994}}). Bottlenecking refers to the idea that because people only have a limited amount of attentional resources, the most important information is kept. Many researchers believe that the cognitive function subject to the most severe form of bottlenecking is the planning of actions and retrieval of information from memory.<ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-11035055 | work=BBC News | title=Is multi-tasking a myth? | date=August 20, 2010}}</ref> Psychiatrist [[Edward Hallowell (psychiatrist)|Edward M. Hallowell]]<ref>Hallowell, Edward M.. ''Crazy Busy: Overstretched, Overbooked, and About to Snap! Strategies for Handling Your Fast-Paced Life''. 2007. Ballantine Books. {{ISBN|0-345-48244-1}}</ref> has gone so far as to describe multitasking as a "mythical activity in which people believe they can perform two or more tasks simultaneously as effectively as one."
-Others have researched multitasking in the area of learning. [[Richard_E._Mayer|Richard E Mayer]] and Moreno[6] studied the phenomenon of cognitive load in multimedia learning and concluded that it is difficult, if not impossible, to learn new information while engaging in multitasking. [http://reyjunco.com/wordpress/pdf/JuncoMultitaskingCHB2012.pdf Reynol Junco] and [https://msu.edu/honoredfaculty/directory/cotten-shelia.html Shelia R Cotten] examined how multitasking affects academic success and found that students who engaged in high levels of multitasking reported significant issues with their academic work.[7] A more recent study on the effects of multitasking on academic performance showed that using Facebook and text messaging while studying were negatively related to student grades, while online searching and emailing were not.[8]
+Others have researched multitasking in the area of learning. [[Richard E. Mayer|Richard E Mayer]] and Moreno studied the phenomenon of cognitive load in multimedia learning and concluded that it is difficult, if not impossible, to learn new information while engaging in multitasking.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=Mayer |first1=Richard E. |last2=Moreno |first2=Roxana |date=2003-01-01 |title=Nine Ways to Reduce Cognitive Load in Multimedia Learning |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/s15326985ep3801_6 |journal=Educational Psychologist |volume=38 |issue=1 |pages=43–52 |doi=10.1207/s15326985ep3801_6 |s2cid=13667935 |issn=0046-1520}}</ref> [[Reynol Junco]] and [https://msu.edu/honoredfaculty/directory/cotten-shelia.html Shelia R Cotten] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200801163956/https://msu.edu/honoredfaculty/directory/cotten-shelia.html |date=August 1, 2020 }} examined how multitasking affects academic success and found that students who engaged in high levels of multitasking reported significant issues with their academic work.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Junco |first=Reynol |date=2012 |title=In-class multitasking and academic performance. |url=http://reyjunco.com/wordpress/pdf/JuncoMultitaskingCHB2012.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130403072124/http://reyjunco.com/wordpress/pdf/JuncoMultitaskingCHB2012.pdf |archive-date=2013-04-03 |access-date=2024-01-01 |publisher=Computers in Human Behavior}}</ref> A more recent{{When|date=August 2022}} study on the effects of multitasking on academic performance showed that using Facebook and text messaging while studying were negatively related to student grades, while online searching and emailing were not.
-Some experiments have been done that demonstrate that it is possible to divide one's attention among several tasks, how successfully depends on several factors such as how much practice one has with it or the difficulty of the task. Walter Schneider and Robert Shiffrin performed an experiment in which they presented the participants with a memory set, which consists of target stimuli such as the number three. After being presented with the memory set they were rapidly shown 20 test frames which contained distractor stimuli. One of the slides they were shown contained one of the target stimuli from the memory set. With each trial, a new memory set and new test frames were presented. At the start of the experiment, participants averaged 55% in correctly identifying the target stimuli from the memory set. After 900 trials the participants were able to bring the average up to 90%. They reported that after about 600 trials the task became automatic and they were able to respond without thinking about it.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Goldstein|first=E. Bruce|title=Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience|publisher=Cengage Learning|year=2015|isbn=9781285763880|pages=100–102}}</ref>
+Some experiments have been done that demonstrate that it is possible to divide one's attention among several tasks, how successfully depends on several factors such as how much practice one has with it or the difficulty of the task. Walter Schneider and Robert Shiffrin performed an experiment in which they presented the participants with a memory set, which consists of target stimuli such as the number three. After being presented with the memory set they were rapidly shown 20 test frames which contained distractor stimuli. One of the slides they were shown contained one of the target stimuli from the memory set. With each trial, a new memory set and new test frames were presented. At the start of the experiment, participants averaged 55% in correctly identifying the target stimuli from the memory set. After 900 trials the participants were able to bring the average up to 90%. They reported that after about 600 trials the task became automatic and they were able to respond without thinking about it.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Goldstein|first=E. Bruce|title=Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience|publisher=Cengage Learning|year=2015|isbn=978-1-285-76388-0|pages=100–102}}</ref>
 ===The brain's role===
 Because the brain cannot fully focus when multitasking, people take longer to complete tasks and are predisposed to error. When people attempt to complete many tasks at one time, “or [alternate] rapidly between them, errors go way up, and it takes far longer—often double the time or more—to get the jobs done than if they were done sequentially,” states Meyer.<ref name=Wallis>{{Cite journal
   | last = Wallis
@@ Line 40: / Line 43: @@
   }}{{Dead link|date=January 2020 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> A study by Meyer and David Kieras found that in the interim between each exchange, the brain makes no progress whatsoever. Therefore, multitasking people not only perform each task less suitably, but lose time in the process.
-According to a study done by Jordan Grafman, chief of the cognitive neuroscience section at the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, "the most anterior part [of the brain] allows [a person] to leave something when it's incomplete and return to the same place and continue from there," while Brodmann Area 10, a part of the brain's frontal lobes, is important for establishing and attaining long-term goals.<ref name=Wallis/> Focusing on multiple dissimilar tasks at once forces the brain to process all activity in its anterior. Though the brain is complex and can perform myriad tasks, it cannot multitask well.
+According to a study done by [[Jordan Grafman]], chief of the [[cognitive neuroscience]] section at the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, "the most anterior part [of the brain] allows [a person] to leave something when it's incomplete and return to the same place and continue from there," while [[Brodmann area|Brodmann Area]] 10, a part of the brain's frontal lobes, is important for establishing and attaining long-term goals.<ref name=Wallis/> Focusing on multiple dissimilar tasks at once forces the brain to process all activity in its anterior. Though the brain is complex and can perform myriad tasks, it cannot multitask well.
-Another study by René Marois, a psychologist at Vanderbilt University, discovered that the brain exhibits a "response selection bottleneck" when asked to perform several tasks at once. The brain must then decide which activity is most important, thereby taking more time. Psychologist David Meyer, of the University of Michigan, claims that instead of a "bottleneck," the brain experiences "adaptive executive control" which places priorities on each activity. These viewpoints differ in that while bottlenecking attempts to force many thoughts through the brain at once, adaptive executive control prioritizes tasks to maintain a semblance of order. The brain better understands this order and, as psychologists such as Dr. Meyer believe, can, therefore, be trained to multitask.<ref name=Rosen/> It is not known exactly how the brain processes input and reacts to overstimulation.
+Another study by René Marois, a psychologist at [[Vanderbilt University]], discovered that the brain exhibits a "response selection bottleneck" when asked to perform several tasks at once. The brain must then decide which activity is most important, thereby taking more time. Psychologist David Meyer, of the [[University of Michigan]], claims that instead of a "bottleneck," the brain experiences "adaptive executive control" which places priorities on each activity. These viewpoints differ in that while bottlenecking attempts to force many thoughts through the brain at once, adaptive executive control prioritizes tasks to maintain a semblance of order. The brain better understands this order and, as psychologists such as Dr. Meyer believe, can, therefore, be trained to multitask.<ref name=Rosen/> It is not known exactly how the brain processes input and reacts to [[overstimulation]].
-Some research suggests that the human brain can be trained to multitask. A study published in Child Development by Monica Luciana, associate professor of psychology at the University of Minnesota, discovered that the brain's capability of categorizing competing information continues to develop until ages sixteen and seventeen. A study by Vanderbilt University found that multitasking is largely limited by "the speed with which our prefrontal cortex processes information." Paul E. Dux, the co-author of the study, believes that this process can become faster through proper training. The study trained seven people to perform two simple tasks, either separately or together, and conducted brain scans of the participants. The individuals multitasked poorly at first but, with training, were able to adeptly perform the tasks simultaneously. Brain scans of the participants indicate that the prefrontal cortex quickened its ability to process the information, enabling the individuals to multitask more efficiently. However, the study also suggests that the brain is incapable of performing multiple tasks at one time, even after extensive training.<ref>{{Cite web
+Some research suggests that the human brain can be trained to multitask. A study published in [[Child Development (journal)|Child Development]] by Monica Luciana, associate professor of psychology at the [[University of Minnesota]], discovered that the brain's capability of categorizing competing information continues to develop until ages sixteen and seventeen. A study by Vanderbilt University found that multitasking is largely limited by "the speed with which our [[prefrontal cortex]] processes information." Paul E. Dux, the co-author of the study, believes that this process can become faster through proper training. The study trained seven people to perform two simple tasks, either separately or together, and conducted brain scans of the participants. The individuals multitasked poorly at first but, with training, were able to adeptly perform the tasks simultaneously. Brain scans of the participants indicate that the [[prefrontal cortex]] quickened its ability to process the information, enabling the individuals to multitask more efficiently. However, the study also suggests that the brain is incapable of performing multiple tasks at one time, even after extensive training.<ref>{{Cite web
   | last = Moran
   | first = Melanie
@@ Line 53: / Line 56: @@
   }}</ref> This study further indicates that, while the brain can become adept at processing and responding to certain information, it cannot truly multitask.
-People have a limited ability to retain information, which worsens when the amount of information increases. For this reason, people alter information to make it more memorable, such as separating a ten-digit phone number into three smaller groups or dividing the alphabet into sets of three to five letters, a phenomenon known as [[Chunking (psychology)|chunking]]. George Miller, former psychologist at Harvard University, believes the limits to the human brain's capacity centers around "the number seven, plus or minus two." An illustrative example of this is a test in which a person must repeat numbers read aloud. While two or three numbers are easily repeated, fifteen numbers become more difficult. The person would, on average, repeat seven correctly.<ref>{{Cite book
+People have a limited ability to retain information, which worsens when the amount of information increases. For this reason, people alter information to make it more memorable, such as separating a ten-digit phone number into three smaller groups or dividing the alphabet into sets of three to five letters, a phenomenon known as [[Chunking (psychology)|chunking]]. George Miller, former psychologist at [[Harvard University]], believes the limits to the human brain's capacity centers around "the [[7|number seven]], plus or minus two." An illustrative example of this is a test in which a person must repeat numbers read aloud. While two or three numbers are easily repeated, fifteen numbers become more difficult. The person would, on average, repeat seven correctly.<ref>{{Cite book
   | last = Klingberg
   | first = Torkel
@@ Line 64: / Line 67: @@
   }}</ref> Brains are only capable of storing a limited amount of information in their short-term memories.
-Laboratory-based studies of multi-tasking indicate that one motivation for switching between tasks is to increase the time spent on the task that produces the most reward (Payne, Duggan & Neth, 2007). This reward could be progress towards an overall task goal, or it could simply be the opportunity to pursue a more interesting or fun activity. Payne, Duggan, and Neth (2007) found that decisions to switch task reflected either the reward provided by the current task or the availability of a suitable opportunity to switch (i.e. the completion of a subgoal). A French [[Functional magnetic resonance imaging|fMRI]] study published in 2010 indicated preliminary support for the hypothesis that the brain can pursue at most two goals simultaneously, one for each frontal lobe (which has a goal-oriented area).<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=126018694|access-date=April 23, 2010|title=Multitasking Brain Divides And Conquers, To A Point|newspaper=NPR.org}}</ref>
+Laboratory-based studies of multi-tasking indicate that one motivation for switching between tasks is to increase the time spent on the task that produces the most reward (Payne, Duggan & Neth, 2007). This reward could be progress towards an overall task goal, or it could simply be the opportunity to pursue a more interesting or fun activity. Payne, Duggan, and Neth (2007) found that decisions to switch task reflected either the reward provided by the current task or the availability of a suitable opportunity to switch (i.e. the completion of a subgoal). A French [[Functional magnetic resonance imaging|fMRI]] study published in 2010 indicated preliminary support for the hypothesis that the brain can pursue at most two goals simultaneously, one for each [[frontal lobe]] (which has a goal-oriented area).<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=126018694|access-date=April 23, 2010|title=Multitasking Brain Divides And Conquers, To A Point|newspaper=NPR.org}}</ref>
-When studying the costs of multitasking there are typically two designs for or types of multitasking that are examined, task switching and dual tasking. Task switching involves shifting one’s attention from one thing to another. Dual tasking, on the other hand, is when attention is divided among multiple things at once. Studies have been done to specifically examine the brain when one is engaged in either type of multitasking. Through the use of [[Magnetic resonance imaging|MRI]] brain scans, researchers have found that frontoparietal regions are activated which would include the inferior frontal junction and the posterior parietal cortex.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kim|first1=Chobok|last2=Cilles|first2=Sara E.|last3=Johnson|first3=Nathan F.|last4=Gold|first4=Brian T.|date=January 2012|title=Domain general and domain preferential brain regions associated with different types of task switching: A Meta-Analysis|journal=Human Brain Mapping|language=en|volume=33|issue=1|pages=130–142|doi=10.1002/hbm.21199|pmc=3421461|pmid=21391260}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|last1=Richter|first1=Franziska R.|title=Neuroimaging Studies of Task Switching|date=2014-06-19|url=http://www.oxfordscholarship.com/view/10.1093/acprof:osobl/9780199921959.001.0001/acprof-9780199921959-chapter-10|work=Task Switching and Cognitive Control|pages=237–271|editor-last=Grange|editor-first=James|publisher=Oxford University Press|doi=10.1093/acprof:osobl/9780199921959.003.0010|isbn=978-0-19-992195-9|access-date=2020-06-16|last2=Yeung|first2=Nick|editor2-last=Houghton|editor2-first=George}}</ref> They also found that while each type of tasking uses different mechanisms there are also some underlying mechanisms and resources that they share.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hirsch|first1=Patricia|last2=Nolden|first2=Sophie|last3=Declerck|first3=Mathieu|last4=Koch|first4=Iring|date=2018-09-30|title=Common Cognitive Control Processes Underlying Performance in Task-Switching and Dual-Task Contexts|journal=Advances in Cognitive Psychology|volume=14|issue=3|pages=62–74|doi=10.5709/acp-0239-y|pmc=7171593|pmid=32336999}}</ref>
+When studying the costs of multitasking there are typically two designs for or types of multitasking that are examined, task switching and dual tasking. Task switching involves shifting one’s attention from one thing to another. Dual tasking, on the other hand, is when attention is divided among multiple things at once. Studies have been done to specifically examine the brain when one is engaged in either type of multitasking. Through the use of [[Magnetic resonance imaging|MRI]] brain scans, researchers have found that frontoparietal regions are activated which would include the [[inferior frontal junction]] and the [[posterior parietal cortex]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kim|first1=Chobok|last2=Cilles|first2=Sara E.|last3=Johnson|first3=Nathan F.|last4=Gold|first4=Brian T.|date=January 2012|title=Domain general and domain preferential brain regions associated with different types of task switching: A Meta-Analysis|journal=Human Brain Mapping|language=en|volume=33|issue=1|pages=130–142|doi=10.1002/hbm.21199|pmc=3421461|pmid=21391260}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|last1=Richter|first1=Franziska R.|title=Neuroimaging Studies of Task Switching|date=2014-06-19|url=http://www.oxfordscholarship.com/view/10.1093/acprof:osobl/9780199921959.001.0001/acprof-9780199921959-chapter-10|work=Task Switching and Cognitive Control|pages=237–271|editor-last=Grange|editor-first=James|publisher=Oxford University Press|doi=10.1093/acprof:osobl/9780199921959.003.0010|isbn=978-0-19-992195-9|access-date=2020-06-16|last2=Yeung|first2=Nick|editor2-last=Houghton|editor2-first=George|url-access=subscription}}</ref> They also found that while each type of tasking uses different mechanisms there are also some underlying mechanisms and resources that they share.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hirsch|first1=Patricia|last2=Nolden|first2=Sophie|last3=Declerck|first3=Mathieu|last4=Koch|first4=Iring|date=2018-09-30|title=Common Cognitive Control Processes Underlying Performance in Task-Switching and Dual-Task Contexts|journal=Advances in Cognitive Psychology|volume=14|issue=3|pages=62–74|doi=10.5709/acp-0239-y|pmc=7171593|pmid=32336999}}</ref>
 ===Sex differences===
-There is little data available to support claims of a real sex difference. Most studies that do show any sex differences tend to find that the differences are small and inconsistent.<ref>{{cite web|last=Dean|first=Jeremy|title=Are men or women better at multitasking?|url=http://www.spring.org.uk/2013/04/are-men-or-women-better-at-multitasking.php|publisher=PsyBlog: understand your mind|date=April 2013}}</ref>
+Although some cultures believe that women are better at multitasking than men, there is little data available to support claims of a real sex difference. Most studies that do show any sex differences tend to find that the differences are [[Effect size|small]] and inconsistent.<ref>{{cite web|last=Dean|first=Jeremy|title=Are men or women better at multitasking?|url=http://www.spring.org.uk/2013/04/are-men-or-women-better-at-multitasking.php|publisher=PsyBlog: understand your mind|date=April 2013}}</ref>
+In 2018, a study in Norway tested everyday scenarios via videogames and found that "none of the multitasking measures (accuracy, total time, total distance covered by the avatar, a prospective memory score, and a distractor management score) showed any sex differences."<ref>{{cite journal|title=No sex difference in an everyday multitasking paradigm|doi=10.1007/s00426-018-1045-0|pmid=29968088|pmc=6433799|year=2018|journal=Psychological Research|volume=83|issue=2|pages=286–296|author1=Marco Hirnstein|author2=Frank Larøi|author3=Julien Laloyaux}}</ref>
-A recent study showed that there are not significant sex differences in multi-tasking across numerous tasks.<ref>{{cite web |title=Women Are Not Better at Multitasking. They Just Do More Work, Studies Show |url=https://www.sciencealert.com/women-aren-t-better-multitaskers-than-men-they-re-just-doing-more-work/amp}}</ref>
+A 2019 study showed that there are not significant sex differences in multi-tasking across numerous tasks.<ref>{{cite web |title=Women Are Not Better at Multitasking. They Just Do More Work, Studies Show |date=August 15, 2019 |url=https://www.sciencealert.com/women-aren-t-better-multitaskers-than-men-they-re-just-doing-more-work/amp}}</ref>
-Or in 2018, a study in Norway tested everyday scenarios via videogames and found that "none of the multitasking measures (accuracy, total time, total distance covered by the avatar, a prospective memory score, and a distractor management score) showed any sex differences."<ref>{{cite journal|title=No sex difference in an everyday multitasking paradigm|doi=10.1007/s00426-018-1045-0|pmid=29968088|pmc=6433799|year=2018|journal=Psychological Research|volume=83|issue=2|pages=286–296|author1=Marco Hirnstein|author2=Frank Larøi|author3=Julien Laloyaux}}</ref>
+There have been attempts to produce [[evolutionary]] explanations for the popular belief.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hirsch |first1=Patricia |last2=Koch |first2=Iring |last3=Karbach |first3=Julia |date=2019-08-14 |editor-last=Gilbert |editor-first=Sam |title=Putting a stereotype to the test: The case of gender differences in multitasking costs in task-switching and dual-task situations |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=14 |issue=8 |pages=e0220150 |bibcode=2019PLoSO..1420150H |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0220150 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=6693743 |pmid=31412048 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Szameitat |first1=André J. |last2=Hamaida |first2=Yasmin |last3=Tulley |first3=Rebecca S. |last4=Saylik |first4=Rahmi |last5=Otermans |first5=Pauldy C. J. |date=2015-10-19 |editor-last=Pavlova |editor-first=Marina A. |title="Women Are Better Than Men"–Public Beliefs on Gender Differences and Other Aspects in Multitasking |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=10 |issue=10 |pages=e0140371 |bibcode=2015PLoSO..1040371S |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0140371 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=4610696 |pmid=26479359 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mealey |first=Linda |date=August 1994 |title=The Adapted Mind: Evolutionary Psychology and the Generation of Culture. Jerome Barkow, Leda Cosmides and John Tooby (eds.). New York: Oxford University Press, 1992. US$55.00. {{text|ISBN}} 0-19-50623-7. Oxford University Press, 200 Madison Ave., New York, NY 10021, USA. |journal=Politics and the Life Sciences |volume=13 |issue=2 |pages=294–295 |doi=10.1017/s0730938400018700 |issn=0730-9384 |s2cid=151962878}}</ref>  One story told by evolutionary biologists Silverman and Eals speculated that a [[Sexual division of labour|sex-based division of labor]] into [[Hunter-gatherer|hunters and gatherers]] could favor the development of a difference in men and women's cognitive abilities, based on the hunter-gatherer tasks each sex performed in the prehistoric past.  This is based on the outdated<ref name="WomanHunt">Sarah Lacy & Cara Ocobock. "[https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-theory-that-men-evolved-to-hunt-and-women-evolved-to-gather-is-wrong1/ The Theory That Men Evolved to Hunt and Women Evolved to Gather Is Wrong]", ''[[Scientific American]]'', 1 November 2023.</ref> belief that prehistoric males were hunters, while women were gatherers and took care of the children, and that over time, there was a [[natural selection]] for women who could multitask, resulting in modern females being superior multitaskers.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Ren|first1=D.|last2=Zhou|first2=H.|last3=Fu|first3=X.|title=2009 Fifth International Conference on Natural Computation |chapter=A Deeper Look at Gender Difference in Multitasking: Gender-Specific Mechanism of Cognitive Control |date=2009-08-01|volume=5|pages=13–17|doi=10.1109/ICNC.2009.542|isbn=978-0-7695-3736-8|s2cid=1181140}}</ref>
-Controversial discussion continues as the lack of data available to support the popular belief does not prove it to be wrong.
-There have been attempts to produce evolutionary explanations for the popular belief.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hirsch|first1=Patricia|last2=Koch|first2=Iring|last3=Karbach|first3=Julia|date=2019-08-14|editor-last=Gilbert|editor-first=Sam|title=Putting a stereotype to the test: The case of gender differences in multitasking costs in task-switching and dual-task situations|journal=PLOS ONE|language=en|volume=14|issue=8|pages=e0220150|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0220150|issn=1932-6203|pmc=6693743|pmid=31412048|bibcode=2019PLoSO..1420150H|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Szameitat|first1=André J.|last2=Hamaida|first2=Yasmin|last3=Tulley|first3=Rebecca S.|last4=Saylik|first4=Rahmi|last5=Otermans|first5=Pauldy C. J.|date=2015-10-19|editor-last=Pavlova|editor-first=Marina A.|title="Women Are Better Than Men"–Public Beliefs on Gender Differences and Other Aspects in Multitasking|journal=PLOS ONE|language=en|volume=10|issue=10|pages=e0140371|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0140371|pmid=26479359|pmc=4610696|bibcode=2015PLoSO..1040371S|issn=1932-6203|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mealey|first=Linda|date=August 1994|title=The Adapted Mind: Evolutionary Psychology and the Generation of Culture. Jerome Barkow, Leda Cosmides and John Tooby (eds.). New York: Oxford University Press, 1992. US$55.00. {{text|ISBN}} 0-19-50623-7. Oxford University Press, 200 Madison Ave., New York, NY 10021, USA.|journal=Politics and the Life Sciences|volume=13|issue=2|pages=294–295|doi=10.1017/s0730938400018700|issn=0730-9384}}</ref>
-One theory that proposes an explanation for why there may be gender differences in multitasking is the hunter-gatherer theory proposed by Silverman and Eals in accordance with a multitasking experiment they conducted in 1992. Their hypothesis says that natural selection favored hunting-related skills and resulted in a difference in task performance for genders. (i.e., their theory states that men and women's cognitive abilities evolved differently based on the hunter-gatherer tasks they performed in the past.)
-Men focused on one task, hunting, while women were gatherers and took care of the children at home. The idea is that over time there was a natural selection for women who could multitask. We no longer have such rigid labor division, but the natural selection that took place in primitive societies is thought to have made modern females superior multitaskers.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Ren|first1=D.|last2=Zhou|first2=H.|last3=Fu|first3=X.|date=2009-08-01|title=A Deeper Look at Gender Difference in Multitasking: Gender-Specific Mechanism of Cognitive Control|journal=2009 Fifth International Conference on Natural Computation|volume=5|pages=13–17|doi=10.1109/ICNC.2009.542|isbn=978-0-7695-3736-8|s2cid=1181140|url=https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/7006bcffe71fe43618b725ac7cb7985b277c5f30}}</ref>
-In a study that looked at sex differences in spatial abilities in 40 countries, they found that men scored higher on tests of multidimensional mental rotations and women scored higher in object location memory, as the experimenters predicted.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Silverman|first1=Irwin|last2=Choi|first2=Jean|last3=Peters|first3=Michael|date=2007-04-14|title=The Hunter-Gatherer Theory of Sex Differences in Spatial Abilities: Data from 40 Countries|journal=Archives of Sexual Behavior|language=en|volume=36|issue=2|pages=261–268|doi=10.1007/s10508-006-9168-6|pmid=17351740|s2cid=2513052|issn=0004-0002}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Stoet|first=Gijsbert|date=November 2011|title=Sex differences in search and gathering skills|journal=Evolution and Human Behavior|volume=32|issue=6|pages=416–422|doi=10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2011.03.001|issn=1090-5138}}</ref>
-In 2013, a brain connectivity study from Penn Medicine, funded by in part by the National Institutes of Mental Health, published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences found major differences in men and women's neural wiring that is leading researchers to believe in popular belief that sex plays a role in multitasking skills. It is believed that "[On] average, men are more likely better at learning and performing a single task at hand, like cycling or navigating directions, whereas women have superior memory and social cognition skills, making them more equipped for multitasking and creating solutions that work for a group."<ref>{{cite web|title=Brain Connectivity Study Reveals Striking Differences Between Men and Women|url=http://www.uphs.upenn.edu/news/News_Releases/2013/12/verma/|access-date=16 April 2014|date=16 April 2014}}</ref> The full text of the study can be found on the PNAS website.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Sex differences in the structural connectome of the human brain|journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences]]|date=16 April 2014|doi = 10.1073/pnas.1316909110|doi-access = free|last1 = Ingalhalikar|first1 = M.|last2 = Smith|first2 = A.|last3 = Parker|first3 = D.|last4 = Satterthwaite|first4 = T. D.|last5 = Elliott|first5 = M. A.|last6 = Ruparel|first6 = K.|last7 = Hakonarson|first7 = H.|last8 = Gur|first8 = R. E.|last9 = Gur|first9 = R. C.|last10 = Verma|first10 = R.|volume = 111|issue = 2|pages = 823–828|pmid = 24297904|pmc = 3896179|bibcode=2014PNAS..111..823I}}</ref> However, this study has been widely criticized because the differences could easily have been caused by increased head movement. Moreover, the [http://www.cabi.gatech.edu/CABI/archives/resources/dti-analysis/ link between the DTI data and behavioral performance] is speculative.
+In 2013, a brain connectivity study from [[Penn medicine|Penn Medicine]] found major differences in men and women's neural wiring that researchers suggested indicated that sex plays a role in multitasking skills. They said that "[On] average, men are more likely better at learning and performing a single task at hand, like cycling or navigating directions, whereas women have superior memory and social cognition skills, making them more equipped for multitasking and creating solutions that work for a group."<ref>{{cite web|title=Brain Connectivity Study Reveals Striking Differences Between Men and Women|url=http://www.uphs.upenn.edu/news/News_Releases/2013/12/verma/|access-date=16 April 2014|date=16 April 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Sex differences in the structural connectome of the human brain|journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences]]|date=16 April 2014|doi = 10.1073/pnas.1316909110|doi-access = free|last1 = Ingalhalikar|first1 = M.|last2 = Smith|first2 = A.|last3 = Parker|first3 = D.|last4 = Satterthwaite|first4 = T. D.|last5 = Elliott|first5 = M. A.|last6 = Ruparel|first6 = K.|last7 = Hakonarson|first7 = H.|last8 = Gur|first8 = R. E.|last9 = Gur|first9 = R. C.|last10 = Verma|first10 = R.|volume = 111|issue = 2|pages = 823–828|pmid = 24297904|pmc = 3896179|bibcode=2014PNAS..111..823I}}</ref> However, this study has been widely criticized because the differences could easily have been caused by increased head movement. Moreover, the link between the DTI data and behavioral performance is speculative.{{cn|date=March 2024}}
 ===Continuous partial attention===
 {{Main|Continuous partial attention}}
-Author [[Steven Berlin Johnson]] describes one kind of multitasking: “It usually involves skimming the surface of the incoming data, picking out the relevant details, and moving on to the next stream. You’re paying attention, but only partially. That lets you cast a wider net, but it also runs the risk of keeping you from really studying the fish."<ref>''[[Everything Bad Is Good for You: How Today's Popular Culture Is Actually Making Us Smarter]]'' by [[Steven Berlin Johnson]], p.61</ref> Multimedia pioneer [[Linda Stone]] coined the phrase "[[continuous partial attention]]" for this kind of processing.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://lindastone.net/qa/continuous-partial-attention/|title=Continuous Partial Attention|date=November 29, 2009}}</ref> Continuous partial attention is multitasking where things do not get studied in depth.
+Author [[Steven Berlin Johnson]] describes one kind of multitasking: “It usually involves skimming the surface of the incoming data, picking out the relevant details, and moving on to the next stream. You’re paying attention, but only partially. That lets you cast a wider net, but it also runs the risk of keeping you from really studying the fish."<ref>''[[Everything Bad Is Good for You: How Today's Popular Culture Is Actually Making Us Smarter]]'' by [[Steven Berlin Johnson]], p.61</ref> [[Multimedia]] pioneer [[Linda Stone]] coined the phrase "[[continuous partial attention]]" for this kind of processing.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://lindastone.net/qa/continuous-partial-attention/|title=Continuous Partial Attention|date=November 29, 2009|access-date=December 30, 2018|archive-date=March 15, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230315010036/https://lindastone.net/qa/continuous-partial-attention|url-status=dead}}</ref> Continuous partial attention is multitasking where things do not get studied in depth.
 Rapidly increasing technology fosters multitasking because it promotes multiple sources of input at a given time. Instead of exchanging old equipment like TV, print, and music, for new equipment such as computers, the Internet, and video games, children and teens combine forms of media and continually increase sources of input.<ref>{{Cite journal
@@ Line 105: / Line 103: @@
   | url = http://www.thenewatlantis.com/docLib/20080605_TNA20Rosen.pdf
   | access-date = 2010-04-26
-  }}</ref> This increase in simultaneous media usage decreases the amount of attention paid to each device. In 2005 it was found that 82 percent of American youth use the Internet by the seventh grade in school.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.pewinternet.org/Reports/2005/Teens-and-Technology/03-Basic-Demographics-of-Online-Teens-and-Their-Families/3-Most-teens-have-logged-on-by-the-7th-grade.aspx | title=the Pew Internet and American Life Project: Part 1: Basic Demographics of Online Teens and Their Families | date=Jul 27, 2005 | access-date=February 17, 2013 |author1=Amanda Lenhart |author2=Paul Hitlin |author3=Mary Madden }}</ref> A 2005 survey by the Kaiser Family Foundation found that, while their usage of media continued at a constant 6.5 hours per day, Americans ages 8 to 18 were crowding roughly 8.5 hours’ worth of media into their days due to multitasking. The survey showed that one quarter to one-third of the participants have more than one input “most of the time” while watching television, listening to music, or reading.<ref name=Wallis/> The 2007 Harvard Business Review featured Linda Stone's idea of “continuous partial attention,” or, “constantly scanning for opportunities and staying on top of contacts, events, and activities in an effort to miss nothing”.<ref name=Rosen/> As technology provides more distractions, attention is spread among tasks more thinly.
+  }}</ref> This increase in simultaneous media usage decreases the amount of attention paid to each device. In 2005 it was found that 82 percent of American youth use the Internet by the seventh grade in school.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.pewinternet.org/Reports/2005/Teens-and-Technology/03-Basic-Demographics-of-Online-Teens-and-Their-Families/3-Most-teens-have-logged-on-by-the-7th-grade.aspx | title=the Pew Internet and American Life Project: Part 1: Basic Demographics of Online Teens and Their Families | date=Jul 27, 2005 | access-date=February 17, 2013 | author1=Amanda Lenhart | author2=Paul Hitlin | author3=Mary Madden | archive-date=June 22, 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220622054817/https://www.pewinternet.org/Reports/2005/Teens-and-Technology/03-Basic-Demographics-of-Online-Teens-and-Their-Families/3-Most-teens-have-logged-on-by-the-7th-grade.aspx | url-status=dead }}</ref> A 2005 survey by the [[Kaiser Family Foundation]] found that, while their usage of media continued at a constant 6.5 hours per day, Americans ages 8 to 18 were crowding roughly 8.5 hours’ worth of media into their days due to multitasking. The survey showed that one quarter to one-third of the participants have more than one input “most of the time” while watching television, listening to music, or reading.<ref name=Wallis/> The 2007 [[Harvard Business Review]] featured [[Linda Stone]]'s idea of “continuous partial attention,” or, “constantly scanning for opportunities and staying on top of contacts, events, and activities in an effort to miss nothing”.<ref name=Rosen/> As technology provides more distractions, attention is spread among tasks more thinly.
 A prevalent example of this inattention to detail due to multitasking is apparent when people talk on cell phones while driving. One study found that having an accident is four times more likely when using a cell phone while driving.<ref name="Schacter">{{cite book | title=Psychology | url=https://archive.org/details/psychology0000scha | url-access=registration | edition=2nd | publisher=Worth Publishers |author1=Daniel L. Schacter |author2=Daniel T. Gilbert |author3=Daniel M. Wegner | orig-year=2009| year=2011 | pages=[https://archive.org/details/psychology0000scha/page/132 132] | isbn=978-1-4292-3719-2}}</ref> Another study compared reaction times for experienced drivers during a number of tasks, and found that the subjects reacted more slowly to brake lights and stop signs during phone conversations than during other simultaneous tasks.<ref name="Schacter"/> A 2006 study showed that drivers talking on cell phones were more involved in rear-end collisions and sped up slower than intoxicated drivers.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Strayer|first1=David L.|last2=Drews|first2=Frank A.|last3=Crouch|first3=Dennis J.|title=A Comparison of the Cell Phone Driver and the Drunk Driver|journal=Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society|date=Summer 2006|volume=48|issue=2|pages=381–391|doi=10.1518/001872006777724471|pmid=16884056|s2cid=7863538}}{{subscription required}}</ref> When talking, people must withdraw their attention from the road in order to formulate responses. Because the brain cannot focus on two sources of input at one time, driving and listening or talking, constantly changing input provided by cell phones distracts the brain and increases the likelihood of accidents.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.business.com/articles/time-management-for-freelancers/|title=Time Management Tips for Freelancers|website=business.com|access-date=2018-12-30}}</ref>
@@ Line 115: / Line 113: @@
 [[Barry Schwartz (psychologist)|Barry Schwartz]] has noted that, given the media-rich landscape of the Internet era, it is tempting to get into a habit of dwelling in a constant sea of information with too many choices, which has been noted to have a negative effect on human happiness.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Schwartz |first=Barry |author-link=Barry Schwartz (psychologist) |title=The Paradox of Choice: Why More Is Less |publisher=Ecco |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-06-000569-6 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/paradoxofchoice00barr }} S.a.:[[The Paradox of Choice]]</ref>
-Observers of youth in modern society often comment upon the apparently advanced multitasking capabilities of the youngest generations of humans ([[Generation Y]] and [[Generation Z]]). While it is true that contemporary researchers find that youths in today's world exhibit high levels of multitasking, most experts believe that members of the Net Generation are not any better at multitasking than members of older generations.<ref>Carrier, L Mark, Cheever, Nancy A, Rosen, Larry D, Benitez, Sandra, & Chang, Jennifer (2009). "Multitasking across generations: Multitasking choices and difficulty ratings in three generations of Americans", Computers in Human Behavior, Volume 25, p483–489.</ref> However, recent studies by Bardhi, Rohm, and Sultan argue that Generation Y is becoming better at [[media multitasking]]. Media multitasking is when media consumers view several media platforms at the same time; such as watching TV while browsing the internet.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kazakova|first1=Snezhanka|last2=Cauberghe|first2=Verolien|last3=Hudders|first3=Liselot|last4=Labyt|first4=Christophe|date=October 2016|title=The Impact of Media Multitasking on the Cognitive and Attitudinal Responses to Television Commercials: The Moderating Role of Type of Advertising Appeal|journal=Journal of Advertising|language=en|volume=45|issue=4|pages=403–416|doi=10.1080/00913367.2016.1183244|s2cid=147912954|issn=0091-3367}}</ref> This is evidenced by the fact that they are gaining control over deciding which messages they pay attention to or not.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Bardhi|first=F.|author2=Rohm, A. J. |author3=Sultan, F. |title=Tuning in and tuning out: Media multitasking among young consumers|journal=Journal of Consumer Behaviour|year=2010|volume=9 | issue = 4|pages=316–332 |doi=10.1002/cb.320}}</ref> Nonetheless, while there is a great deal of evidence showing the negative effects of multitasking on cognitive tasks,<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Koch I. |author2=Lawo V. |author3=Fels J. |author4=Vorländer M. | year = 2011 | title = Switching in the cocktail party: exploring intentional control of auditory selective attention | journal = Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance| volume = 37 | issue = 4| pages = 1140–1147 | doi=10.1037/a0022189|pmid=21553997 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Marois R. |author2=Ivanoff J. | year = 2005 | title = Capacity limits of information processing in the brain | url = https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/5d6477d6e12f30968993f063f41709c9dde7c28e| journal = Trends in Cognitive Sciences | volume = 9 | issue = 6| pages = 296–305 | doi=10.1016/j.tics.2005.04.010|pmid=15925809 |s2cid=10109540 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Strayer D. L. |author2=Drews F. A. | year = 2004 | title = Profiles in driver distraction: effects of cell phone conversations on younger and older drivers | journal = Human Factors | volume = 46 | issue = 4| pages = 640–649 | doi=10.1518/hfes.46.4.640.56806|pmid=15709326 |s2cid=9218594 }}</ref><ref>Wood, N., & Cowan, N. (1995). The cocktail party phenomenon revisited. How frequent are attention shifts to one’s name in an irrelevant auditory channel. Journal of
+Observers of youth in modern society often comment upon the apparently advanced multitasking capabilities of the youngest generations of humans ([[Generation Y]] and [[Generation Z]]). While it is true that contemporary researchers find that youths in today's world exhibit high levels of multitasking, most experts believe that members of the Net Generation are not any better at multitasking than members of older generations.<ref>Carrier, L Mark, Cheever, Nancy A, Rosen, Larry D, Benitez, Sandra, & Chang, Jennifer (2009). "Multitasking across generations: Multitasking choices and difficulty ratings in three generations of Americans", Computers in Human Behavior, Volume 25, p483–489.</ref> However, some studies from the 2010's argue that Generation Y is becoming better at [[media multitasking]]. Media multitasking is when media consumers view several media platforms at the same time; such as watching TV while browsing the internet.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kazakova|first1=Snezhanka|last2=Cauberghe|first2=Verolien|last3=Hudders|first3=Liselot|last4=Labyt|first4=Christophe|date=October 2016|title=The Impact of Media Multitasking on the Cognitive and Attitudinal Responses to Television Commercials: The Moderating Role of Type of Advertising Appeal|journal=Journal of Advertising|language=en|volume=45|issue=4|pages=403–416|doi=10.1080/00913367.2016.1183244|s2cid=147912954|issn=0091-3367|url=https://biblio.ugent.be/publication/7198440/file/8516717 }}</ref> This is evidenced by the fact that they are gaining control over deciding which messages they pay attention to or not.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Bardhi|first=F.|author2=Rohm, A. J. |author3=Sultan, F. |title=Tuning in and tuning out: Media multitasking among young consumers|journal=Journal of Consumer Behaviour|year=2010|volume=9 | issue = 4|pages=316–332 |doi=10.1002/cb.320|doi-access=free}}</ref> Nonetheless, while there is a great deal of evidence showing the negative effects of multitasking on cognitive tasks,<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Koch I. |author2=Lawo V. |author3=Fels J. |author4=Vorländer M. | year = 2011 | title = Switching in the cocktail party: exploring intentional control of auditory selective attention | journal = Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance| volume = 37 | issue = 4| pages = 1140–1147 | doi=10.1037/a0022189|pmid=21553997 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Marois R. |author2=Ivanoff J. | year = 2005 | title = Capacity limits of information processing in the brain | journal = Trends in Cognitive Sciences | volume = 9 | issue = 6| pages = 296–305 | doi=10.1016/j.tics.2005.04.010|pmid=15925809 |s2cid=10109540 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Strayer D. L. |author2=Drews F. A. | year = 2004 | title = Profiles in driver distraction: effects of cell phone conversations on younger and older drivers | journal = Human Factors | volume = 46 | issue = 4| pages = 640–649 | doi=10.1518/hfes.46.4.640.56806|pmid=15709326 |s2cid=9218594 }}</ref><ref>Wood, N., & Cowan, N. (1995). The cocktail party phenomenon revisited. How frequent are attention shifts to one’s name in an irrelevant auditory channel. Journal of
 Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 21(1), 255–260.</ref> there is no evidence showing that multitasking has a positive or neutral effect on these tasks.
-Many studies,<ref name="Elliott">{{cite news|last=Elliott|first=Emily|title=Louisiana State University psychology professor|url=http://www.itworld.com/science/296004/distracting-sounds-linked-diminished-focus-memory-according-lsu-study|access-date=18 September 2012|newspaper=ITWorld|date=18 September 2012|agency=Louisiana State University}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=The costs of a predictable switch between simple cognitive tasks|year=1995|author=Robert Rogers|author2=Stephen Monsell|agency=Journal of Experimental Psychology|pages=124, 207–231}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Executive Control of Cognitive Processes in Task Switching. Human Perception and Performance|year=2001|publisher=Journal of Experimental Psychology|author1=Rubinstein, Joshua S. |author2=Meyer, David E. |author3=Evans, Jeffrey E. }}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine|title=How Employers Can Make Us Stop Multitasking|url=http://blogs.hbr.org/cs/2012/05/how_employers_can_make_us_stop.html|magazine=Harvard Business Review|access-date=May 17, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Multitasking Gets You There Later|journal=InfoQ| date=June 2010 |url=http://www.infoq.com/articles/multitasking-problems}}</ref> literature,<ref>{{cite book|last=Crenshaw|first=Dave|title=The myth of multitasking : how doing it all gets nothing done|year=2008|publisher=Jossey-Bass|location=San Francisco|isbn=978-0470372258|pages=144|edition=1st}}</ref> articles,<ref>{{cite news|last=RICHTEL|first=Matt|url=http://bits.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/04/20/message-to-executives-stop-multitasking/|newspaper=The New York Times Blog|date=April 20, 2011|title=Message to Executives: Stop Multitasking}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Cherry|first=Kendra|title=The Cognitive Costs of Multitasking|url=http://psychology.about.com/od/cognitivepsychology/a/costs-of-multitasking.htm|work=about.com : Cognitive Psychology}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.fuelingnewbusiness.com/2011/07/22/multitasking-kills-productivity-and-thats-bad-for-new-business/|title=Multitasking Kills Productivity and That's Bad for New Business|date=2011-07-22|website=FUEL LINES|language=en-US|access-date=2018-12-30}}</ref> and worldwide consulting firms,<ref>{{cite news|title=Recovering from information overload|url=https://www.mckinsey.com/business-functions/organization/our-insights/recovering-from-information-overload|newspaper=McKinsey Quarterly|date=January 2011|author=Derek Dean|author2=Caroline Webb|agency=McKinsey}}</ref> stress the fact that multitasking of any kind reduces the productivity and/or increases rate of errors, thus generating unnecessary frustrations.
+Many studies,<ref name="Elliott">{{cite news|last=Elliott|first=Emily|title=Louisiana State University psychology professor|url=http://www.itworld.com/science/296004/distracting-sounds-linked-diminished-focus-memory-according-lsu-study|access-date=18 September 2012|newspaper=ITWorld|date=18 September 2012|agency=Louisiana State University}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=The costs of a predictable switch between simple cognitive tasks|year=1995|author=Robert Rogers|author2=Stephen Monsell|agency=Journal of Experimental Psychology|pages=124, 207–231}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Executive Control of Cognitive Processes in Task Switching. Human Perception and Performance|year=2001|publisher=Journal of Experimental Psychology|author1=Rubinstein, Joshua S. |author2=Meyer, David E. |author3=Evans, Jeffrey E. }}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine|title=How Employers Can Make Us Stop Multitasking|url=http://blogs.hbr.org/cs/2012/05/how_employers_can_make_us_stop.html|magazine=Harvard Business Review|access-date=May 17, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Multitasking Gets You There Later|journal=InfoQ| date=June 2010 |url=http://www.infoq.com/articles/multitasking-problems}}</ref> literature,<ref>{{cite book|last=Crenshaw|first=Dave|title=The myth of multitasking : how doing it all gets nothing done|year=2008|publisher=Jossey-Bass|location=San Francisco|isbn=978-0-470-37225-8|pages=144|edition=1st}}</ref> articles,<ref>{{cite news|last=RICHTEL|first=Matt|url=http://bits.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/04/20/message-to-executives-stop-multitasking/|newspaper=The New York Times Blog|date=April 20, 2011|title=Message to Executives: Stop Multitasking}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Cherry|first=Kendra|title=The Cognitive Costs of Multitasking|url=http://psychology.about.com/od/cognitivepsychology/a/costs-of-multitasking.htm|work=about.com : Cognitive Psychology|access-date=May 13, 2015|archive-date=May 15, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150515091330/http://psychology.about.com/od/cognitivepsychology/a/costs-of-multitasking.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.fuelingnewbusiness.com/2011/07/22/multitasking-kills-productivity-and-thats-bad-for-new-business/|title=Multitasking Kills Productivity and That's Bad for New Business|date=2011-07-22|website=FUEL LINES|language=en-US|access-date=2018-12-30}}</ref> and worldwide consulting firms,<ref>{{cite news|title=Recovering from information overload|url=https://www.mckinsey.com/business-functions/organization/our-insights/recovering-from-information-overload|newspaper=McKinsey Quarterly|date=January 2011|author=Derek Dean|author2=Caroline Webb|agency=McKinsey}}</ref> stress the fact that multitasking of any kind reduces the productivity and/or increases rate of errors, thus generating unnecessary frustrations.
 In 2008, it was estimated that $650 billion<ref name="Lost in E-Mail, Tech Firms Face Self-Made Beast">{{cite journal|last=RICHTEL|first=Matt|journal=The New York Times|date=14 June 2008|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/06/14/technology/14email.html|access-date=June 14, 2008|title=Lost in E-Mail, Tech Firms Face Self-Made Beast}}</ref> a year is wasted in US businesses due to multitasking.
 ==See also==
-* [[Polychronicity]]
 * [[Absent-mindedness]]
 * [[Attention management]]
 * [[Crossmodal attention]]
+* [[Directed attention fatigue]]
 * [[Human reliability]]
 * [[Media multitasking]]
@@ Line 133: / Line 131: @@
 * [[Pareto principle]]
 * [[Parkinson's Law]]
+* [[Polychronicity]]
 * [[Task switching (psychology)]]
 * [[Time management]]
-*[[Directed attention fatigue]]
-* [https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0054402 Who Multi- Tasks and Why? Multi-Tasking Ability, Perceived Multi-Tasking Ability, Impulsivity, and Sensation Seeking.]
 ==References==
@@ Line 142: / Line 139: @@
 ==Further reading==
-* {{cite book | last = Allen | first = David | author-link = David Allen (author) | year = 2003 | title = Getting Things Done | publisher = Penguin | isbn =978-1101128497 | title-link = Getting Things Done }}
+* {{cite book | last = Allen | first = David | author-link = David Allen (author) | year = 2003 | title = Getting Things Done | publisher = Penguin | isbn =978-1-101-12849-7 | title-link = Getting Things Done }}
 * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/8219212.stm Multitaskers bad at multitasking] – BBC News Monday, August 24, 2009
 * [https://seniors.empirebuilderall.com/The-Problems-with-Multitasking] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210427212547/https://seniors.empirebuilderall.com/The-Problems-with-Multitasking |date=April 27, 2021 }} - The Problems With Multitasking
 * [http://www.fourhourworkweek.com/blog/2008/05/25/the-multitasking-virus-and-the-end-of-learning-part-1/] – The Multitasking Virus and the End of Learning?
-* {{cite book|last1=Ferriss|first1=Timothy|author-link1=Timothy Ferriss|title=The 4-Hour Workweek: Escape 9–5, Live Anywhere, and Join the New Rich|publisher=[[Crown Publishers]]| year=2007 | location=New York |isbn=978-0307353139|title-link=The 4-Hour Workweek}}
+* {{cite book|last1=Ferriss|first1=Timothy|author-link1=Timothy Ferriss|title=The 4-Hour Workweek: Escape 9–5, Live Anywhere, and Join the New Rich|publisher=[[Crown Publishers]]| year=2007 | location=New York |isbn=978-0-307-35313-9|title-link=The 4-Hour Workweek}}
 * {{Cite journal | last1 = Laws | first1 = Keith R | last2 = Stoet | first2 = Gijsbert | last3 = O'Connor | first3 = Daryl B | last4 = Conner | first4 = Mark | author-link1 = Keith Laws | title = Are women better than men at multi-tasking? | journal = BMC Psychology | volume = 1 | issue = 1 | pages = 18 | doi = 10.1186/2050-7283-1-18  | date = October 2013
  | doi-access = free }}
-* {{cite journal|last1=Miller|first1=George A.|author-link1=George Armitage Miller|title=The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two: Some Limits On Our Capacity for Processing Information|journal=[[Psychological Review]] |date=1956 |volume=63 |issue=2|pages=81–97|doi=10.1037/h0043158 |pmid=13310704|title-link=The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two|citeseerx=10.1.1.308.8071}}
+* {{cite journal|last1=Miller|first1=George A.|author-link1=George Armitage Miller|title=The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two: Some Limits On Our Capacity for Processing Information|journal=[[Psychological Review]] |date=1956 |volume=63 |issue=2|pages=81–97|doi=10.1037/h0043158 |pmid=13310704|title-link=The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two|citeseerx=10.1.1.308.8071|s2cid=15654531 }}
 * {{cite journal |author1=Strayer David L. |author2=Drews Frank A. |author3=Crouch Dennis J. | year = 2006 | title = A Comparison of the Cell Phone Driver and the Drunk Driver | journal = Human Factors | volume = 48 | issue = 2| pages = 381–91 | doi=10.1518/001872006777724471|pmid=16884056 |s2cid=7863538 }}
 * {{cite journal
@@ Line 161: / Line 158: @@
  | pages=1313–1325
  | doi=10.1108/00251740810911966
+| s2cid=17882403
-}}
+ }}
 * {{cite journal
  | last1=Gladstones | first1=W. H.
@@ Line 219: / Line 217: @@
  | url-status=dead
  }}
-* {{Cite book | last1 = Ren | first1 = Dongning | last2 = Zhou | first2 = Haotian | last3 = Fu | first3 = Xiaolan | title = A deeper look at gender difference in multitasking: gender-specific mechanism of cognitive control | journal = Fifth International Conference on Natural Computation, 2009. ICNC '09. | pages = 13–17 | publisher = IEEE Xplore - digital library | doi = 10.1109/ICNC.2009.542 | date = August 2009 | isbn = 978-0-7695-3736-8 | s2cid = 1181140 | url = https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/7006bcffe71fe43618b725ac7cb7985b277c5f30 }}
+* {{Cite book | last1 = Ren | first1 = Dongning | last2 = Zhou | first2 = Haotian | last3 = Fu | first3 = Xiaolan | title = 2009 Fifth International Conference on Natural Computation | chapter = A Deeper Look at Gender Difference in Multitasking: Gender-Specific Mechanism of Cognitive Control | pages = 13–17 | publisher = IEEE Xplore - digital library | doi = 10.1109/ICNC.2009.542 | date = August 2009 | isbn = 978-0-7695-3736-8 | s2cid = 1181140 }}
 ==External links==
+*{{cite episode|title=Digital Nation|series=FRONTLINE|series-link=Frontline (American TV program)|network=[[PBS]]|station=[[WGBH-TV|WGBH]]|date=February 2, 2010|season=28|number=7|url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/frontline/documentary/digitalnation/|access-date=August 2, 2022}}
 * {{cite news|last1=Richtel|first1=Matt|author-link1=Matt Richtel|title=Hooked on Gadgets, and Paying a Mental Price|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/07/technology/07brain.html?hp|access-date=December 30, 2014|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=June 6, 2010}}
 * {{cite news|last1=Hamilton|first1=Jon|title=Think You're Multi-tasking? Think Again|url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=95256794|access-date=December 30, 2014|work=[[NPR]]|date=October 2, 2008| author-link=Jon Hamilton}}
 * {{cite news|last1=Konnikova |first1=Maria|author-link1=Maria Konnikova|title=Most People Can't Multitask, But a Few Are Exceptional |url=http://www.newyorker.com/online/blogs/mariakonnikova/2014/05/multitask-masters.html|access-date=December 30, 2014|magazine=[[The New Yorker]]|date=May 7, 2014}}
+{{Evolutionary psychology}}
-{{Digital media use and mental health}}
+{{Media and human factors}}
+{{Authority control}}
 {{DEFAULTSORT:Human Multitasking}}

v t e Media and human factors
Cognitive psychology Externality Evolutionary psychology Behavioral modernity Cognition Mismatch Media psychology Media studies Social psychology
Media practices	Betteridge's law of headlines Gatekeeping "If it bleeds, it leads" Infotainment Human-interest story Junk food news Least objectionable program Soft media Media bias Media manipulation Pink-slime journalism Propaganda Public relations Missing white woman syndrome News values Sensationalism Hot take Spiking Tabloid television Yellow journalism
Attention	Attention economy Attention inequality Attention management Attention span Chumbox Clickbait Cognitive miser Low information voter Digital zombie Phubbing Doomscrolling Human multitasking Media multitasking Mobile phones and driving safety Smartphones and pedestrian safety Texting while driving Influence-for-hire Infodemic Information explosion Information overload Information pollution Information–action ratio One weird trick Rage farming Screen time Binge-watching Television consumption Sticky content
Cognitive bias/ Conformity	Availability cascade Availability heuristic Bandwagon effect Confirmation bias Crowd psychology Mobbing Moral panic Mean world syndrome Negativity bias Peer pressure Social-desirability bias Social influence bias Spiral of silence
Digital divide/ Political polarization	Algorithmic radicalization Youth Echo chamber Fake news website Post-truth politics Vereinigte Staaten Filter bubble Knowledge divide Knowledge gap hypothesis Political polarization in the United States Social media use in politics Vereinigte Staaten 2016 U.S. presidential election 2020 U.S. presidential election
Related topics	Computer rage Criticism of Facebook 2021 Facebook company files leak Facebook–Cambridge Analytica data scandal Criticism of Netflix Cultural impact of TikTok Digital media use and mental health Effects of violence in mass media Fascination with death Griefer Mass shooting contagion Psychological effects of Internet use Sealioning Social aspects of television Social bot Social impact of YouTube Technophilia Neophile Technophobia Violence and video games