Orthornavirae: Difference between revisions
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{{Short description|Kingdom of viruses}} |
{{Short description|Kingdom of viruses}} |
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| taxon = Orthornavirae |
| taxon = Orthornavirae |
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<small><u>[[Negative-strand RNA virus]]es</u></small> |
<small><u>[[Negative-strand RNA virus]]es</u></small> |
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* ''[[Negarnaviricota]]'' |
* ''[[Negarnaviricota]]'' |
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'''''Orthornavirae''''' is a kingdom of [[virus]]es that have genomes made of [[ribonucleic acid]] (RNA), |
'''''Orthornavirae''''' is a kingdom of [[virus]]es that have genomes made of [[ribonucleic acid]] (RNA), including genes which [[Genetic code|encode]] an [[RNA-dependent RNA polymerase]] (RdRp). The RdRp is used to [[Transcription (biology)|transcribe]] the viral RNA genome into [[messenger RNA]] (mRNA) and to [[Viral replication|replicate]] the genome. Viruses in this kingdom share a number of characteristics which promote rapid [[Viral evolution|evolution]], including high rates of [[Mutation|genetic mutation]], [[Genetic recombination|recombination]], and [[reassortment]]. |
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Viruses in ''Orthornavirae'' belong to the realm ''[[Riboviria]]''. They are descended from a [[Common descent|common ancestor]] that may have been a non-viral molecule that encoded a [[reverse transcriptase]] instead of an RdRp for replication. The kingdom is subdivided into five phyla that separate member viruses based on their genome type, host range, and genetic similarity. Viruses with three genome types are included: [[positive-strand RNA virus]]es, [[negative-strand RNA virus]]es, and [[double-stranded RNA viruses]]. |
Viruses in ''Orthornavirae'' belong to the realm ''[[Riboviria]]''. They are descended from a [[Common descent|common ancestor]] that may have been a non-viral molecule that encoded a [[reverse transcriptase]] instead of an RdRp for replication. The kingdom is subdivided into five phyla that separate member viruses based on their genome type, host range, and genetic similarity. Viruses with three genome types are included: [[positive-strand RNA virus]]es, [[negative-strand RNA virus]]es, and [[double-stranded RNA viruses]]. |
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Many of the most widely known viral diseases are caused by |
Many of the most widely known viral diseases are caused by members of this kingdom, including [[coronavirus]]es, the [[Ebola virus]], [[influenza virus]]es, the [[measles virus]], and the [[rabies virus]], as well as the first virus ever discovered, [[tobacco mosaic virus]]. In modern history, RdRp-encoding RNA viruses have caused numerous disease outbreaks, and they infect many economically important crops. Most [[Eukaryote|eukaryotic]] viruses, including most human, animal, and plant viruses, are RdRp-encoding RNA viruses. In contrast, there are relatively few [[Prokaryote|prokaryotic]] viruses in the kingdom. |
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==Etymology== |
== Etymology == |
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The first part of ''Orthornavirae'' comes from [[Greek language|Greek]] ὀρθός [orthós], meaning straight, the middle part, ''rna'', refers to RNA, and -''virae'' is the suffix used for virus kingdoms.<ref name=2019a /> |
The first part of ''Orthornavirae'' comes from [[Greek language|Greek]] ὀρθός [orthós], meaning straight, the middle part, ''rna'', refers to RNA, and -''virae'' is the suffix used for virus kingdoms.<ref name=2019a /> |
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==Characteristics== |
== Characteristics == |
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{{Main articles|Positive-strand RNA virus|Negative-strand RNA virus|Double-stranded RNA virus}} |
{{Main articles|Positive-strand RNA virus|Negative-strand RNA virus|Double-stranded RNA virus}} |
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===Structure=== |
=== Structure === |
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[[File:18 2014 1695 Fig1 HTML.webp|thumb|Genome type and replication cycle of different RNA viruses]] |
[[File:18 2014 1695 Fig1 HTML.webp|thumb|Genome type and replication cycle of different RNA viruses]] |
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RNA viruses in ''Orthornavirae'' typically do not encode many proteins, but most positive-sense, single-stranded (+ssRNA) viruses and some double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) viruses encode a major capsid protein that has a single [[jelly roll fold]], so named because the folded structure of the protein contains a structure that resembles a [[Swiss roll|jelly roll]].<ref name="wolf" /> Many also possess an [[Viral envelope|envelope]], a type of [[lipid]] membrane that typically surrounds the capsid. In particular, the viral envelope is near-universal among negative-sense, single-stranded (-ssRNA) viruses.<ref name="bud">{{cite web|title=Viral budding|url=https://viralzone.expasy.org/1947?outline=all_by_protein|access-date=6 August 2020|website=ViralZone|publisher=Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics}}</ref><ref>{{cite book| |
RNA viruses in ''Orthornavirae'' typically do not encode many proteins, but most positive-sense, single-stranded (+ssRNA) viruses and some double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) viruses encode a major capsid protein that has a single [[jelly roll fold]], so named because the folded structure of the protein contains a structure that resembles a [[Swiss roll|jelly roll]].<ref name="wolf" /> Many also possess an [[Viral envelope|envelope]], a type of [[lipid]] membrane that typically surrounds the capsid. In particular, the viral envelope is near-universal among negative-sense, single-stranded (-ssRNA) viruses.<ref name="bud">{{cite web|title=Viral budding|url=https://viralzone.expasy.org/1947?outline=all_by_protein|access-date=6 August 2020|website=ViralZone|publisher=Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics}}</ref><ref>{{cite book| vauthors = Fermin G |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128112571000024|title=Viruses: Molecular Biology, Host Interactions and Applications to Biotechnology|date=2018|publisher=Elsevier|isbn=978-0-12-811257-1|page=35-46|doi=10.1016/B978-0-12-811257-1.00002-4|s2cid=89706800|access-date=6 August 2020}}</ref> |
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===Genome=== |
=== Genome === |
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Viruses in ''Orthornavirae'' have three different types of genomes: dsRNA, +ssRNA, and -ssRNA. Single-stranded RNA viruses have either a [[Sense (molecular biology)|positive or negative sense strand]], and dsRNA viruses have both. This structure of the genome is important in terms of transcription to synthesize viral mRNA as well as replication of the genome, both of which are carried out by the viral enzyme [[RNA-dependent RNA polymerase]] (RdRp), also called RNA replicase.<ref name=2019a /><ref name=wolf /> |
Viruses in ''Orthornavirae'' have three different types of genomes: dsRNA, +ssRNA, and -ssRNA. Single-stranded RNA viruses have either a [[Sense (molecular biology)|positive or negative sense strand]], and dsRNA viruses have both. This structure of the genome is important in terms of transcription to synthesize viral mRNA as well as replication of the genome, both of which are carried out by the viral enzyme [[RNA-dependent RNA polymerase]] (RdRp), also called RNA replicase.<ref name=2019a /><ref name=wolf /> |
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===Replication and transcription=== |
=== Replication and transcription === |
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====Positive-strand RNA viruses==== |
==== Positive-strand RNA viruses ==== |
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Positive-strand RNA viruses have genomes that can function as mRNA, so transcription is not necessary. However, +ssRNA will produce dsRNA forms as part of the process of replicating their genomes. From the dsRNA, additional positive strands are synthesized, which may be used as mRNA or for genomes for progeny. Because +ssRNA viruses create intermediate dsRNA forms, they have to avoid the host's immune system in order to replicate. +ssRNA viruses accomplish this by replicating in membrane-associated vesicles that are used as replication factories. For many +ssRNA viruses, subgenomic portions of the genome will be transcribed to translate specific proteins, whereas others will transcribe a polyprotein that is cleaved to produce separate proteins.<ref name=pssrna >{{cite web|title=Positive stranded RNA virus replication|url=https://viralzone.expasy.org/1116|website=ViralZone|publisher=Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics|access-date=6 August 2020}}</ref><ref name=sgrna >{{cite web|title=Subgenomic RNA transcription|url=https://viralzone.expasy.org/1876|website=ViralZone|publisher=Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics|access-date=6 August 2020}}</ref> |
Positive-strand RNA viruses have genomes that can function as mRNA, so transcription is not necessary. However, +ssRNA will produce dsRNA forms as part of the process of replicating their genomes. From the dsRNA, additional positive strands are synthesized, which may be used as mRNA or for genomes for progeny. Because +ssRNA viruses create intermediate dsRNA forms, they have to avoid the host's immune system in order to replicate. +ssRNA viruses accomplish this by replicating in membrane-associated vesicles that are used as replication factories.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Andronov L, Han M, Zhu Y, Balaji A, Roy AR, Barentine AE, Patel P, Garhyan J, Qi LS, Moerner WE | title = Nanoscale cellular organization of viral RNA and proteins in SARS-CoV-2 replication organelles | journal = Nature Communications | volume = 15 | issue = 1 | pages = 4644 | date = May 2024 | pmid = 38821943 | pmc = 11143195 | doi = 10.1038/s41467-024-48991-x }}</ref> For many +ssRNA viruses, subgenomic portions of the genome will be transcribed to translate specific proteins, whereas others will transcribe a polyprotein that is cleaved to produce separate proteins.<ref name=pssrna >{{cite web|title=Positive stranded RNA virus replication|url=https://viralzone.expasy.org/1116|website=ViralZone|publisher=Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics|access-date=6 August 2020}}</ref><ref name=sgrna >{{cite web|title=Subgenomic RNA transcription|url=https://viralzone.expasy.org/1876|website=ViralZone|publisher=Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics|access-date=6 August 2020}}</ref> |
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====Negative-strand RNA viruses==== |
==== Negative-strand RNA viruses ==== |
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Negative-strand RNA viruses have genomes that function as templates from which mRNA can be synthesized directly by RdRp.<ref name=nssrna >{{cite web|title=Negative-stranded RNA virus transcription|url=https://viralzone.expasy.org/1917|website=ViralZone|publisher=Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics|access-date=6 August 2020}}</ref> Replication is the same process but executed on the positive sense antigenome, during which RdRp ignores all transcription signals so that a complete -ssRNA genome can be synthesized.<ref name=ssrnarep >{{cite web|title=Negative stranded RNA virus replication|url=https://viralzone.expasy.org/1096|website=ViralZone|publisher=Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics|access-date=6 August 2020}}</ref> -ssRNA viruses vary between those that initiate transcription by the RdRp creating a cap on the 5'-end (usually pronounced "five prime end") of the genome or by [[Cap snatching|snatching a cap]] from host mRNA and attaching it to the viral RNA.<ref name=cap >{{cite web|title=Cap snatching|url=https://viralzone.expasy.org/839?outline=all_by_species|website=ViralZone|publisher=Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics|access-date=6 August 2020}}</ref> For many -ssRNA viruses, at the end of transcription, RdRp [[Polymerase stuttering|stutters]] on a [[uracil]] in the genome, synthesizing hundreds of [[adenine]]s in a row as part of creating a [[Polyadenylation|polyadenylated tail]] for the mRNA.<ref name=stutter >{{cite web|title=Negative-stranded RNA virus polymerase stuttering|url=https://viralzone.expasy.org/1916|website=ViralZone|publisher=Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics|access-date=6 August 2020}}</ref> Some -ssRNA viruses are essentially ambisense, and have proteins encoded by both the positive and negative strand, so mRNA is synthesized directly from the genome and from a complementary strand.<ref name=ambi >{{cite web|title=Ambisense transcription in negative stranded RNA viruses|url=https://viralzone.expasy.org/1945|website=ViralZone|publisher=Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics|access-date=6 August 2020}}</ref> |
Negative-strand RNA viruses have genomes that function as templates from which mRNA can be synthesized directly by RdRp.<ref name=nssrna >{{cite web|title=Negative-stranded RNA virus transcription|url=https://viralzone.expasy.org/1917|website=ViralZone|publisher=Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics|access-date=6 August 2020}}</ref> Replication is the same process but executed on the positive sense antigenome, during which RdRp ignores all transcription signals so that a complete -ssRNA genome can be synthesized.<ref name=ssrnarep >{{cite web|title=Negative stranded RNA virus replication|url=https://viralzone.expasy.org/1096|website=ViralZone|publisher=Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics|access-date=6 August 2020}}</ref> -ssRNA viruses vary between those that initiate transcription by the RdRp creating a cap on the 5'-end (usually pronounced "five prime end") of the genome or by [[Cap snatching|snatching a cap]] from host mRNA and attaching it to the viral RNA.<ref name=cap >{{cite web|title=Cap snatching|url=https://viralzone.expasy.org/839?outline=all_by_species|website=ViralZone|publisher=Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics|access-date=6 August 2020}}</ref> For many -ssRNA viruses, at the end of transcription, RdRp [[Polymerase stuttering|stutters]] on a [[uracil]] in the genome, synthesizing hundreds of [[adenine]]s in a row as part of creating a [[Polyadenylation|polyadenylated tail]] for the mRNA.<ref name=stutter >{{cite web|title=Negative-stranded RNA virus polymerase stuttering|url=https://viralzone.expasy.org/1916|website=ViralZone|publisher=Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics|access-date=6 August 2020}}</ref> Some -ssRNA viruses are essentially ambisense, and have proteins encoded by both the positive and negative strand, so mRNA is synthesized directly from the genome and from a complementary strand.<ref name=ambi >{{cite web|title=Ambisense transcription in negative stranded RNA viruses|url=https://viralzone.expasy.org/1945|website=ViralZone|publisher=Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics|access-date=6 August 2020}}</ref> |
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====Double-stranded RNA viruses==== |
==== Double-stranded RNA viruses ==== |
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For dsRNA viruses, RdRp transcribes mRNA by using the negative strand as a template. Positive strands may also be used as templates to synthesize negative strands for the construction of genomic dsRNA. dsRNA is not a molecule produced by cells, so cellular life has evolved mechanisms to detect and inactivate viral dsRNA. To counter this, dsRNA viruses typically retain their genomes inside of viral capsid in order to evade the host's immune system.<ref name="dsrnarep">{{cite web|title=Double-stranded RNA virus replication|url=https://viralzone.expasy.org/1936|access-date=6 August 2020|website=ViralZone|publisher=Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics}}</ref> |
For dsRNA viruses, RdRp transcribes mRNA by using the negative strand as a template. Positive strands may also be used as templates to synthesize negative strands for the construction of genomic dsRNA. dsRNA is not a molecule produced by cells, so cellular life has evolved mechanisms to detect and inactivate viral dsRNA. To counter this, dsRNA viruses typically retain their genomes inside of viral capsid in order to evade the host's immune system.<ref name="dsrnarep">{{cite web|title=Double-stranded RNA virus replication|url=https://viralzone.expasy.org/1936|access-date=6 August 2020|website=ViralZone|publisher=Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics}}</ref> |
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===Evolution=== |
=== Evolution === |
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RNA viruses in ''Orthornavirae'' experience a high rate of genetic [[mutation]]s because RdRp is prone to making errors in replication since it typically lacks [[Proofreading (biology)|proofreading]] mechanisms to repair errors.<ref group=note >The exception is that some members of the order ''[[Nidovirales]]'' encode proofreading [[exoribonuclease]] activity as part of a protein that is distinct from RdRp.</ref> Mutations in RNA viruses are often influenced by host factors such as dsRNA-dependent [[adenosine deaminase]]s, which edit viral genomes by changing [[adenosine]]s to [[inosine]]s.<ref name=sanjuan >{{cite journal|vauthors=Sanjuán R, Domingo-Calap P |
RNA viruses in ''Orthornavirae'' experience a high rate of genetic [[mutation]]s because RdRp is prone to making errors in replication since it typically lacks [[Proofreading (biology)|proofreading]] mechanisms to repair errors.<ref group=note >The exception is that some members of the order ''[[Nidovirales]]'' encode proofreading [[exoribonuclease]] activity as part of a protein that is distinct from RdRp.</ref> Mutations in RNA viruses are often influenced by host factors such as dsRNA-dependent [[adenosine deaminase]]s, which edit viral genomes by changing [[adenosine]]s to [[inosine]]s.<ref name=sanjuan >{{cite journal | vauthors = Sanjuán R, Domingo-Calap P | title = Mechanisms of viral mutation | journal = Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences | volume = 73 | issue = 23 | pages = 4433–4448 | date = December 2016 | pmid = 27392606 | pmc = 5075021 | doi = 10.1007/s00018-016-2299-6 }}</ref><ref name=smith >{{cite journal | vauthors = Smith EC | title = The not-so-infinite malleability of RNA viruses: Viral and cellular determinants of RNA virus mutation rates | journal = PLOS Pathogens | volume = 13 | issue = 4 | pages = e1006254 | date = April 2017 | pmid = 28448634 | pmc = 5407569 | doi = 10.1371/journal.ppat.1006254 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Mutations in genes that are essential for replication lead to a reduced number of progeny, so viral genomes typically contain sequences that are [[Conserved sequence|highly conserved]] over time with relatively few mutations.<ref name=marsh >{{cite journal | vauthors = Marsh GA, Rabadán R, Levine AJ, Palese P | title = Highly conserved regions of influenza a virus polymerase gene segments are critical for efficient viral RNA packaging | journal = Journal of Virology | volume = 82 | issue = 5 | pages = 2295–2304 | date = March 2008 | pmid = 18094182 | pmc = 2258914 | doi = 10.1128/JVI.02267-07 }}</ref> |
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Many RdRp-encoding RNA viruses also experience a high rate of [[genetic recombination]], though rates of recombination vary significantly, with lower rates in -ssRNA viruses and higher rates in dsRNA and +ssRNA viruses. There are two types of recombination: copy choice recombination and reassortment. Copy choice recombination occurs when the RdRp switches templates during synthesis without releasing the prior, newly created RNA strand, which generates a genome of mixed ancestry. [[Reassortment]], which is restricted to viruses with segmented genomes, has segments from different genomes packaged into a single virion, or virus particle, which also produces hybrid progeny.<ref name=sanjuan /><ref name=simon >{{cite journal|vauthors=Simon-Loriere E, Holmes EC |
Many RdRp-encoding RNA viruses also experience a high rate of [[genetic recombination]], though rates of recombination vary significantly, with lower rates in -ssRNA viruses and higher rates in dsRNA and +ssRNA viruses. There are two types of recombination: copy choice recombination and reassortment. Copy choice recombination occurs when the RdRp switches templates during synthesis without releasing the prior, newly created RNA strand, which generates a genome of mixed ancestry. [[Reassortment]], which is restricted to viruses with segmented genomes, has segments from different genomes packaged into a single virion, or virus particle, which also produces hybrid progeny.<ref name=sanjuan /><ref name=simon >{{cite journal | vauthors = Simon-Loriere E, Holmes EC | title = Why do RNA viruses recombine? | journal = Nature Reviews. Microbiology | volume = 9 | issue = 8 | pages = 617–626 | date = July 2011 | pmid = 21725337 | pmc = 3324781 | doi = 10.1038/nrmicro2614 }}</ref> |
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For reassortment, some segmented viruses package their genomes into multiple virions, which produces genomes that are random mixtures of parents, whereas for those that are packaged into a single virion, typically individual segments are swapped. Both forms of recombination can only occur if more than one virus is present in a cell, and the more alleles are present, the more likely recombination is to occur. A key difference between copy choice recombination and reassortment is that copy choice recombination can occur anywhere in a genome, whereas reassortment swaps fully-replicated segments. Therefore, copy choice recombination can produce non-functional viral proteins whereas reassortment cannot.<ref name=sanjuan /><ref name=simon /><ref name=mcdonald >{{cite journal|vauthors=McDonald SM, Nelson MI, Turner PE, Patton JT |
For reassortment, some segmented viruses package their genomes into multiple virions, which produces genomes that are random mixtures of parents, whereas for those that are packaged into a single virion, typically individual segments are swapped. Both forms of recombination can only occur if more than one virus is present in a cell, and the more alleles are present, the more likely recombination is to occur. A key difference between copy choice recombination and reassortment is that copy choice recombination can occur anywhere in a genome, whereas reassortment swaps fully-replicated segments. Therefore, copy choice recombination can produce non-functional viral proteins whereas reassortment cannot.<ref name=sanjuan /><ref name=simon /><ref name=mcdonald >{{cite journal | vauthors = McDonald SM, Nelson MI, Turner PE, Patton JT | title = Reassortment in segmented RNA viruses: mechanisms and outcomes | journal = Nature Reviews. Microbiology | volume = 14 | issue = 7 | pages = 448–460 | date = July 2016 | pmid = 27211789 | pmc = 5119462 | doi = 10.1038/nrmicro.2016.46 }}</ref><ref name=vijaykrishna >{{cite journal | vauthors = Vijaykrishna D, Mukerji R, Smith GJ | title = RNA Virus Reassortment: An Evolutionary Mechanism for Host Jumps and Immune Evasion | journal = PLOS Pathogens | volume = 11 | issue = 7 | pages = e1004902 | date = July 2015 | pmid = 26158697 | pmc = 4497687 | doi = 10.1371/journal.ppat.1004902 | doi-access = free }}</ref> |
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The mutation rate of a virus is associated with the rate of genetic recombinations. Higher mutation rates increase both the number of advantageous and disadvantageous mutations, whereas higher rates of recombination allows for beneficial mutations to be separated from deleterious ones. Therefore, higher rates of mutations and recombinations, up to a certain point, improve viruses' ability to adapt.<ref name=sanjuan /><ref name=drake >{{cite journal|vauthors=Drake JW, Holland JJ |
The mutation rate of a virus is associated with the rate of genetic recombinations. Higher mutation rates increase both the number of advantageous and disadvantageous mutations, whereas higher rates of recombination allows for beneficial mutations to be separated from deleterious ones.{{Vague|date=September 2023}} Therefore, higher rates of mutations and recombinations, up to a certain point, improve viruses' ability to adapt.<ref name=sanjuan /><ref name=drake >{{cite journal | vauthors = Drake JW, Holland JJ | title = Mutation rates among RNA viruses | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 96 | issue = 24 | pages = 13910–13913 | date = November 1999 | pmid = 10570172 | pmc = 24164 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.96.24.13910 | doi-access = free | bibcode = 1999PNAS...9613910D }}</ref> Notable examples of this include reassortments that enable cross-species transmission of influenza viruses, which have led to numerous pandemics, as well as the emergence of drug-resistance influenza strains via mutations that were reassorted.<ref name=vijaykrishna /> |
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==Phylogenetics== |
== Phylogenetics == |
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[[File:MBio.02329-18.F1.large.jpg|thumb|[[Phylogenetic tree]] with phylum branches highlighted. ''Negarnaviricota'' (brown), ''Duplornaviricota'' (green), ''Kitrinoviricota'' (pink), ''Pisuviricota'' (blue), and ''Lenarviricota'' (yellow)]] |
[[File:MBio.02329-18.F1.large.jpg|thumb|[[Phylogenetic tree]] with phylum branches highlighted. ''Negarnaviricota'' (brown), ''Duplornaviricota'' (green), ''Kitrinoviricota'' (pink), ''Pisuviricota'' (blue), and ''Lenarviricota'' (yellow)]] |
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The exact origin of ''Orthornavirae'' is not well established, but the viral RdRp shows a relation to the reverse transcriptase (RT) enzymes of [[group II intron]]s that encode RTs and [[retrotransposon]]s, the latter of which are self-replicating DNA sequences that integrate themselves into other parts of the same DNA molecule. |
The exact origin of ''Orthornavirae'' is not well established, but the viral RdRp shows a relation to the reverse transcriptase (RT) enzymes of [[group II intron]]s that encode RTs and [[retrotransposon]]s, the latter of which are self-replicating DNA sequences that integrate themselves into other parts of the same DNA molecule.<ref name=2019a /><ref name=wolf /> A larger study (2022) where new lieneages (phyla) were described, has suggested that RNA viruses descend from the [[RNA world]], suggesting that retroelements (retrotransposons and group II introns) originated from an ancestor related to the phylum ''[[Lenarviricota]]'' and that members of a newly discovered ''[[Taraviricota]]'' lineage (phylum) would be the ancestors of all RNA viruses. According to this study the genomes of both dsRNA, +ssRNA and -ssRNA evolved independently and were altered several times in evolution.<ref name=Zayed>{{cite journal | vauthors = Zayed AA, Wainaina JM, Dominguez-Huerta G, Pelletier E, Guo J, Mohssen M, Tian F, Pratama AA, Bolduc B, Zablocki O, Cronin D, Solden L, Delage E, Alberti A, Aury JM, Carradec Q, da Silva C, Labadie K, Poulain J, Ruscheweyh HJ, Salazar G, Shatoff E, Bundschuh R, Fredrick K, Kubatko LS, Chaffron S, Culley AI, Sunagawa S, Kuhn JH, Wincker P, Sullivan MB, Acinas SG, Babin M, Bork P, Boss E, Bowler C, Cochrane G, de Vargas C, Gorsky G, Guidi L, Grimsley N, Hingamp P, Iudicone D, Jaillon O, Kandels S, Karp-Boss L, Karsenti E, Not F, Ogata H, Poulton N, Pesant S, Sardet C, Speich S, Stemmann L, Sullivan MB, Sungawa S, Wincker P | title = Cryptic and abundant marine viruses at the evolutionary origins of Earth's RNA virome | journal = Science | volume = 376 | issue = 6589 | pages = 156–162 | date = April 2022 | pmid = 35389782 | pmc = 10990476 | doi = 10.1126/science.abm5847 | s2cid = 248025736 | bibcode = 2022Sci...376..156Z }}</ref> |
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==Classification== |
== Classification == |
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RNA viruses that encode RdRp are assigned to the kingdom ''Orthornavirae'', which contains |
RNA viruses that encode RdRp are assigned to the kingdom ''Orthornavirae'', which contains six official phyla, six unofficial phyla<ref name=Zayed/> and several taxa that are unassigned to a phylum due to lack of information. The five phyla are separated based on the genome types, host ranges, and genetic similarity of member viruses.<ref name=2019a >{{cite web|vauthors=Koonin EV, Dolja VV, Krupovic M, Varsani A, Wolf YI, Yutin N, Zerbini M, Kuhn JH|title=Create a megataxonomic framework, filling all principal taxonomic ranks, for realm Riboviria|url=https://ictv.global/ictv/proposals/2019.006G.zip|website=International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV)|access-date=6 August 2020|language=en|format=docx|date=18 October 2019}}</ref><ref name=ictv >{{cite web|url=https://ictv.global/taxonomy|title=Virus Taxonomy: 2019 Release|website=talk.ictvonline.org|publisher=International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses|access-date=6 August 2020}}</ref> |
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* Phylum: ''[[Duplornaviricota]]'', which contains dsRNA viruses that infect prokaryotes and eukaryotes, which do not cluster with members of ''Pisuviricota'', and which encode a capsid composed of a 60 homo- or heterodimers of capsid proteins organized on a lattice with pseudo [[Capsid#Icosahedral|T = 2 symmetry]] |
* Phylum: ''[[Duplornaviricota]]'', which contains dsRNA viruses that infect prokaryotes and eukaryotes, which do not cluster with members of ''Pisuviricota'', and which encode a capsid composed of a 60 homo- or heterodimers of capsid proteins organized on a lattice with pseudo [[Capsid#Icosahedral|T = 2 symmetry]] |
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* Phylum: ''[[Kitrinoviricota]]'', which contains +ssRNA viruses that infect eukaryotes and which do not cluster with members of ''Pisuviricota'' |
* Phylum: ''[[Kitrinoviricota]]'', which contains +ssRNA viruses that infect eukaryotes and which do not cluster with members of ''Pisuviricota'' |
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* Phylum: ''[[Lenarviricota]]'', which contains +ssRNA viruses that infect prokaryotes and eukaryotes and which do not cluster with members of ''Kitrinoviricota'' |
* Phylum: ''[[Lenarviricota]]'', which contains +ssRNA viruses that infect prokaryotes and eukaryotes and which do not cluster with members of ''Kitrinoviricota'' |
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* Phylum: ''[[Negarnaviricota]]'', which contains |
* Phylum: ''[[Negarnaviricota]]'', which contains -ssRNA viruses that infect eukaryotes.<ref group=note >Excluding [[deltavirus]]es, which do not encode RdRp and which therefore are not included in ''Orthornavirae''.</ref> |
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* Phylum: ''[[Pisuviricota]]'', which contains +ssRNA and dsRNA viruses that infect eukaryotes and which do not cluster with other phyla |
* Phylum: ''[[Pisuviricota]]'', which contains +ssRNA and dsRNA viruses that infect eukaryotes and which do not cluster with other phyla. |
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* |
* Phylum: ''[[Ambiviricota]]'', which contains -ssRNA viruses of ambisense that infect fungi and enconding self-cleaving RNA ribozymes found in viroids. |
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* (proposed) Phylum: ''[[Taraviricota]]'', which contains basal dsRNA or +ssRNA viruses that most likely infect [[prokaryotes]] with deficient cell walls and eukaryotic [[mitochondria]] similar to [[Mitoviridae|mitoviruses]] (specif and is the first phylum discovered by the Tara Oceans expedition ("tara"). |
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* Phylum: ''[["Arctiviricota"]]'', which contains an -ssRNA viruses abundant in the arctic ("arcti") that probably infects algae |
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* (proposed) Phylum: ''[[Artimaviricota]]'', which contains dsRNA viruses that infect thermoacidophilic bacteria.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Urayama SI, Fukudome A, Hirai M, Okumura T, Nishimura Y, Takaki Y, Kurosawa N, Koonin EV, Krupovic M, Nunoura T | title = Double-stranded RNA sequencing reveals distinct riboviruses associated with thermoacidophilic bacteria from hot springs in Japan | journal = Nature Microbiology | volume = 9 | issue = 2 | pages = 514–523 | date = February 2024 | pmid = 38233646 | pmc = 10847044 | doi = 10.1038/s41564-023-01579-5 }}</ref> |
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⚫ | |||
* Phylum: ''[[ |
* (proposed) Phylum: ''[[Arctiviricota]]'', which contains an -ssRNA viruses abundant in the arctic ("arcti") that probably infects algae |
||
⚫ | |||
* (proposed) Phylum: ''[[Pomiviricota]]'', which contains two +ssRNA viruses which infect ambiguous hosts |
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* (proposed) Phylum: ''[[Wamoviricota]]''<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Zayed AA, Wainaina JM, Dominguez-Huerta G, Pelletier E, Guo J, Mohssen M, Tian F, Pratama AA, Bolduc B, Zablocki O, Cronin D, Solden L, Delage E, Alberti A, Aury JM, Carradec Q, da Silva C, Labadie K, Poulain J, Ruscheweyh HJ, Salazar G, Shatoff E, Bundschuh R, Fredrick K, Kubatko LS, Chaffron S, Culley AI, Sunagawa S, Kuhn JH, Wincker P, Sullivan MB, Acinas SG, Babin M, Bork P, Boss E, Bowler C, Cochrane G, de Vargas C, Gorsky G, Guidi L, Grimsley N, Hingamp P, Iudicone D, Jaillon O, Kandels S, Karp-Boss L, Karsenti E, Not F, Ogata H, Poulton N, Pesant S, Sardet C, Speich S, Stemmann L, Sullivan MB, Sungawa S, Wincker P | title = Cryptic and abundant marine viruses at the evolutionary origins of Earth's RNA virome | journal = Science | volume = 376 | issue = 6589 | pages = 156–162 | date = April 2022 | pmid = 35389782 | pmc = 10990476 | doi = 10.1126/science.abm5847 | s2cid = 248025736 | bibcode = 2022Sci...376..156Z }}</ref> |
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The unassigned taxa are listed hereafter (-''viridae'' denotes family and -''virus'' denotes genus).<ref name=2019a /><ref name=ictv /> |
The unassigned taxa are listed hereafter (-''viridae'' denotes family and -''virus'' denotes genus).<ref name=2019a /><ref name=ictv /> |
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* ''[[Birnaviridae]]'' |
* ''[[Birnaviridae]]'' |
||
* ''[[Permutotetraviridae]]'' |
* ''[[Permutotetraviridae]]'' |
||
⚫ | |||
The kingdom contains three groups in the [[Baltimore classification]] system, which groups viruses together based on their manner of mRNA synthesis, and which is often used alongside standard virus taxonomy, which is based on evolutionary history. Those three groups are Group III: dsRNA viruses, Group IV: +ssRNA viruses, and Group V: -ssRNA viruses.<ref name=2019a /><ref name=wolf >{{cite journal|vauthors=Wolf YI, Kazlauskas D, Iranzo J, |
The kingdom contains three groups in the [[Baltimore classification]] system, which groups viruses together based on their manner of mRNA synthesis, and which is often used alongside standard virus taxonomy, which is based on evolutionary history. Those three groups are Group III: dsRNA viruses, Group IV: +ssRNA viruses, and Group V: -ssRNA viruses.<ref name=2019a /><ref name=wolf >{{cite journal | vauthors = Wolf YI, Kazlauskas D, Iranzo J, Lucía-Sanz A, Kuhn JH, Krupovic M, Dolja VV, Koonin EV | title = Origins and Evolution of the Global RNA Virome | journal = mBio | volume = 9 | issue = 6 | pages = e02329-18 | date = November 2018 | pmid = 30482837 | pmc = 6282212 | doi = 10.1128/mBio.02329-18 }}</ref> |
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==Disease== |
== Disease == |
||
RNA viruses are associated with a wide range of disease, including many of the most widely known viral diseases. Notable disease-causing viruses in ''Orthornavirae'' include:<ref name=ictv /> |
RNA viruses are associated with a wide range of disease, including many of the most widely known viral diseases. Notable disease-causing viruses in ''Orthornavirae'' include:<ref name=ictv /> |
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{{Div col end}} |
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Animal viruses in ''Orthornavirae'' include [[orbivirus]]es, which cause various diseases in ruminants and horses, including ''[[Bluetongue virus]]'', ''[[African horse sickness virus]]'', ''[[Equine encephalosis virus]]'', and ''[[epizootic hemorrhagic disease virus]]''.<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Maclachlan NJ, Guthrie AJ |
Animal viruses in ''Orthornavirae'' include [[orbivirus]]es, which cause various diseases in ruminants and horses, including ''[[Bluetongue virus]]'', ''[[African horse sickness virus]]'', ''[[Equine encephalosis virus]]'', and ''[[epizootic hemorrhagic disease virus]]''.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Maclachlan NJ, Guthrie AJ | title = Re-emergence of bluetongue, African horse sickness, and other orbivirus diseases | journal = Veterinary Research | volume = 41 | issue = 6 | pages = 35 | date = December 2010 | pmid = 20167199 | pmc = 2826768 | doi = 10.1051/vetres/2010007 }}</ref> The [[vesicular stomatitis virus]] causes disease in cattle, horses, and pigs.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Rozo-Lopez P, Drolet BS, Londoño-Renteria B | title = Vesicular Stomatitis Virus Transmission: A Comparison of Incriminated Vectors | journal = Insects | volume = 9 | issue = 4 | pages = 190 | date = December 2018 | pmid = 30544935 | pmc = 6315612 | doi = 10.3390/insects9040190 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Bats harbor many viruses including [[ebolavirus]]es and [[henipavirus]]es, which also can cause disease in humans.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Wang LF, Anderson DE | title = Viruses in bats and potential spillover to animals and humans | journal = Current Opinion in Virology | volume = 34 | pages = 79–89 | date = February 2019 | pmid = 30665189 | pmc = 7102861 | doi = 10.1016/j.coviro.2018.12.007 }}</ref> Similarly, arthropod viruses in the ''[[Flavivirus]]'' and ''[[Phlebovirus]]'' genera are numerous and often transmitted to humans.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Holbrook MR | title = Historical Perspectives on Flavivirus Research | journal = Viruses | volume = 9 | issue = 5 | pages = 97 | date = April 2017 | pmid = 28468299 | pmc = 5454410 | doi = 10.3390/v9050097 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Hartman A | title = Rift Valley Fever | journal = Clinics in Laboratory Medicine | volume = 37 | issue = 2 | pages = 285–301 | date = June 2017 | pmid = 28457351 | pmc = 5458783 | doi = 10.1016/j.cll.2017.01.004 }}</ref> Coronaviruses and influenza viruses cause disease in various vertebrates, including bats, birds, and pigs.<ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Fehr AR, Perlamn S|chapter=Coronaviruses: An Overview of Their Replication and Pathogenesis |title=Coronaviruses|date=2015|series=Methods Mol Biol|volume=1282|pages=1–23|doi=10.1007/978-1-4939-2438-7_1|pmc=4369385|pmid=25720466|isbn=978-1-4939-2437-0}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Webster RG, Govorkova EA | title = Continuing challenges in influenza | journal = Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences | volume = 1323 | issue = 1 | pages = 115–139 | date = September 2014 | pmid = 24891213 | pmc = 4159436 | doi = 10.1111/nyas.12462 | bibcode = 2014NYASA1323..115W }}</ref> |
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[[Plant virus]]es in the kingdom are numerous and infect many economically important crops. [[Tomato spotted wilt virus]] is estimated to cause more than 1 billion USD in damages annually, affecting more than 800 plant species including chrysanthemum, lettuce, peanut, pepper, and tomato. ''[[Cucumber mosaic virus]]'' infects more than 1,200 plant species and likewise causes significant crop losses. ''[[Potato virus Y]]'' causes significant reductions in yield and quality for pepper, potato, tobacco, and tomato, and ''[[Plum pox virus]]'' is the most important virus among stone fruit crops. ''[[Brome mosaic virus]]'', while not causing significant economic losses, is found throughout much of the world and primarily infects grasses, including cereals.<ref name=ictv /><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Scholthof KB, Adkins S, Czosnek H, Palukaitis P, Jacquot E, Hohn T, Hohn B, Saunders K, Candresse T, Ahlquist P, Hemenway C, Foster GD |
[[Plant virus]]es in the kingdom are numerous and infect many economically important crops. [[Tomato spotted wilt virus]] is estimated to cause more than 1 billion USD in damages annually, affecting more than 800 plant species including chrysanthemum, lettuce, peanut, pepper, and tomato. ''[[Cucumber mosaic virus]]'' infects more than 1,200 plant species and likewise causes significant crop losses. ''[[Potato virus Y]]'' causes significant reductions in yield and quality for pepper, potato, tobacco, and tomato, and ''[[Plum pox virus]]'' is the most important virus among stone fruit crops. ''[[Brome mosaic virus]]'', while not causing significant economic losses, is found throughout much of the world and primarily infects grasses, including cereals.<ref name=ictv /><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Scholthof KB, Adkins S, Czosnek H, Palukaitis P, Jacquot E, Hohn T, Hohn B, Saunders K, Candresse T, Ahlquist P, Hemenway C, Foster GD | title = Top 10 plant viruses in molecular plant pathology | journal = Molecular Plant Pathology | volume = 12 | issue = 9 | pages = 938–954 | date = December 2011 | pmid = 22017770 | pmc = 6640423 | doi = 10.1111/j.1364-3703.2011.00752.x }}</ref> |
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==History== |
== History == |
||
Diseases caused by RNA viruses in ''Orthornavirae'' have been known throughout much of history, but their cause was only discovered in modern times. As a whole, RNA viruses were discovered during a time period of major advancements in molecular biology, including the discovery of mRNA as the immediate carrier of genetic information for protein synthesis.<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Kolakofsky D |
Diseases caused by RNA viruses in ''Orthornavirae'' have been known throughout much of history, but their cause was only discovered in modern times. As a whole, RNA viruses were discovered during a time period of major advancements in molecular biology, including the discovery of mRNA as the immediate carrier of genetic information for protein synthesis.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Kolakofsky D | title = A short biased history of RNA viruses | journal = RNA | volume = 21 | issue = 4 | pages = 667–669 | date = April 2015 | pmid = 25780183 | pmc = 4371325 | doi = 10.1261/rna.049916.115 }}</ref> ''Tobacco mosaic virus'' was discovered in 1898 and was the first virus to be discovered.<ref name=harrison >{{cite journal | vauthors = Harrison BD, Wilson TM | title = Milestones in the research on tobacco mosaic virus | journal = Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences | volume = 354 | issue = 1383 | pages = 521–529 | date = March 1999 | pmid = 10212931 | pmc = 1692547 | doi = 10.1098/rstb.1999.0403 }}</ref> Viruses in the kingdom that are transmitted by arthropods have been a key target in the development of [[vector control]], which often aims to prevent viral infections.<ref name=wilson >{{cite journal | vauthors = Wilson AL, Courtenay O, Kelly-Hope LA, Scott TW, Takken W, Torr SJ, Lindsay SW | title = The importance of vector control for the control and elimination of vector-borne diseases | journal = PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases | volume = 14 | issue = 1 | pages = e0007831 | date = January 2020 | pmid = 31945061 | pmc = 6964823 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pntd.0007831 | doi-access = free }}</ref> In modern history, numerous disease outbreaks have been caused by RdRp-encoding RNA viruses, including outbreaks caused by coronaviruses, ebola, and influenza.<ref name=norris >{{cite journal | vauthors = Norris SL, Sawin VI, Ferri M, Reques Sastre L, Porgo TV | title = An evaluation of emergency guidelines issued by the World Health Organization in response to four infectious disease outbreaks | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 13 | issue = 5 | pages = e0198125 | date = 30 May 2018 | pmid = 29847593 | pmc = 5976182 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0198125 | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2018PLoSO..1398125N }}</ref> |
||
''Orthornavirae'' was established in 2019 as a kingdom within the realm ''Riboviria'', intended to accommodate all RdRp-encoding RNA viruses. Prior to 2019, ''Riboviria'' was established in 2018 and included only RdRp-encoding RNA viruses. In 2019, ''Riboviria'' was expanded to also include reverse transcribing viruses, placed under the kingdom ''[[Pararnavirae]]'', so ''Orthornavirae'' was established to separate RdRp-encoding RNA viruses from reversing transcribing viruses.<ref name=2019a /><ref name=2017a >{{cite web| |
''Orthornavirae'' was established in 2019 as a kingdom within the realm ''Riboviria'', intended to accommodate all RdRp-encoding RNA viruses. Prior to 2019, ''Riboviria'' was established in 2018 and included only RdRp-encoding RNA viruses. In 2019, ''Riboviria'' was expanded to also include reverse transcribing viruses, placed under the kingdom ''[[Pararnavirae]]'', so ''Orthornavirae'' was established to separate RdRp-encoding RNA viruses from reversing transcribing viruses.<ref name=2019a /><ref name=2017a >{{cite web| vauthors = Gorbalenya AE, Krupovic M, Siddell S, Varsani A, Kuhn JH |title=Riboviria: establishing a single taxon that comprises RNA viruses at the basal rank of virus taxonomy |url=https://ictv.global/ictv/proposals/2017.006G.A.v3.Riboviria.zip|website=International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV)|access-date=6 August 2020|language=en|format=docx|date=15 October 2018}}</ref> |
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==Gallery== |
== Gallery == |
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<gallery class="center"> |
<gallery class="center"> |
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File:Lassa virus.JPG|[[Lassa virus]] (''[[Arenaviridae]]'') |
File:Lassa virus.JPG|[[Lassa virus]] (''[[Arenaviridae]]'') |
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</gallery> |
</gallery> |
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==Notes== |
== Notes == |
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{{Reflist|group=note}} |
{{Reflist|group=note}} |
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==References== |
== References == |
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{{Reflist}} |
{{Reflist}} |
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Revision as of 18:40, 19 June 2024
Orthornavirae | |
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![]() | |
Clockwise from top left: TEM of avian coronavirus, polio virus, bacteriophage Qβ, ebolavirus, tobacco mosaic virus, influenzavirus A, rotavirus, vesicular stomatitis virus. Center: phylogenetic tree of shared replication protein RdRp. | |
Virus classification ![]() | |
(unranked): | Virus |
Realm: | Riboviria |
Kingdom: | Orthornavirae |
Phyla and classes | |
Orthornavirae is a kingdom of viruses that have genomes made of ribonucleic acid (RNA), including genes which encode an RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp). The RdRp is used to transcribe the viral RNA genome into messenger RNA (mRNA) and to replicate the genome. Viruses in this kingdom share a number of characteristics which promote rapid evolution, including high rates of genetic mutation, recombination, and reassortment.
Viruses in Orthornavirae belong to the realm Riboviria. They are descended from a common ancestor that may have been a non-viral molecule that encoded a reverse transcriptase instead of an RdRp for replication. The kingdom is subdivided into five phyla that separate member viruses based on their genome type, host range, and genetic similarity. Viruses with three genome types are included: positive-strand RNA viruses, negative-strand RNA viruses, and double-stranded RNA viruses.
Many of the most widely known viral diseases are caused by members of this kingdom, including coronaviruses, the Ebola virus, influenza viruses, the measles virus, and the rabies virus, as well as the first virus ever discovered, tobacco mosaic virus. In modern history, RdRp-encoding RNA viruses have caused numerous disease outbreaks, and they infect many economically important crops. Most eukaryotic viruses, including most human, animal, and plant viruses, are RdRp-encoding RNA viruses. In contrast, there are relatively few prokaryotic viruses in the kingdom.
Etymology
The first part of Orthornavirae comes from Greek ὀρθός [orthós], meaning straight, the middle part, rna, refers to RNA, and -virae is the suffix used for virus kingdoms.[1]
Characteristics
Structure
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/18_2014_1695_Fig1_HTML.webp/220px-18_2014_1695_Fig1_HTML.webp.png)
RNA viruses in Orthornavirae typically do not encode many proteins, but most positive-sense, single-stranded (+ssRNA) viruses and some double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) viruses encode a major capsid protein that has a single jelly roll fold, so named because the folded structure of the protein contains a structure that resembles a jelly roll.[2] Many also possess an envelope, a type of lipid membrane that typically surrounds the capsid. In particular, the viral envelope is near-universal among negative-sense, single-stranded (-ssRNA) viruses.[3][4]
Genome
Viruses in Orthornavirae have three different types of genomes: dsRNA, +ssRNA, and -ssRNA. Single-stranded RNA viruses have either a positive or negative sense strand, and dsRNA viruses have both. This structure of the genome is important in terms of transcription to synthesize viral mRNA as well as replication of the genome, both of which are carried out by the viral enzyme RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp), also called RNA replicase.[1][2]
Replication and transcription
Positive-strand RNA viruses
Positive-strand RNA viruses have genomes that can function as mRNA, so transcription is not necessary. However, +ssRNA will produce dsRNA forms as part of the process of replicating their genomes. From the dsRNA, additional positive strands are synthesized, which may be used as mRNA or for genomes for progeny. Because +ssRNA viruses create intermediate dsRNA forms, they have to avoid the host's immune system in order to replicate. +ssRNA viruses accomplish this by replicating in membrane-associated vesicles that are used as replication factories.[5] For many +ssRNA viruses, subgenomic portions of the genome will be transcribed to translate specific proteins, whereas others will transcribe a polyprotein that is cleaved to produce separate proteins.[6][7]
Negative-strand RNA viruses
Negative-strand RNA viruses have genomes that function as templates from which mRNA can be synthesized directly by RdRp.[8] Replication is the same process but executed on the positive sense antigenome, during which RdRp ignores all transcription signals so that a complete -ssRNA genome can be synthesized.[9] -ssRNA viruses vary between those that initiate transcription by the RdRp creating a cap on the 5'-end (usually pronounced "five prime end") of the genome or by snatching a cap from host mRNA and attaching it to the viral RNA.[10] For many -ssRNA viruses, at the end of transcription, RdRp stutters on a uracil in the genome, synthesizing hundreds of adenines in a row as part of creating a polyadenylated tail for the mRNA.[11] Some -ssRNA viruses are essentially ambisense, and have proteins encoded by both the positive and negative strand, so mRNA is synthesized directly from the genome and from a complementary strand.[12]
Double-stranded RNA viruses
For dsRNA viruses, RdRp transcribes mRNA by using the negative strand as a template. Positive strands may also be used as templates to synthesize negative strands for the construction of genomic dsRNA. dsRNA is not a molecule produced by cells, so cellular life has evolved mechanisms to detect and inactivate viral dsRNA. To counter this, dsRNA viruses typically retain their genomes inside of viral capsid in order to evade the host's immune system.[13]
Evolution
RNA viruses in Orthornavirae experience a high rate of genetic mutations because RdRp is prone to making errors in replication since it typically lacks proofreading mechanisms to repair errors.[note 1] Mutations in RNA viruses are often influenced by host factors such as dsRNA-dependent adenosine deaminases, which edit viral genomes by changing adenosines to inosines.[14][15] Mutations in genes that are essential for replication lead to a reduced number of progeny, so viral genomes typically contain sequences that are highly conserved over time with relatively few mutations.[16]
Many RdRp-encoding RNA viruses also experience a high rate of genetic recombination, though rates of recombination vary significantly, with lower rates in -ssRNA viruses and higher rates in dsRNA and +ssRNA viruses. There are two types of recombination: copy choice recombination and reassortment. Copy choice recombination occurs when the RdRp switches templates during synthesis without releasing the prior, newly created RNA strand, which generates a genome of mixed ancestry. Reassortment, which is restricted to viruses with segmented genomes, has segments from different genomes packaged into a single virion, or virus particle, which also produces hybrid progeny.[14][17]
For reassortment, some segmented viruses package their genomes into multiple virions, which produces genomes that are random mixtures of parents, whereas for those that are packaged into a single virion, typically individual segments are swapped. Both forms of recombination can only occur if more than one virus is present in a cell, and the more alleles are present, the more likely recombination is to occur. A key difference between copy choice recombination and reassortment is that copy choice recombination can occur anywhere in a genome, whereas reassortment swaps fully-replicated segments. Therefore, copy choice recombination can produce non-functional viral proteins whereas reassortment cannot.[14][17][18][19]
The mutation rate of a virus is associated with the rate of genetic recombinations. Higher mutation rates increase both the number of advantageous and disadvantageous mutations, whereas higher rates of recombination allows for beneficial mutations to be separated from deleterious ones.[vague] Therefore, higher rates of mutations and recombinations, up to a certain point, improve viruses' ability to adapt.[14][20] Notable examples of this include reassortments that enable cross-species transmission of influenza viruses, which have led to numerous pandemics, as well as the emergence of drug-resistance influenza strains via mutations that were reassorted.[19]
Phylogenetics
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/MBio.02329-18.F1.large.jpg/220px-MBio.02329-18.F1.large.jpg)
The exact origin of Orthornavirae is not well established, but the viral RdRp shows a relation to the reverse transcriptase (RT) enzymes of group II introns that encode RTs and retrotransposons, the latter of which are self-replicating DNA sequences that integrate themselves into other parts of the same DNA molecule.[1][2] A larger study (2022) where new lieneages (phyla) were described, has suggested that RNA viruses descend from the RNA world, suggesting that retroelements (retrotransposons and group II introns) originated from an ancestor related to the phylum Lenarviricota and that members of a newly discovered Taraviricota lineage (phylum) would be the ancestors of all RNA viruses. According to this study the genomes of both dsRNA, +ssRNA and -ssRNA evolved independently and were altered several times in evolution.[21]
Classification
RNA viruses that encode RdRp are assigned to the kingdom Orthornavirae, which contains six official phyla, six unofficial phyla[21] and several taxa that are unassigned to a phylum due to lack of information. The five phyla are separated based on the genome types, host ranges, and genetic similarity of member viruses.[1][22]
- Phylum: Duplornaviricota, which contains dsRNA viruses that infect prokaryotes and eukaryotes, which do not cluster with members of Pisuviricota, and which encode a capsid composed of a 60 homo- or heterodimers of capsid proteins organized on a lattice with pseudo T = 2 symmetry
- Phylum: Kitrinoviricota, which contains +ssRNA viruses that infect eukaryotes and which do not cluster with members of Pisuviricota
- Phylum: Lenarviricota, which contains +ssRNA viruses that infect prokaryotes and eukaryotes and which do not cluster with members of Kitrinoviricota
- Phylum: Negarnaviricota, which contains -ssRNA viruses that infect eukaryotes.[note 2]
- Phylum: Pisuviricota, which contains +ssRNA and dsRNA viruses that infect eukaryotes and which do not cluster with other phyla.
- Phylum: Ambiviricota, which contains -ssRNA viruses of ambisense that infect fungi and enconding self-cleaving RNA ribozymes found in viroids.
- (proposed) Phylum: Taraviricota, which contains basal dsRNA or +ssRNA viruses that most likely infect prokaryotes with deficient cell walls and eukaryotic mitochondria similar to mitoviruses (specif and is the first phylum discovered by the Tara Oceans expedition ("tara").
- (proposed) Phylum: Artimaviricota, which contains dsRNA viruses that infect thermoacidophilic bacteria.[23]
- (proposed) Phylum: Arctiviricota, which contains an -ssRNA viruses abundant in the arctic ("arcti") that probably infects algae
- (proposed) Phylum: Paraxenoviricota, which contains +ssRNA viruses which contain strange ("paraxeno") RdRp domain sequences and morphology
- (proposed) Phylum: Pomiviricota, which contains two +ssRNA viruses which infect ambiguous hosts
- (proposed) Phylum: Wamoviricota[24]
The unassigned taxa are listed hereafter (-viridae denotes family and -virus denotes genus).[1][22]
The kingdom contains three groups in the Baltimore classification system, which groups viruses together based on their manner of mRNA synthesis, and which is often used alongside standard virus taxonomy, which is based on evolutionary history. Those three groups are Group III: dsRNA viruses, Group IV: +ssRNA viruses, and Group V: -ssRNA viruses.[1][2]
Disease
RNA viruses are associated with a wide range of disease, including many of the most widely known viral diseases. Notable disease-causing viruses in Orthornavirae include:[22]
- Coronaviruses
- Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever orthonairovirus
- Dengue virus
- Ebolavirus
- Hantaviruses
- Hepatitis A virus
- Hepatitis C virus
- Hepatitis E virus
- Human orthopneumovirus
- Influenza viruses
- Japanese encephalitis virus
- Lassa mammarenavirus
- Measles morbillivirus
- Mumps orthorubulavirus
- Norovirus
- Poliovirus
- Rabies lyssavirus
- Rhinoviruses
- Rift Valley fever phlebovirus
- Rotavirus
- Rubella virus
- West Nile virus
- Yellow fever virus
- Zika virus
Animal viruses in Orthornavirae include orbiviruses, which cause various diseases in ruminants and horses, including Bluetongue virus, African horse sickness virus, Equine encephalosis virus, and epizootic hemorrhagic disease virus.[25] The vesicular stomatitis virus causes disease in cattle, horses, and pigs.[26] Bats harbor many viruses including ebolaviruses and henipaviruses, which also can cause disease in humans.[27] Similarly, arthropod viruses in the Flavivirus and Phlebovirus genera are numerous and often transmitted to humans.[28][29] Coronaviruses and influenza viruses cause disease in various vertebrates, including bats, birds, and pigs.[30][31]
Plant viruses in the kingdom are numerous and infect many economically important crops. Tomato spotted wilt virus is estimated to cause more than 1 billion USD in damages annually, affecting more than 800 plant species including chrysanthemum, lettuce, peanut, pepper, and tomato. Cucumber mosaic virus infects more than 1,200 plant species and likewise causes significant crop losses. Potato virus Y causes significant reductions in yield and quality for pepper, potato, tobacco, and tomato, and Plum pox virus is the most important virus among stone fruit crops. Brome mosaic virus, while not causing significant economic losses, is found throughout much of the world and primarily infects grasses, including cereals.[22][32]
History
Diseases caused by RNA viruses in Orthornavirae have been known throughout much of history, but their cause was only discovered in modern times. As a whole, RNA viruses were discovered during a time period of major advancements in molecular biology, including the discovery of mRNA as the immediate carrier of genetic information for protein synthesis.[33] Tobacco mosaic virus was discovered in 1898 and was the first virus to be discovered.[34] Viruses in the kingdom that are transmitted by arthropods have been a key target in the development of vector control, which often aims to prevent viral infections.[35] In modern history, numerous disease outbreaks have been caused by RdRp-encoding RNA viruses, including outbreaks caused by coronaviruses, ebola, and influenza.[36]
Orthornavirae was established in 2019 as a kingdom within the realm Riboviria, intended to accommodate all RdRp-encoding RNA viruses. Prior to 2019, Riboviria was established in 2018 and included only RdRp-encoding RNA viruses. In 2019, Riboviria was expanded to also include reverse transcribing viruses, placed under the kingdom Pararnavirae, so Orthornavirae was established to separate RdRp-encoding RNA viruses from reversing transcribing viruses.[1][37]
Gallery
Notes
- ^ The exception is that some members of the order Nidovirales encode proofreading exoribonuclease activity as part of a protein that is distinct from RdRp.
- ^ Excluding deltaviruses, which do not encode RdRp and which therefore are not included in Orthornavirae.
References
- ^ a b c d e f g Koonin EV, Dolja VV, Krupovic M, Varsani A, Wolf YI, Yutin N, et al. (18 October 2019). "Create a megataxonomic framework, filling all principal taxonomic ranks, for realm Riboviria" (docx). International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV). Retrieved 6 August 2020.
- ^ a b c d Wolf YI, Kazlauskas D, Iranzo J, Lucía-Sanz A, Kuhn JH, Krupovic M, et al. (November 2018). "Origins and Evolution of the Global RNA Virome". mBio. 9 (6): e02329-18. doi:10.1128/mBio.02329-18. PMC 6282212. PMID 30482837.
- ^ "Viral budding". ViralZone. Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics. Retrieved 6 August 2020.
- ^ Fermin G (2018). Viruses: Molecular Biology, Host Interactions and Applications to Biotechnology. Elsevier. p. 35-46. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-811257-1.00002-4. ISBN 978-0-12-811257-1. S2CID 89706800. Retrieved 6 August 2020.
- ^ Andronov L, Han M, Zhu Y, Balaji A, Roy AR, Barentine AE, et al. (May 2024). "Nanoscale cellular organization of viral RNA and proteins in SARS-CoV-2 replication organelles". Nature Communications. 15 (1): 4644. doi:10.1038/s41467-024-48991-x. PMC 11143195. PMID 38821943.
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