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Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into the natural environment that cause adverse change.^[1] Pollution can take the form of any substance (solid, liquid, or gas) or energy (such as radioactivity, heat, sound, or light). Pollutants, the components of pollution, can be either foreign substances/energies or naturally occurring contaminants.

Although environmental pollution can be caused by natural events, the word pollution generally implies that the contaminants have an anthropogenic source – that is, a source created by human activities, such as manufacturing, extractive industries, poor waste management, transportation or agriculture. Pollution is often classed as point source (coming from a highly concentrated specific site, such as a factory, mine, construction site), or nonpoint source pollution (coming from a widespread distributed sources, such as microplastics or agricultural runoff).

Many sources of pollution were unregulated parts of industrialization during the 19th and 20th centuries until the emergence of environmental regulation and pollution policy in the later half of the 20th century. Sites where historically polluting industries released persistent pollutants may have legacy pollution long after the source of the pollution is stopped. Major forms of pollution include air pollution, water pollution, litter, noise pollution, plastic pollution, soil contamination, radioactive contamination, thermal pollution, light pollution, and visual pollution.

Pollution has widespread consequences on human and environmental health, having systematic impact on social and economic systems. In 2019, pollution killed approximately nine million people worldwide (about one in six deaths that year); about three-quarters of these deaths were caused by air pollution.^[2]^[3]^[4]^[5]^[6] A 2022 literature review found that levels of anthropogenic chemical pollution have exceeded planetary boundaries and now threaten entire ecosystems around the world.^[7]^[8] Pollutants frequently have outsized impacts on vulnerable populations, such as children and the elderly, and marginalized communities, because polluting industries and toxic waste sites tend to be collocated with populations with less economic and political power.^[9] This outsized impact is a core reason for the formation of the environmental justice movement,^[10]^[11] and continues to be a core element of environmental conflicts, particularly in the Global South.

Because of the impacts of these chemicals, local and international countries' policy have increasingly sought to regulate pollutants, resulting in increasing air and water quality standards, alongside regulation of specific waste streams. Regional and national policy is typically supervised by environmental agencies or ministries, while international efforts are coordinated by the UN Environmental Program and other treaty bodies. Pollution mitigation is an important part of all of the Sustainable Development Goals.^[12]

Definitions and types

Various definitions of pollution exist, which may or may not recognize certain types, such as noise pollution or greenhouse gases. The United States Environmental Protection Administration defines pollution as "Any substances in water, soil, or air that degrade the natural quality of the environment, offend the senses of sight, taste, or smell, or cause a health hazard. The usefulness of the natural resource is usually impaired by the presence of pollutants and contaminants."^[13] In contrast, the United Nations considers pollution to be the "presence of substances and heat in environmental media (air, water, land) whose nature, location, or quantity produces undesirable environmental effects."^[14]

The major forms of pollution are listed below along with the particular contaminants relevant to each of them:

Air pollution: the release of chemicals and particulates into the atmosphere. Common gaseous pollutants include carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and nitrogen oxides produced by industry and motor vehicles. Photochemical ozone and smog are created as nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons react to sunlight. Particulate matter, or fine dust is characterized by their micrometre size PM₁₀ to PM_2.5.
Electromagnetic pollution: the overabundance of electromagnetic radiation in their non-ionizing form, such as radio and television transmissions, Wi-fi etc. Although there is no demonstrable effect on humans there can be interference with radio-astronomy and effects on safety systems of aircraft and cars.
Light pollution: includes light trespass, over-illumination and astronomical interference.
Littering: the criminal throwing of inappropriate man-made objects, unremoved, onto public and private properties.
Noise pollution: which encompasses roadway noise, aircraft noise, industrial noise as well as high-intensity sonar.
Plastic pollution: involves the accumulation of plastic products and microplastics in the environment that adversely affects wildlife, wildlife habitat, or humans.
Soil contamination occurs when chemicals are released by spill or underground leakage. Among the most significant soil contaminants are hydrocarbons, heavy metals, MTBE,^[15] herbicides, pesticides and chlorinated hydrocarbons.
Radioactive contamination, resulting from 20th century activities in atomic physics, such as nuclear power generation and nuclear weapons research, manufacture and deployment. (See alpha emitters and actinides in the environment.)
Thermal pollution, is a temperature change in natural water bodies caused by human influence, such as use of water as coolant in a power plant.
Visual pollution, which can refer to the presence of overhead power lines, motorway billboards, scarred landforms (as from strip mining), open storage of trash, municipal solid waste or space debris.
Water pollution, caused by the discharge of industrial wastewater from commercial and industrial waste (intentionally or through spills) into surface waters; discharges of untreated sewage and chemical contaminants, such as chlorine, from treated sewage; and releases of waste and contaminants into surface runoff flowing to surface waters (including urban runoff and agricultural runoff, which may contain chemical fertilizers and pesticides, as well as human feces from open defecation).^[16]^[17]^[18]

Natural causes

Air pollution produced by ships may alter clouds, affecting global temperatures.

One of the most significant natural sources of pollution are volcanoes, which during eruptions release large quantities of harmful gases into the atmosphere. Volcanic gases include carbon dioxide, which can be fatal in large concentrations and contributes to climate change, hydrogen halides which can cause acid rain, sulfur dioxides, which are harmful to animals and damage the ozone layer, and hydrogen sulfides, which are capable of killing humans at concentrations of less than 1 part per thousand.^[19] Volcanic emissions also include fine and ultrafine particles which may contain toxic chemicals and substances such as arsenic, lead, and mercury.^[20]

Wildfires, which can be caused naturally by lightning strikes, are also a significant source of air pollution. Wildfire smoke contains significant quantities of both carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide, which can cause suffocation. Large quantities of fine particulates are found within wildfire smoke as well, which pose a health risk to animals.^[21]

Human generation

Motor vehicle emissions are one of the leading causes of air pollution.^[23]^[24]^[25] China, United States, Russia, India^[26] Mexico, and Japan are the world leaders in air pollution emissions. Principal stationary pollution sources include chemical plants, coal-fired power plants, oil refineries,^[27] petrochemical plants, nuclear waste disposal activity, incinerators, large livestock farms (dairy cows, pigs, poultry, etc.), PVC factories, metals production factories, plastics factories, and other heavy industry. Agricultural air pollution comes from contemporary practices which include clear felling and burning of natural vegetation as well as spraying of pesticides and herbicides.^[28]

About 400 million metric tons of hazardous wastes are generated each year.^[29] The United States alone produces about 250 million metric tons.^[30] Americans constitute less than 5% of the world's population, but produce roughly 25% of the world's CO₂,^[31] and generate approximately 30% of world's waste.^[32]^[33] In 2007, China overtook the United States as the world's biggest producer of CO₂,^[34] while still far behind based on per capita pollution (ranked 78th among the world's nations).^[35]

Chlorinated hydrocarbons (CFH), heavy metals (such as chromium, cadmium – found in rechargeable batteries, and lead – found in lead paint, aviation fuel, and even in certain countries, gasoline), MTBE, zinc, arsenic, and benzene are some of the most frequent soil contaminants. A series of press reports published in 2001, culminating in the publication of the book Fateful Harvest, revealed a widespread practise of recycling industrial leftovers into fertilizer, resulting in metal poisoning of the soil.^[36] Ordinary municipal landfills are the source of many chemical substances entering the soil environment (and often groundwater), emanating from the wide variety of refuse accepted, especially substances illegally discarded there, or from pre-1970 landfills that may have been subject to little control in the U.S. or EU. There have also been some unusual releases of polychlorinated dibenzodioxins, commonly called dioxins for simplicity, such as TCDD.^[37]

Pollution can also occur as a result of natural disasters. Hurricanes, for example, frequently result in sewage contamination and petrochemical spills from burst boats or automobiles. When coastal oil rigs or refineries are involved, larger-scale and environmental damage is not unusual. When accidents occur, some pollution sources, such as nuclear power stations or oil ships, can create extensive and potentially catastrophic emissions.^[38]

Plastic pollution is choking our oceans by making plastic gyres, entangling marine animals, poisoning our food and water supply, and ultimately inflicting havoc on the health and well-being of humans and wildlife globally. With the exception of a small amount that has been incinerating, virtually every piece of plastic that was ever made in the past still exists in one form or another. And since most of the plastics do not biodegrade in any meaningful sense, all that plastic waste could exist for hundreds or even thousands of years. If plastic production is not circumscribed, plastic pollution will be disastrous and will eventually outweigh fish in oceans.^[39]

Greenhouse gas emissions

Historical and projected CO₂ emissions by country (as of 2005).
Source: Energy Information Administration.^[40]^[41]

Carbon dioxide, while vital for photosynthesis, is sometimes referred to as pollution, because raised levels of the gas in the atmosphere are affecting the Earth's climate. Disruption of the environment can also highlight the connection between areas of pollution that would normally be classified separately, such as those of water and air. Recent studies have investigated the potential for long-term rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide to cause slight but critical increases in the acidity of ocean waters, and the possible effects of this on marine ecosystems.

In February 2007, a report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), representing the work of 2,500 scientists, economists, and policymakers from more than 120 countries, confirmed that humans have been the primary cause of global warming since 1950. Humans have ways to cut greenhouse gas emissions and avoid the consequences of global warming, a major climate report concluded. But to change the climate, the transition from fossil fuels like coal and oil needs to occur within decades, according to the final report this year from the UN's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC).^[42]

Effects

Human health

Pollution affects humans in every part of the world. An October 2017 study by the Lancet Commission on Pollution and Health found that global pollution, specifically toxic air, water, soil and workplaces, kills nine million people annually, which is triple the number of deaths caused by AIDS, tuberculosis and malaria combined, and 15 times higher than deaths caused by wars and other forms of human violence.^[46] The study concluded that "pollution is one of the great existential challenges of the Anthropocene era. Pollution endangers the stability of the Earth's support systems and threatens the continuing survival of human societies."^[6]

Adverse air quality can kill many organisms, including humans. Ozone pollution can cause respiratory disease, cardiovascular disease, throat inflammation, chest pain, and congestion. A 2010 analysis estimated that 1.2 million people died prematurely each year in China alone because of air pollution.^[47] China's high smog levels can damage the human body and cause various diseases.^[48] In 2019, air pollution caused 1.67 million deaths in India (17.8% of total deaths nationally).^[49] Studies have estimated that the number of people killed annually in the United States could be over 50,000.^[50] A study published in 2022 in GeoHealth concluded that energy-related fossil fuel emissions in the United States cause 46,900–59,400 premature deaths each year and PM2.5-related illness and death costs the nation $537–$678 billion annually.^[51] In the US, deaths caused by coal pollution were highest in 1999, but decreased sharply after 2007. The number dropped by about 95% by 2020, as coal plants have been closed or have scrubbers installed.^[52]

In 2019, water pollution caused 1.4 million premature deaths.^[53] Contamination of drinking water by untreated sewage in developing countries is an issue, for example, over 732 million Indians (56% of the population) and over 92 million Ethiopians (92.9% of the population) do not have access to basic sanitation.^[54] In 2013 over 10 million people in India fell ill with waterborne illnesses in 2013, and 1,535 people died, most of them children.^[55] As of 2007^[update], nearly 500 million Chinese lack access to safe drinking water.^[56]

Acute exposure to certain pollutants can have short and long term effects. Oil spills can cause skin irritations and rashes. Noise pollution induces hearing loss, high blood pressure, stress, and sleep disturbance. Mercury has been linked to developmental deficits in children and neurologic symptoms. Older people are significantly exposed to diseases induced by air pollution. Those with heart or lung disorders are at additional risk. Children and infants are also at serious risk. Lead and other heavy metals have been shown to cause neurological problems, intellectual disabilities and behavioural problems.^[57] Chemical and radioactive substances can cause cancer and birth defects.

Socio economic impacts

The health impacts of pollution have both direct and lasting social consequences. A 2021 study found that exposure to pollution causes an increase in violent crime.^[58] A 2019 paper linked pollution to adverse school outcomes for children.^[59] A number of studies show that pollution has an adverse effect on the productivity of both indoor and outdoor workers.^[60]^[61]^[62]^[63]

Environment

Pollution has been found to be present widely in the natural environment. A 2022 study published in Environmental Science & Technology found that levels of anthropogenic chemical pollution have exceeded planetary boundaries and now threaten entire ecosystems around the world.^[7]^[8]

There are a number of effects of this:

Biomagnification describes situations where toxins (such as heavy metals) may pass through trophic levels, becoming exponentially more concentrated in the process.
Global carbon dioxide emissions by jurisdiction (as of 2015)
Carbon dioxide emissions cause ocean acidification, the ongoing decrease in the pH of the Earth's oceans as CO₂ becomes dissolved.
The emission of greenhouse gases leads to global warming which affects ecosystems in many ways.
Invasive species can outcompete native species and reduce biodiversity. Invasive plants can contribute debris and biomolecules (allelopathy) that can alter soil and chemical compositions of an environment, often reducing native species competitiveness.
Nitrogen oxides are removed from the air by rain and fertilise land which can change the species composition of ecosystems.
Smog and haze can reduce the amount of sunlight received by plants to carry out photosynthesis and leads to the production of tropospheric ozone which damages plants.
Soil can become infertile and unsuitable for plants. This will affect other organisms in the food web.
Sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides can cause acid rain which lowers the pH value of soil.
Organic pollution of watercourses can deplete oxygen levels and reduce species diversity.

Regulation and monitoring

To protect the environment from the adverse effects of pollution, many nations worldwide have enacted legislation to regulate various types of pollution as well as to mitigate the adverse effects of pollution. At the local level, regulation usually is supervised by environmental agencies or the broader public health system. Different jurisdictions often have different levels regulation and policy choices about pollution. Historically, polluters will lobby governments in less economically developed areas or countries to maintain lax regulation in order to protect industrialisation at the cost of human and environmental health.^{[citation needed]}

The modern environmental regulatory environment has its origins in the United States with the beginning of industrial regulations around Air and Water pollution connected to industry and mining during the 1960s and 1970s.^[64]

Because many of pollutants have trans-boundary impacts, the UN and other treaty bodies have been used to regulate pollutants that circulate as air pollution, water pollution oder trade in wastes. Early international agreements were successful at addressing Global Environmental issues, such as Montreal Protocol, which banned Ozone depleting chemicals in 1987, with more recent agreements focusing on broader, more widely dispersed chemicals such as persistent organic pollutants in the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants created in 2001, such as PCBs, and the Kyoto Protocol in 1997 which initiated collaboration on addressing greenhouse gases to mitigate climate change. Governments, NPOs, research groups, and citizen scientists monitor pollution with an expanding list of low-cost pollution monitoring tools.^[65]^[66]

Control

Pollution control is a term used in environmental management. It refers to the control of emissions and effluents into air, water or soil. Without pollution control, the waste products from overconsumption, heating, agriculture, mining, manufacturing, transportation and other human activities, whether they accumulate or disperse, will degrade the environment. In the hierarchy of controls, pollution prevention and waste minimization are more desirable than pollution control. In the field of land development, low impact development is a similar technique for the prevention of urban runoff.

Policy, law and monitoring/transparency/life-cycle assessment-attached economics could be developed and enforced to control pollution.^[67] A review concluded that there is a lack of attention and action such as work on a globally supported "formal science–policy interface", e.g. to "inform intervention, influence research, and guide funding".^[3]

In September 2023 a Global Framework on Chemicals aiming to reduce pollution was agreed during an international conference in Bonn, Germany. The framework includes 28 targets, for example, to “end the use of hazardous pesticides in agriculture where the risks have not been managed” by 2035.^[68]

Practices

Devices

Air pollution control
Bioremediation
Dust collection systems
Scrubbers
Sewage treatment
- Sedimentation (Primary treatment)
- Activated sludge biotreaters (Secondary treatment; also used for industrial wastewater)
- Aerated lagoons
- Constructed wetlands (also used for urban runoff)
Industrial wastewater treatment
Vapor recovery systems
Phytoremediation

Cost

Pollution has a cost.^[70]^[71]^[72] Manufacturing activities that cause air pollution impose health and clean-up costs on the whole of society. A manufacturing activity that causes air pollution is an example of a negative externality in production. A negative externality in production occurs "when a firm's production reduces the well-being of others who are not compensated by the firm."^[73] For example, if a laundry firm exists near a polluting steel manufacturing firm, there will be increased costs for the laundry firm because of the dirt and smoke produced by the steel manufacturing firm.^[74] If external costs exist, such as those created by pollution, the manufacturer will choose to produce more of the product than would be produced if the manufacturer were required to pay all associated environmental costs. Because responsibility or consequence for self-directed action lies partly outside the self, an element of externalization is involved. If there are external benefits, such as in public safety, less of the good may be produced than would be the case if the producer were to receive payment for the external benefits to others. Goods and services that involve negative externalities in production, such as those that produce pollution, tend to be overproduced and underpriced since the externality is not being priced into the market.^[73]

Pollution can also create costs for the firms producing the pollution. Sometimes firms choose, or are forced by regulation, to reduce the amount of pollution that they are producing. The associated costs of doing this are called abatement costs, or marginal abatement costs if measured by each additional unit.^[75] In 2005 pollution abatement capital expenditures and operating costs in the US amounted to nearly $27 billion.^[76]

Dirtiest industries

The Pure Earth, an international non-for-profit organization dedicated to eliminating life-threatening pollution in the developing world, issues an annual list of some of the world's most polluting industries. Below is the list for 2016:^[77]

A 2018 report by the Institute for Agriculture and Trade Policy and GRAIN says that the meat and dairy industries are poised to surpass the oil industry as the world's worst polluters.^[78]

Textile industry

The textile industry is one of the largest polluters in the globalized world of mostly free market dominated socioeconomic systems.^[79] Chemically polluted textile wastewater degrades the quality of the soil and water.^[80] The pollution comes from the type of conduct of chemical treatments used e.g., in pretreatment, dyeing, printing, and finishing operations^[81] that many or most market-driven companies use despite "eco-friendly alternatives". Textile industry wastewater is considered to be one the largest polluters of water and soil ecosystems, causing "carcinogenic, mutagenic, genotoxic, cytotoxic and allergenic threats to living organisms".^[82]^[83] The textile industry uses over 8000 chemicals in its supply chain,^[84] also polluting the environment with large amounts of microplastics^[85] and has been identified in one review as the industry sector producing the largest amount of pollution.^[86]

A campaign of big clothing brands like Nike, Adidas and Puma to voluntarily reform their manufacturing supply chains to commit to achieving zero discharges of hazardous chemicals by 2020 (global goal)^[87]^[88] appears to have failed.

The textile industry also creates a lot of pollution that leads to externalities which can cause large economic problems. The problem usually occurs when there is no division of ownership rights. This means that the problem of pollution is largely caused because of incomplete information about which company pollutes and at what scale the damage was caused by the pollution.

Fossil fuel related industries

Outdoor air pollution attributable to fossil fuel use alone causes ~3.61 million deaths annually, making it one of the top contributors to human death, beyond being a major driver of climate change whereby greenhouse gases are considered per se as a form of pollution (see above).^[89]

Socially optimal level

Society derives some indirect utility from pollution; otherwise, there would be no incentive to pollute. This utility may come from the consumption of goods and services that inherently create pollution (albeit the level can vary) or lower prices or lower required efforts (or inconvenience) to abandon or substitute these goods and services. Therefore, it is important that policymakers attempt to balance these indirect benefits with the costs of pollution in order to achieve an efficient outcome.^[90]^{[additional citation(s) needed]}

It is possible to use environmental economics to determine which level of pollution is deemed the social optimum. For economists, pollution is an "external cost and occurs only when one or more individuals suffer a loss of welfare". There is a socially optimal level of pollution at which welfare is maximized.^[91] This is because consumers derive utility from the good or service manufactured, which will outweigh the social cost of pollution until a certain point. At this point the damage of one extra unit of pollution to society, the marginal cost of pollution, is exactly equal to the marginal benefit of consuming one more unit of the good or service.^[92]

Moreover, the feasibility of pollution reduction rates could also be a factor of calculating optimal levels. While a study puts the global mean loss of life expectancy (LLE; similar to YPLL) from air pollution in 2015 at 2.9 years (substantially more than, for example, 0.3 years from all forms of direct violence), it also indicated that a significant fraction of the LLE is unavoidable in terms of current economical-technological feasibility such as aeolian dust and wildfire emission control.^[93]

In markets with pollution, or other negative externalities in production, the free market equilibrium will not account for the costs of pollution on society. If the social costs of pollution are higher than the private costs incurred by the firm, then the true supply curve will be higher. The point at which the social marginal cost and market demand intersect gives the socially optimal level of pollution. At this point, the quantity will be lower and the price will be higher in comparison to the free market equilibrium.^[92] Therefore, the free market outcome could be considered a market failure because it "does not maximize efficiency".^[73]

This model can be used as a basis to evaluate different methods of internalizing the externality, such as tariffs, a Pigouvian tax (such as a carbon tax) and cap and trade systems.

History

Prior to 19th century

Air pollution has always accompanied civilizations. Pollution started from prehistoric times, when man created the first fires. According to a 1983 article in the journal Science, "soot" found on ceilings of prehistoric caves provides ample evidence of the high levels of pollution that was associated with inadequate ventilation of open fires."^[94]

Metal forging appears to be a key turning point in the creation of significant air pollution levels outside the home. Core samples of glaciers in Greenland indicate increases in pollution associated with Greek, Roman, and Chinese metal production.^[95]

The burning of coal and wood, and the presence of many horses in concentrated areas made the cities the primary sources of pollution. King Edward I of England banned the burning of sea-coal by proclamation in London in 1272, after its smoke became a problem;^[96]^[97] the fuel was so common in England that this earliest of names for it was acquired because it could be carted away from some shores by the wheelbarrow.

19th century

It was the Industrial Revolution that gave birth to environmental pollution as we know it today. London also recorded one of the earlier extreme cases of water quality problems with the Great Stink on the Thames of 1858, which led to construction of the London sewerage system soon afterward. Pollution issues escalated as population growth far exceeded viability of neighborhoods to handle their waste problem. Reformers began to demand sewer systems and clean water.^[98]

In 1870, the sanitary conditions in Berlin were among the worst in Europe. August Bebel recalled conditions before a modern sewer system was built in the late 1870s:

Waste-water from the houses collected in the gutters running alongside the curbs and emitted a truly fearsome smell. There were no public toilets in the streets or squares. Visitors, especially women, often became desperate when nature called. In the public buildings the sanitary facilities were unbelievably primitive....As a metropolis, Berlin did not emerge from a state of barbarism into civilization until after 1870.^[99]

20th and 21st century

The primitive conditions were intolerable for a world national capital, and the Imperial German government brought in its scientists, engineers, and urban planners to not only solve the deficiencies, but to forge Berlin as the world's model city. A British expert in 1906 concluded that Berlin represented "the most complete application of science, order and method of public life," adding "it is a marvel of civic administration, the most modern and most perfectly organized city that there is."^[100]

The emergence of great factories and consumption of immense quantities of coal gave rise to unprecedented air pollution and the large volume of industrial chemical discharges added to the growing load of untreated human waste. Chicago and Cincinnati were the first two American cities to enact laws ensuring cleaner air in 1881. Pollution became a major issue in the United States in the early twentieth century, as progressive reformers took issue with air pollution caused by coal burning, water pollution caused by bad sanitation, and street pollution caused by the three million horses who worked in American cities in 1900, generating large quantities of urine and manure. As historian Martin Melosi notes, the generation that first saw automobiles replacing the horses saw cars as "miracles of cleanliness".^[101] By the 1940s, automobile-caused smog was a major issue in Los Angeles.^[102]

Other cities followed around the country until early in the 20th century, when the short lived Office of Air Pollution was created under the Department of the Interior. Extreme smog events were experienced by the cities of Los Angeles and Donora, Pennsylvania, in the late 1940s, serving as another public reminder.^[103]

Air pollution would continue to be a problem in England, especially later during the industrial revolution, and extending into the recent past with the Great Smog of 1952. Awareness of atmospheric pollution spread widely after World War II, with fears triggered by reports of radioactive fallout from atomic warfare and testing.^[104] Then a non-nuclear event – the Great Smog of 1952 in London – killed at least 4000 people.^[105] This prompted some of the first major modern environmental legislation: the Clean Air Act of 1956.

Pollution began to draw major public attention in the United States between the mid-1950s and early 1970s, when Congress passed the Noise Control Act, the Clean Air Act, the Clean Water Act, and the National Environmental Policy Act.^[106]

Severe incidents of pollution helped increase consciousness. PCB dumping in the Hudson River resulted in a ban by the EPA on consumption of its fish in 1974. National news stories in the late 1970s – especially the long-term dioxin contamination at Love Canal starting in 1947 and uncontrolled dumping in Valley of the Drums – led to the Superfund legislation of 1980.^[107] The pollution of industrial land gave rise to the name brownfield, a term now common in city planning.

The development of nuclear science introduced radioactive contamination, which can remain lethally radioactive for hundreds of thousands of years. Lake Karachay – named by the Worldwatch Institute as the "most polluted spot" on earth – served as a disposal site for the Soviet Union throughout the 1950s and 1960s. Chelyabinsk, Russia, is considered the "Most polluted place on the planet".^[108]

Nuclear weapons continued to be tested in the Cold War, especially in the earlier stages of their development. The toll on the worst-affected populations and the growth since then in understanding about the critical threat to human health posed by radioactivity has also been a prohibitive complication associated with nuclear power. Though extreme care is practiced in that industry, the potential for disaster suggested by incidents such as those at Three Mile Island, Chernobyl, and Fukushima pose a lingering specter of public mistrust. Worldwide publicity has been intense on those disasters.^[109] Widespread support for test ban treaties has ended almost all nuclear testing in the atmosphere.^[110]

International catastrophes such as the wreck of the Amoco Cadiz oil tanker off the coast of Brittany in 1978 and the Bhopal disaster in 1984 have demonstrated the universality of such events and the scale on which efforts to address them needed to engage. The borderless nature of atmosphere and oceans inevitably resulted in the implication of pollution on a planetary level with the issue of global warming. Most recently the term persistent organic pollutant (POP) has come to describe a group of chemicals such as PBDEs and PFCs among others. Though their effects remain somewhat less well understood owing to a lack of experimental data, they have been detected in various ecological habitats far removed from industrial activity such as the Arctic, demonstrating diffusion and bioaccumulation after only a relatively brief period of widespread use.

The Great Pacific Garbage Patch is a concentration of plastics in the North Pacific Gyre. It and other garbage patches contain debris that can trsonport invasive species and that can entangle and be ingested by wildlife.^[111] Organizations such as 5 Gyres and the Algalita Marine Research Foundation have researched the Great Pacific Garbage Patch and found microplastics in the water.^[112]

Pollution introduced by light at night is becoming a global problem, more severe in urban centres, but nonetheless contaminating also large territories, far away from towns.^[113]

Growing evidence of local and global pollution and an increasingly informed public over time have given rise to environmentalism and the environmental movement, which generally seek to limit human impact on the environment.

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External links

OEHHA proposition 65 list
National Toxicology Program – from US National Institutes of Health. Reports and studies on how pollutants affect people
TOXNET – NIH databases and reports on toxicology
TOXMAP – Geographic Information System (GIS) that uses maps of the United States to help users visually explore data from the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Toxics Release Inventory and Superfund Basic Research Programs
EPA.gov – manages Superfund sites and the pollutants in them (CERCLA). Map the EPA Superfund
Toxic Release Inventory – tracks how much waste US companies release into the water and air. Gives permits for releasing specific quantities of these pollutants each year.
Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry – Top 20 pollutants, how they affect people, what US industries use them and the products in which they are found
Chelyabinsk: The Most Contaminated Spot on the Planet Documentary Film by Slawomir Grünberg (1996)
Nieman Reports | Tracking Toxics When the Data Are Polluted

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[2] Dickie, Gloria (18 May 2022). "Pollution killing 9 million people a year, Africa hardest hit - study". Reuters. Retrieved 23 June 2022.

[10.1016/S2542-5196(22)00090-0-3] Fuller, Richard; Landrigan, Philip J; Balakrishnan, Kalpana; Bathan, Glynda; Bose-O'Reilly, Stephan; Brauer, Michael; Caravanos, Jack; Chiles, Tom; Cohen, Aaron; Corra, Lilian; Cropper, Maureen; Ferraro, Greg; Hanna, Jill; Hanrahan, David; Hu, Howard; Hunter, David; Janata, Gloria; Kupka, Rachael; Lanphear, Bruce; Lichtveld, Maureen; Martin, Keith; Mustapha, Adetoun; Sanchez-Triana, Ernesto; Sandilya, Karti; Schaefli, Laura; Shaw, Joseph; Seddon, Jessica; Suk, William; Téllez-Rojo, Martha María; Yan, Chonghuai (June 2022). "Pollution and health: a progress update". The Lancet Planetary Health. 6 (6): e535–e547. doi:10.1016/S2542-5196(22)00090-0. PMID 35594895. S2CID 248905224.

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[20] Trejos, Erika M.; Silva, Luis F. O.; Hower, James C.; Flores, Eriko M. M.; González, Carlos Mario; Pachón, Jorge E.; Aristizábal, Beatriz H. (1 March 2021). "Volcanic emissions and atmospheric pollution: A study of nanoparticles". Geoscience Frontiers. 12 (2): 746–755. Bibcode:2021GeoFr..12..746T. doi:10.1016/j.gsf.2020.08.013. hdl:11323/7574. ISSN 1674-9871. S2CID 224936937.

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[23] Environmental Performance Report 2001 Archived 12 November 2007 at the Wayback Machine (Transport, Canada website page)

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@@ Line 5: / Line 5: @@
 [[File:Litter.JPG|thumb|[[Litter]] on the coast of [[Guyana]]|300x300px]]
 {{Pollution sidebar}}
-'''Pollution''' is the introduction of [[contaminant]]s into the natural environment that cause adverse change.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/pollution |title=Pollution – Definition from the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary |publisher=[[Merriam-Webster]] |date=2010-08-13 |access-date=2010-08-26}}</ref> Pollution can take the form of any substance (solid, liquid, or gas) or energy (such as radioactivity, heat, sound, or light). [[Pollutant]]s, the components of pollution, can be either foreign substances/energies or naturally occurring contaminants.
+'''Pollution''' is the introduction of [[contaminant]]s into the [[natural environment]] that cause adverse change.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/pollution |title=Pollution – Definition from the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary |publisher=[[Merriam-Webster]] |date=13 August 2010 |access-date=26 August 2010}}</ref> Pollution can take the form of any substance (solid, liquid, or gas) or energy (such as radioactivity, heat, sound, or light). [[Pollutant]]s, the components of pollution, can be either foreign substances/energies or naturally occurring contaminants.
-Although environmental pollution can be caused by natural events, the word pollution generally implies that the contaminants [[Human impact on the environment|have an anthropogenic source]] – that is, a source created by human activities, such as [[manufacturing]], [[Extractivism|extractive industries]], poor [[waste management]], transportation or [[Agricultural pollution|agriculture]]. Pollution is often classed as [[point source pollution|point source]] (coming from a highly concentrated specific site, such as a [[factory]] or [[Environmental effects of mining|mine]]) or [[nonpoint source pollution]] (coming from a widespread distributed sources, such as [[microplastics]] or [[agricultural runoff]]).
+Although environmental pollution can be caused by natural events, the word pollution generally implies that the contaminants [[Human impact on the environment|have an anthropogenic source]] – that is, a source created by human activities, such as [[manufacturing]], [[Extractivism|extractive industries]], poor [[waste management]], transportation or [[Agricultural pollution|agriculture]]. Pollution is often classed as [[point source pollution|point source]] (coming from a highly concentrated specific site, such as a [[factory]], [[Environmental effects of mining|mine]], [[construction site]]), or [[nonpoint source pollution]] (coming from a widespread distributed sources, such as [[microplastics]] or [[agricultural runoff]]).
-Many sources of pollution were unregulated parts of [[Industrialisation|industrialization]] during the 19th and 20th centuries until the emergence of environmental regulation and pollution policy in the later half of the 20th century. Sites where historically polluting industries released persistent pollutants may have [[legacy pollution]] long after the source of the pollution is stopped.  Major forms of pollution include [[air pollution]], [[light pollution]], [[litter]], [[noise pollution]], [[plastic pollution]], [[soil contamination]], [[radioactive contamination]], [[thermal pollution]], [[visual pollution]], and [[water pollution]].
+Many sources of pollution were unregulated parts of [[Industrialisation|industrialization]] during the 19th and 20th centuries until the emergence of environmental [[regulation]] and pollution [[policy]] in the later half of the 20th century. Sites where historically polluting industries released [[Persistent organic pollutant|persistent]] pollutants may have [[legacy pollution]] long after the source of the pollution is stopped.  Major forms of pollution include [[air pollution]], [[water pollution]], [[litter]], [[noise pollution]], [[plastic pollution]], [[soil contamination]], [[radioactive contamination]], [[thermal pollution]], [[light pollution]], and [[visual pollution]].
-Pollution has widespread consequences on human and environmental health, having systematic impact on social and economic systems. In 2019, pollution killed nine million people worldwide (one in six deaths), a number unchanged since 2015.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fuller |first1=Richard |last2=Landrigan |first2=Philip J |last3=Balakrishnan |first3=Kalpana |last4=Bathan |first4=Glynda |last5=Bose-O'Reilly |first5=Stephan |last6=Brauer |first6=Michael |last7=Caravanos |first7=Jack |last8=Chiles |first8=Tom |last9=Cohen |first9=Aaron |last10=Corra |first10=Lilian |last11=Cropper |first11=Maureen |last12=Ferraro |first12=Greg |last13=Hanna |first13=Jill |last14=Hanrahan |first14=David |last15=Hu |first15=Howard |date=17 May 2022 |title=Pollution and health: a progress update |journal=The Lancet Planetary Health |volume=6 |issue=6 |pages=e535–e547 |doi=10.1016/s2542-5196(22)00090-0 |pmid=35594895 |issn=2542-5196|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.sciencenews.org/article/pollution-killed-9-million-people-2015 |title=Pollution killed 9 million people in 2015 |first=Laura |last=Beil |date=15 November 2017 |website=[[Science News]] |access-date=1 December 2017}}</ref><ref name="Carrington">{{cite news |last=Carrington |first=Damian |date=October 20, 2017 |title=Global pollution kills 9m a year and threatens 'survival of human societies' |work=[[The Guardian]] |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/oct/19/global-pollution-kills-millions-threatens-survival-human-societies |access-date=October 20, 2017}}</ref> [[Air pollution]] accounted for {{frac|3|4}} of these earlier deaths.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Dickie |first1=Gloria |title=Pollution killing 9 million people a year, Africa hardest hit - study |url=https://www.reuters.com/business/environment/pollution-killing-9-million-people-year-africa-hardest-hit-study-2022-05-17/ |access-date=23 June 2022 |work=Reuters |date=18 May 2022 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="10.1016/S2542-5196(22)00090-0">{{cite journal |last1=Fuller |first1=Richard |last2=Landrigan |first2=Philip J |last3=Balakrishnan |first3=Kalpana |last4=Bathan |first4=Glynda |last5=Bose-O'Reilly |first5=Stephan |last6=Brauer |first6=Michael |last7=Caravanos |first7=Jack |last8=Chiles |first8=Tom |last9=Cohen |first9=Aaron |last10=Corra |first10=Lilian |last11=Cropper |first11=Maureen |last12=Ferraro |first12=Greg |last13=Hanna |first13=Jill |last14=Hanrahan |first14=David |last15=Hu |first15=Howard |last16=Hunter |first16=David |last17=Janata |first17=Gloria |last18=Kupka |first18=Rachael |last19=Lanphear |first19=Bruce |last20=Lichtveld |first20=Maureen |last21=Martin |first21=Keith |last22=Mustapha |first22=Adetoun |last23=Sanchez-Triana |first23=Ernesto |last24=Sandilya |first24=Karti |last25=Schaefli |first25=Laura |last26=Shaw |first26=Joseph |last27=Seddon |first27=Jessica |last28=Suk |first28=William |last29=Téllez-Rojo |first29=Martha María |last30=Yan |first30=Chonghuai |title=Pollution and health: a progress update |journal=The Lancet Planetary Health |date=June 2022 |volume=6 |issue=6 |pages=e535–e547 |doi=10.1016/S2542-5196(22)00090-0|pmid=35594895 |s2cid=248905224 |doi-access=free }}</ref> A 2022 literature review found that levels of anthropogenic chemical pollution have exceeded [[planetary boundaries]] and now threaten entire ecosystems around the world.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /> Pollutants frequently have outsized impacts on vulnerable populations, such as children and the elderly, and   marginalized communities, because polluting industries and toxic waste sites tend to be collocated with populations with less economic and political power.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2016-01-19 |title=Targeting minority, low-income neighborhoods for hazardous waste sites |url=https://news.umich.edu/targeting-minority-low-income-neighborhoods-for-hazardous-waste-sites/ |access-date=2023-03-11 |website=University of Michigan News |language=en-US}}</ref> This outsized impact is a core reason for the formation of the [[environmental justice movement]],<ref name=":02">{{Cite book |last=Schlosberg |first=David |title=Moral and Political Reasoning in Environmental Practice |work=The Justice of Environmental Justice |publisher=The MIT Press |year=2002 |isbn=0262621649 |editor-last=Light |editor-first=Andrew |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |pages=79 |editor-last2=De-Shalit |editor-first2=Avner}}</ref><ref name="Schlosberg">Schlosberg, David. (2007) ''Defining Environmental Justice: Theories, Movements, and Nature''. Oxford University Press.</ref> and continues to be a core element of [[environmental conflict]]s, particularly in the [[Global South]].
+Pollution has widespread consequences on human and [[environmental health]], having systematic impact on social and economic systems. In 2019, pollution killed approximately nine million people worldwide (about one in six deaths that year); about three-quarters of these deaths were caused by [[air pollution]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Dickie |first1=Gloria |author-link1=Gloria Dickie |title=Pollution killing 9 million people a year, Africa hardest hit - study |url=https://www.reuters.com/business/environment/pollution-killing-9-million-people-year-africa-hardest-hit-study-2022-05-17/ |access-date=23 June 2022 |work=Reuters |date=18 May 2022 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="10.1016/S2542-5196(22)00090-0">{{cite journal |last1=Fuller |first1=Richard |last2=Landrigan |first2=Philip J |last3=Balakrishnan |first3=Kalpana |last4=Bathan |first4=Glynda |last5=Bose-O'Reilly |first5=Stephan |last6=Brauer |first6=Michael |last7=Caravanos |first7=Jack |last8=Chiles |first8=Tom |last9=Cohen |first9=Aaron |last10=Corra |first10=Lilian |last11=Cropper |first11=Maureen |last12=Ferraro |first12=Greg |last13=Hanna |first13=Jill |last14=Hanrahan |first14=David |last15=Hu |first15=Howard |last16=Hunter |first16=David |last17=Janata |first17=Gloria |last18=Kupka |first18=Rachael |last19=Lanphear |first19=Bruce |last20=Lichtveld |first20=Maureen |last21=Martin |first21=Keith |last22=Mustapha |first22=Adetoun |last23=Sanchez-Triana |first23=Ernesto |last24=Sandilya |first24=Karti |last25=Schaefli |first25=Laura |last26=Shaw |first26=Joseph |last27=Seddon |first27=Jessica |last28=Suk |first28=William |last29=Téllez-Rojo |first29=Martha María |last30=Yan |first30=Chonghuai |title=Pollution and health: a progress update |journal=The Lancet Planetary Health |date=June 2022 |volume=6 |issue=6 |pages=e535–e547 |doi=10.1016/S2542-5196(22)00090-0|pmid=35594895 |s2cid=248905224 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fuller |first1=Richard |last2=Landrigan |first2=Philip J |last3=Balakrishnan |first3=Kalpana |last4=Bathan |first4=Glynda |last5=Bose-O'Reilly |first5=Stephan |last6=Brauer |first6=Michael |last7=Caravanos |first7=Jack |last8=Chiles |first8=Tom |last9=Cohen |first9=Aaron |last10=Corra |first10=Lilian |last11=Cropper |first11=Maureen |last12=Ferraro |first12=Greg |last13=Hanna |first13=Jill |last14=Hanrahan |first14=David |last15=Hu |first15=Howard |date=17 May 2022 |title=Pollution and health: a progress update |journal=The Lancet Planetary Health |volume=6 |issue=6 |pages=e535–e547 |doi=10.1016/s2542-5196(22)00090-0 |pmid=35594895 |issn=2542-5196|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.sciencenews.org/article/pollution-killed-9-million-people-2015 |title=Pollution killed 9 million people in 2015 |first=Laura |last=Beil |date=15 November 2017 |website=[[Science News]] |access-date=1 December 2017}}</ref><ref name="Carrington">{{cite news |last=Carrington |first=Damian |date=20 October 2017 |title=Global pollution kills 9m a year and threatens 'survival of human societies' |work=[[The Guardian]] |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/oct/19/global-pollution-kills-millions-threatens-survival-human-societies |access-date=20 October 2017}}</ref>  A 2022 literature review found that levels of anthropogenic chemical pollution have exceeded [[planetary boundaries]] and now threaten entire ecosystems around the world.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /> Pollutants frequently have outsized impacts on vulnerable populations, such as children and the elderly, and   marginalized communities, because polluting industries and toxic waste sites tend to be collocated with populations with less economic and political power.<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 January 2016 |title=Targeting minority, low-income neighborhoods for hazardous waste sites |url=https://news.umich.edu/targeting-minority-low-income-neighborhoods-for-hazardous-waste-sites/ |access-date=11 March 2023 |website=University of Michigan News |language=en-US}}</ref> This outsized impact is a core reason for the formation of the [[environmental justice movement]],<ref name=":02">{{Cite book |last=Schlosberg |first=David |title=Moral and Political Reasoning in Environmental Practice |work=The Justice of Environmental Justice |publisher=The MIT Press |year=2002 |isbn=0262621649 |editor-last=Light |editor-first=Andrew |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |pages=79 |editor-last2=De-Shalit |editor-first2=Avner}}</ref><ref name="Schlosberg">Schlosberg, David. (2007) ''Defining Environmental Justice: Theories, Movements, and Nature''. Oxford University Press.</ref> and continues to be a core element of [[environmental conflict]]s, particularly in the [[Global South]].
-Because of the impacts of these chemicals, local, country and international policy have increasingly sought to regulate pollutants, resulting in increasing air and water quality standards, alongside regulation of specific waste streams. Regional and national policy is typically supervised by [[Environmental agency|environmental agencies or ministries]], while international efforts are coordinated by the [[United Nations Environment Programme|UN Environmental Program]] and other [[Treaty body|treaty bodies]]. Pollution mitigation is an important part of all of the [[Sustainable Development Goals]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Environment |first=U. N. |date=2020-02-21 |title=A Global response to Pollution |url=http://www.unep.org/beatpollution/global-response-pollution |access-date=2023-03-11 |website=Beat Pollution |language=en}}</ref>
+Because of the impacts of these chemicals, local and international countries' policy have increasingly sought to regulate pollutants, resulting in increasing air and water quality standards, alongside regulation of specific waste streams. Regional and national policy is typically supervised by [[Environmental agency|environmental agencies or ministries]], while international efforts are coordinated by the [[United Nations Environment Programme|UN Environmental Program]] and other [[Treaty body|treaty bodies]]. Pollution [[mitigation]] is an important part of all of the [[Sustainable Development Goals]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Environment |first=U. N. |date=21 February 2020 |title=A Global response to Pollution |url=http://www.unep.org/beatpollution/global-response-pollution |access-date=11 March 2023 |website=Beat Pollution |language=en}}</ref>
 ==Definitions and types==
-Various definitions of pollution exist, which may or may not recognize certain types, such as [[noise pollution]] or [[greenhouse gas]]es. The United States [[Environmental Protection Administration]] defines pollution as "Any substances in water, soil, or air that degrade the natural quality of the environment, offend the senses of sight, taste, or smell, or cause a health hazard. The usefulness of the natural resource is usually impaired by the presence of pollutants and contaminants."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Vocabulary Catalog |url=https://sor.epa.gov/sor_internet/registry/termreg/searchandretrieve/glossariesandkeywordlists/search.do;jsessionid=uJCB5Gu4w83V2Rvwe9ICdwSYPN92FIBDbphBhn8YAqz9GhWQ2_kk!918770883?details=&vocabName=Environmental%20Issues%20Glossary&filterTerm=pollution&checkedAcronym=false&checkedTerm=false&hasDefinitions=false&filterTerm=pollution&filterMatchCriteria=Contains |access-date=2022-05-01 |website=US EPA: System of Registries |language=en |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220816015617/https://sor.epa.gov/sor_internet/registry/termreg/searchandretrieve/glossariesandkeywordlists/search.do;jsessionid=uJCB5Gu4w83V2Rvwe9ICdwSYPN92FIBDbphBhn8YAqz9GhWQ2_kk!918770883?details=&vocabName=Environmental%20Issues%20Glossary&filterTerm=pollution&checkedAcronym=false&checkedTerm=false&hasDefinitions=false&filterTerm=pollution&filterMatchCriteria=Contains |archive-date=Aug 16, 2022 }}</ref> In contrast, the [[United Nations]] considers pollution to be the "presence of substances and heat in environmental media (air, water, land) whose nature, location, or quantity produces undesirable environmental effects."<ref>{{Cite web |title=pollution |work= glossary |url=http://data.un.org/Glossary.aspx?q=pollution#:~:text=UNdata%20source:%20Environment%20Glossary%20%7C%20United,activity%20that%20generates%20pollutants. |access-date=2022-05-01 |publisher=UNdata }}</ref>[[File:Smog in the centre of Moscow, 06.08.2010.JPG|thumb|[[Smog]] in the center of [[Moscow, Russia]] in August 2010]]
+Various definitions of pollution exist, which may or may not recognize certain types, such as [[noise pollution]] or [[greenhouse gas]]es. The United States [[Environmental Protection Administration]] defines pollution as "Any substances in water, soil, or air that degrade the natural quality of the environment, offend the senses of sight, taste, or smell, or cause a health hazard. The usefulness of the natural resource is usually impaired by the presence of pollutants and contaminants."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Vocabulary Catalog |url=https://sor.epa.gov/sor_internet/registry/termreg/searchandretrieve/glossariesandkeywordlists/search.do;jsessionid=uJCB5Gu4w83V2Rvwe9ICdwSYPN92FIBDbphBhn8YAqz9GhWQ2_kk!918770883?details=&vocabName=Environmental%20Issues%20Glossary&filterTerm=pollution&checkedAcronym=false&checkedTerm=false&hasDefinitions=false&filterTerm=pollution&filterMatchCriteria=Contains |access-date=1 May 2022 |website=US EPA: System of Registries |language=en |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220816015617/https://sor.epa.gov/sor_internet/registry/termreg/searchandretrieve/glossariesandkeywordlists/search.do;jsessionid=uJCB5Gu4w83V2Rvwe9ICdwSYPN92FIBDbphBhn8YAqz9GhWQ2_kk!918770883?details=&vocabName=Environmental%20Issues%20Glossary&filterTerm=pollution&checkedAcronym=false&checkedTerm=false&hasDefinitions=false&filterTerm=pollution&filterMatchCriteria=Contains |archive-date=16 August 2022 }}</ref> In contrast, the [[United Nations]] considers pollution to be the "presence of substances and heat in environmental media (air, water, land) whose nature, location, or quantity produces undesirable environmental effects."<ref>{{Cite web |title=pollution |work= glossary |url=http://data.un.org/Glossary.aspx?q=pollution#:~:text=UNdata%20source:%20Environment%20Glossary%20%7C%20United,activity%20that%20generates%20pollutants. |access-date=1 May 2022 |publisher=UNdata }}</ref>[[File:Smog in the centre of Moscow, 06.08.2010.JPG|thumb|[[Smog]] in the center of [[Moscow, Russia]] in August 2010]]
 The major forms of pollution are listed below along with the particular [[contaminants]] relevant to each of them:
 * [[Air pollution]]: the release of chemicals and [[particulates]] into the atmosphere. Common gaseous pollutants include [[carbon monoxide]], [[sulfur dioxide]], [[chlorofluorocarbon]]s (CFCs) and [[nitrogen oxide]]s produced by [[Secondary sector|industry]] and motor vehicles. Photochemical [[ozone]] and [[smog]] are created as nitrogen oxides and [[hydrocarbon]]s react to sunlight. [[Atmospheric particulate matter|Particulate matter]], or fine dust is characterized by their [[micrometre]] size PM<sub>10</sub> to PM<sub>2.5</sub>.
@@ Line 24: / Line 24: @@
 * [[Noise pollution]]: which encompasses [[roadway noise]], [[aircraft noise]], [[industrial noise]] as well as high-intensity [[sonar]].
 * [[Plastic pollution]]: involves the accumulation of plastic products and [[microplastics]] in the environment that adversely affects wildlife, wildlife habitat, or humans.
-* [[Soil contamination]] occurs when chemicals are released by spill or underground leakage. Among the most significant [[soil contaminant]]s are [[hydrocarbon]]s, [[heavy metals]], [[Methyl tert-butyl ether|MTBE]],<ref>{{cite web |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150805125815/http://www.epa.gov:80/mtbe/water.htm |archive-date=Aug 5, 2015 |url=http://www.epa.gov/mtbe/water.htm#concerns |work=Methyl Tertiary Butyl Ether |title=Drinking Water |at=Concerns about MTBE |publisher=[[United States Environmental Protection Agency|U.S. EPA]]}}</ref> [[herbicides]], [[pesticides]] and [[chlorinated hydrocarbons]].
+* [[Soil contamination]] occurs when chemicals are released by spill or underground leakage. Among the most significant [[soil contaminant]]s are [[hydrocarbon]]s, [[heavy metals]], [[Methyl tert-butyl ether|MTBE]],<ref>{{cite web |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150805125815/http://www.epa.gov:80/mtbe/water.htm |archive-date=5 August 2015 |url=http://www.epa.gov/mtbe/water.htm#concerns |work=Methyl Tertiary Butyl Ether |title=Drinking Water |at=Concerns about MTBE |publisher=[[United States Environmental Protection Agency|U.S. EPA]]}}</ref> [[herbicides]], [[pesticides]] and [[chlorinated hydrocarbons]].
 * [[Radioactive contamination]], resulting from 20th century activities in [[atomic physics]], such as nuclear power generation and nuclear weapons research, manufacture and deployment. (See [[alpha emitter]]s and [[actinides in the environment]].)
 * [[Thermal pollution]], is a [[temperature]] change in natural water bodies caused by human influence, such as use of water as coolant in a power plant.
 * [[Visual pollution]], which can refer to the presence of overhead [[electric power transmission|power lines]], motorway [[billboard (advertising)|billboards]], scarred [[landform]]s (as from [[strip mining]]), open storage of trash, [[municipal solid waste]] or [[space debris]].
-* {{Anchor|Water pollution}}Water pollution, caused by the discharge of industrial wastewater from commercial and industrial waste (intentionally or through spills) into surface waters; discharges of untreated sewage and chemical contaminants, such as chlorine, from treated sewage; and releases of waste and contaminants into [[surface runoff]] flowing to surface waters (including urban runoff and agricultural runoff, which may contain chemical fertilizers and pesticides, as well as human feces from open defecation).<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Aboyeji |first=Oyebanji Oluseun |date=2013-12-01 |title=Freshwater Pollution in Some Nigerian Local Communities, Causes, Consequences and Probable Solutions |url=https://www.richtmann.org/journal/index.php/ajis/article/view/2307 |journal=Academic Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies |doi=10.5901/ajis.2013.v2n13p111|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last1=Englande |first1=A.J. |title=Wastewater Treatment &Water Reclamation☆ |date=2015 |journal=Reference Module in Earth Systems and Environmental Sciences |pages=B978-0-12-409548-9.09508-7 |publisher=Elsevier |language=en |doi=10.1016/b978-0-12-409548-9.09508-7 |isbn=978-0-12-409548-9 |pmc=7158167 |last2=Krenkel |first2=Peter |last3=Shamas |first3=J.}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last1=Ahmed |first1=Jebin |title=CHAPTER 1. Industrial Wastewater and Its Toxic Effects |date=2021 |work=Chemistry in the Environment |pages=1–14 |editor-last=Shah |editor-first=Maulin P |place=Cambridge |publisher=Royal Society of Chemistry |doi=10.1039/9781839165399-00001 |isbn=978-1-83916-279-4 |last2=Thakur |first2=Abhijeet |last3=Goyal |first3=Arun|doi-access=free }}</ref>
+* {{Anchor|Water pollution}}Water pollution, caused by the discharge of industrial wastewater from commercial and industrial waste (intentionally or through spills) into surface waters; discharges of untreated sewage and chemical contaminants, such as chlorine, from treated sewage; and releases of waste and contaminants into [[surface runoff]] flowing to surface waters (including urban runoff and agricultural runoff, which may contain chemical fertilizers and pesticides, as well as human feces from open defecation).<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Aboyeji |first=Oyebanji Oluseun |date=1 December 2013 |title=Freshwater Pollution in Some Nigerian Local Communities, Causes, Consequences and Probable Solutions |url=https://www.richtmann.org/journal/index.php/ajis/article/view/2307 |journal=Academic Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies |doi=10.5901/ajis.2013.v2n13p111|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last1=Englande |first1=A.J. |title=Wastewater Treatment &Water Reclamation☆ |date=2015 |journal=Reference Module in Earth Systems and Environmental Sciences |pages=B978-0-12-409548-9.09508-7 |publisher=Elsevier |language=en |doi=10.1016/b978-0-12-409548-9.09508-7 |isbn=978-0-12-409548-9 |pmc=7158167 |last2=Krenkel |first2=Peter |last3=Shamas |first3=J.}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last1=Ahmed |first1=Jebin |title=CHAPTER 1. Industrial Wastewater and Its Toxic Effects |date=2021 |work=Chemistry in the Environment |pages=1–14 |editor-last=Shah |editor-first=Maulin P |place=Cambridge |publisher=Royal Society of Chemistry |doi=10.1039/9781839165399-00001 |isbn=978-1-83916-279-4 |last2=Thakur |first2=Abhijeet |last3=Goyal |first3=Arun|doi-access=free }}</ref>
 ==Natural causes==
 [[File:Ship Tracks Reveal Pollution's Effects on Clouds.ogv|thumb|left|Air pollution produced by ships may alter clouds, affecting global temperatures.]]
-One of the most significant natural sources of pollution are [[volcano]]es, which during eruptions release large quantities of harmful gases into the atmosphere. Volcanic gases include carbon dioxide, which can be fatal in large concentrations and contributes to [[climate change]], hydrogen halides which can cause [[acid rain]], sulfur dioxides, which are harmful to animals and damage the [[ozone layer]], and hydrogen sulfides, which are capable of killing humans at concentrations of less than 1 part per thousand.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Volcanic gases can be harmful to health, vegetation and infrastructure |url=https://www.usgs.gov/programs/VHP/volcanic-gases-can-be-harmful-health-vegetation-and-infrastructure |access-date=2022-05-07 |website=United States Geologic Survey}}</ref> Volcanic emissions also include fine and ultrafine particles which may contain toxic chemicals and substances such as [[arsenic]], [[lead]], and [[Mercury (element)|mercury]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Trejos |first1=Erika M. |last2=Silva |first2=Luis F. O. |last3=Hower |first3=James C. |last4=Flores |first4=Eriko M. M. |last5=González |first5=Carlos Mario |last6=Pachón |first6=Jorge E. |last7=Aristizábal |first7=Beatriz H. |date=2021-03-01 |title=Volcanic emissions and atmospheric pollution: A study of nanoparticles |journal=Geoscience Frontiers |language=en |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=746–755 |doi=10.1016/j.gsf.2020.08.013 |bibcode=2021GeoFr..12..746T |s2cid=224936937 |issn=1674-9871|doi-access=free |hdl=11323/7574 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>
+One of the most significant natural sources of pollution are [[volcano]]es, which during eruptions release large quantities of harmful gases into the atmosphere. Volcanic gases include carbon dioxide, which can be fatal in large concentrations and contributes to [[climate change]], hydrogen halides which can cause [[acid rain]], sulfur dioxides, which are harmful to animals and damage the [[ozone layer]], and hydrogen sulfides, which are capable of killing humans at concentrations of less than 1 part per thousand.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Volcanic gases can be harmful to health, vegetation and infrastructure |url=https://www.usgs.gov/programs/VHP/volcanic-gases-can-be-harmful-health-vegetation-and-infrastructure |access-date=7 May 2022 |website=United States Geologic Survey}}</ref> Volcanic emissions also include fine and ultrafine particles which may contain toxic chemicals and substances such as [[arsenic]], [[lead]], and [[Mercury (element)|mercury]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Trejos |first1=Erika M. |last2=Silva |first2=Luis F. O. |last3=Hower |first3=James C. |last4=Flores |first4=Eriko M. M. |last5=González |first5=Carlos Mario |last6=Pachón |first6=Jorge E. |last7=Aristizábal |first7=Beatriz H. |date=1 March 2021 |title=Volcanic emissions and atmospheric pollution: A study of nanoparticles |journal=Geoscience Frontiers |language=en |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=746–755 |doi=10.1016/j.gsf.2020.08.013 |bibcode=2021GeoFr..12..746T |s2cid=224936937 |issn=1674-9871|doi-access=free |hdl=11323/7574 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>
-[[Wildfire]]s, which can be caused naturally by [[lightning strike]]s, are also a significant source of air pollution. Wildfire smoke contains significant quantities of both carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide, which can cause [[suffocation]]. Large quantities of [[Particulates|fine particulates]] are found within wildfire smoke as well, which pose a health risk to animals.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Wildfires |url=https://www.who.int/health-topics/wildfires |access-date=2022-05-08 |website=[[World Health Organization]]}}</ref>
+[[Wildfire]]s, which can be caused naturally by [[lightning strike]]s, are also a significant source of air pollution. Wildfire smoke contains significant quantities of both carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide, which can cause [[suffocation]]. Large quantities of [[Particulates|fine particulates]] are found within wildfire smoke as well, which pose a health risk to animals.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Wildfires |url=https://www.who.int/health-topics/wildfires |access-date=8 May 2022 |website=[[World Health Organization]]}}</ref>
 == Human generation ==
+[[File:2021 Death rates, by energy source.svg |thumb |Deaths caused as a result of [[fossil fuel]] use (areas of rectangles in chart) greatly exceed those resulting from production of [[renewable energy]] (rectangles barely visible in chart).<ref name=OWID_SafestEnergy_2021>{{cite web |last1=Ritchie |first1=Hannah |last2=Roser |first2=Max |title=What are the safest and cleanest sources of energy? |url=https://ourworldindata.org/safest-sources-of-energy |publisher=Our World in Data |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240115112316/https://ourworldindata.org/safest-sources-of-energy |archive-date=15 January 2024 |date=2021 |url-status=live }} Data sources: Markandya & Wilkinson (2007); UNSCEAR (2008; 2018); Sovacool et al. (2016); IPCC AR5 (2014); Pehl et al. (2017); Ember Energy (2021).</ref>]]
-[[Motor vehicle emissions]] are one of the leading causes of air pollution.<ref>[http://www.tc.gc.ca/programs/environment/ems/epr2001/awareness.htm Environmental Performance Report 2001] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071112065500/http://www.tc.gc.ca/programs/environment/ems/epr2001/awareness.htm |date=2007-11-12 }} (Transport, [[Canada]] website page)</ref><ref>[http://www.environment.gov.au/soe/2006/publications/drs/atmosphere/issue/188/index.html State of the Environment, Issue: Air Quality] ([[Australia]]n Government website page)</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.umich.edu/~gs265/society/pollution.htm|title=Pollution|date=11 April 2007|access-date=1 December 2017|url-status=bot: unknown|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070411002000/http://www.umich.edu/~gs265/society/pollution.htm|archive-date=11 April 2007}}</ref> [[Air pollution in China|China]], [[Air pollution in the United States|United States]], [[Air pollution in Russia|Russia]], [[Air pollution in India|India]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cdiac.ornl.gov/trends/emis/tre_tp20.html|title=Top 20 Emitting Countries by Total Fossil-Fuel CO2 Emissions for 2009|first=Oak Ridge National|last=Laboratory|website=Cdiac.ornl.gov|access-date=1 December 2017|archive-date=11 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170511124547/http://cdiac.ornl.gov/trends/emis/tre_tp20.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Air pollution in Mexico|Mexico]], and Japan are the world leaders in air pollution emissions. Principal stationary pollution sources include [[chemical plant]]s, coal-fired [[power plants]], [[oil refinery|oil refineries]],<ref name="Aqueous" /> [[petrochemical]] plants, [[nuclear waste]] disposal activity, incinerators, large [[Environmental impact of meat production|livestock farms]] (dairy cows, pigs, poultry, etc.), [[Polyvinyl chloride|PVC]] factories, metals production factories, plastics factories, and other [[heavy industry]]. Agricultural air pollution comes from contemporary practices which include clear felling and burning of natural vegetation as well as spraying of pesticides and herbicides.<ref>''Silent Spring'', R Carlson, 1962</ref>
+[[Motor vehicle emissions]] are one of the leading causes of air pollution.<ref>[http://www.tc.gc.ca/programs/environment/ems/epr2001/awareness.htm Environmental Performance Report 2001] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071112065500/http://www.tc.gc.ca/programs/environment/ems/epr2001/awareness.htm |date=12 November 2007 }} (Transport, [[Canada]] website page)</ref><ref>[http://www.environment.gov.au/soe/2006/publications/drs/atmosphere/issue/188/index.html State of the Environment, Issue: Air Quality] ([[Australia]]n Government website page)</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.umich.edu/~gs265/society/pollution.htm|title=Pollution|date=11 April 2007|access-date=1 December 2017|url-status=bot: unknown|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070411002000/http://www.umich.edu/~gs265/society/pollution.htm|archive-date=11 April 2007}}</ref> [[Air pollution in China|China]], [[Air pollution in the United States|United States]], [[Air pollution in Russia|Russia]], [[Air pollution in India|India]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cdiac.ornl.gov/trends/emis/tre_tp20.html|title=Top 20 Emitting Countries by Total Fossil-Fuel CO2 Emissions for 2009|first=Oak Ridge National|last=Laboratory|website=Cdiac.ornl.gov|access-date=1 December 2017|archive-date=11 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170511124547/http://cdiac.ornl.gov/trends/emis/tre_tp20.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Air pollution in Mexico|Mexico]], and Japan are the world leaders in air pollution emissions. Principal stationary pollution sources include [[chemical plant]]s, coal-fired [[power plants]], [[oil refinery|oil refineries]],<ref name="Aqueous" /> [[petrochemical]] plants, [[nuclear waste]] disposal activity, incinerators, large [[Environmental impact of meat production|livestock farms]] (dairy cows, pigs, poultry, etc.), [[Polyvinyl chloride|PVC]] factories, metals production factories, plastics factories, and other [[heavy industry]]. Agricultural air pollution comes from contemporary practices which include clear felling and burning of natural vegetation as well as spraying of pesticides and herbicides.<ref>''Silent Spring'', R Carlson, 1962</ref>
-About 400 million metric tons of [[hazardous waste]]s are generated each year.<ref>"[http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761570933_2/Pollution.html Pollution] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091021014815/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761570933_2/Pollution.html |date=2009-10-21 }}". Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2009.</ref> The United States alone produces about 250 million metric tons.<ref>{{cite web|title=Solid Waste – The Ultimate Guide|url=http://www.ppsthane.com/blog/solid-hazardous-waste-ultimate-guide|website=Ppsthane.com|access-date=1 December 2017}}</ref> Americans constitute less than 5% of the [[world's population]], but produce roughly 25% of the world's [[carbon dioxide|{{CO2}}]],<ref>"[http://news.uns.purdue.edu/x/2008a/080407GurneyVulcan.html Revolutionary {{CO2}} maps zoom in on greenhouse gas sources] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200501115653/http://news.uns.purdue.edu/x/2008a/080407GurneyVulcan.html |date=2020-05-01 }}". [[Purdue University]]. April 7, 2008.</ref> and generate approximately 30% of [[waste|world's waste]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.oregon.gov/DAS/FAC/docs/ww092001.pdf |title=Waste Watcher |access-date=2010-08-26 |archive-date=2020-05-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200510211714/https://www.oregon.gov/DAS/FAC/docs/ww092001.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>[http://www.boston.com/news/nation/washington/articles/2006/08/31/alarm_sounds_on_us_population_boom/ Alarm sounds on US population boom]. August 31, 2006. The Boston Globe.</ref> In 2007, [[People's Republic of China|China]] overtook the United States as the world's biggest producer of {{CO2}},<ref>"[https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2007/jun/19/china.usnews China overtakes US as world's biggest {{CO2}} emitter]". Guardian.co.uk. June 19, 2007.</ref> while still far behind based on per capita pollution (ranked 78th among the world's nations).<ref>"[http://cdiac.ornl.gov/trends/emis/top2008.cap Ranking of the world's countries by 2008 per capita fossil-fuel CO2 emission rates.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927213509/http://cdiac.ornl.gov/trends/emis/top2008.cap |date=2011-09-27 }}". CDIAC. 2008.</ref>
+About 400 million metric tons of [[hazardous waste]]s are generated each year.<ref>"[http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761570933_2/Pollution.html Pollution] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091021014815/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761570933_2/Pollution.html |date=2009-10-21 }}". Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2009.</ref> The United States alone produces about 250 million metric tons.<ref>{{cite web|title=Solid Waste – The Ultimate Guide|url=http://www.ppsthane.com/blog/solid-hazardous-waste-ultimate-guide|website=Ppsthane.com|access-date=1 December 2017}}</ref> Americans constitute less than 5% of the [[world's population]], but produce roughly 25% of the world's [[carbon dioxide|{{CO2}}]],<ref>"[http://news.uns.purdue.edu/x/2008a/080407GurneyVulcan.html Revolutionary {{CO2}} maps zoom in on greenhouse gas sources] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200501115653/http://news.uns.purdue.edu/x/2008a/080407GurneyVulcan.html |date=2020-05-01 }}". [[Purdue University]]. 7 April 2008.</ref> and generate approximately 30% of [[waste|world's waste]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.oregon.gov/DAS/FAC/docs/ww092001.pdf |title=Waste Watcher |access-date=26 August 2010 |archive-date=10 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200510211714/https://www.oregon.gov/DAS/FAC/docs/ww092001.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>[http://www.boston.com/news/nation/washington/articles/2006/08/31/alarm_sounds_on_us_population_boom/ Alarm sounds on US population boom]. 31 August 2006. The Boston Globe.</ref> In 2007, [[People's Republic of China|China]] overtook the United States as the world's biggest producer of {{CO2}},<ref>"[https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2007/jun/19/china.usnews China overtakes US as world's biggest {{CO2}} emitter]". Guardian.co.uk. 19 June 2007.</ref> while still far behind based on per capita pollution (ranked 78th among the world's nations).<ref>"[http://cdiac.ornl.gov/trends/emis/top2008.cap Ranking of the world's countries by 2008 per capita fossil-fuel CO2 emission rates.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927213509/http://cdiac.ornl.gov/trends/emis/top2008.cap |date=2011-09-27 }}". CDIAC. 2008.</ref>
 [[File:Yangzhou - industrial area west of Wenfeng Temple - P1130239.JPG|thumb|An industrial area, with a power plant, south of [[Yangzhou]]'s downtown, [[China]]]]
-Chlorinated hydrocarbons (CFH), heavy metals (such as chromium, cadmium – found in rechargeable batteries, and lead – found in lead paint, aviation fuel, and even in certain countries, gasoline), MTBE, zinc, arsenic, and benzene are some of the most frequent soil contaminants. A series of press reports published in 2001, culminating in the publication of the book Fateful Harvest, revealed a widespread practise of recycling industrial leftovers into fertilizer, resulting in metal poisoning of the soil.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Environmental Pollution {{!}} Chemistry Science Fair Project |url=https://www.seminarsonly.com/Engineering-Projects/Chemistry/Environmental-Pollution.php |access-date=2022-06-07 |website=www.seminarsonly.com}}</ref> Ordinary municipal [[landfill]]s are the source of many chemical substances entering the soil environment (and often groundwater), emanating from the wide variety of refuse accepted, especially substances illegally discarded there, or from pre-1970 landfills that may have been subject to little control in the U.S. or EU. There have also been some unusual releases of [[polychlorinated dibenzodioxins]], commonly called ''dioxins'' for simplicity, such as [[2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzodioxin|TCDD]].<ref>{{cite journal|author=Beychok, Milton R. |date=January 1987 |title=A data base for dioxin and furan emissions from refuse incinerators |journal=Atmospheric Environment |volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=29–36 |doi=10.1016/0004-6981(87)90267-8 |bibcode=1987AtmEn..21...29B}}</ref>
+Chlorinated hydrocarbons (CFH), heavy metals (such as chromium, cadmium – found in rechargeable batteries, and lead – found in lead paint, aviation fuel, and even in certain countries, gasoline), MTBE, zinc, arsenic, and benzene are some of the most frequent soil contaminants. A series of press reports published in 2001, culminating in the publication of the book Fateful Harvest, revealed a widespread practise of recycling industrial leftovers into fertilizer, resulting in metal poisoning of the soil.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Environmental Pollution {{!}} Chemistry Science Fair Project |url=https://www.seminarsonly.com/Engineering-Projects/Chemistry/Environmental-Pollution.php |access-date=7 June 2022 |website=www.seminarsonly.com}}</ref> Ordinary municipal [[landfill]]s are the source of many chemical substances entering the soil environment (and often groundwater), emanating from the wide variety of refuse accepted, especially substances illegally discarded there, or from pre-1970 landfills that may have been subject to little control in the U.S. or EU. There have also been some unusual releases of [[polychlorinated dibenzodioxins]], commonly called ''dioxins'' for simplicity, such as [[2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzodioxin|TCDD]].<ref>{{cite journal|author=Beychok, Milton R. |date=January 1987 |title=A data base for dioxin and furan emissions from refuse incinerators |journal=Atmospheric Environment |volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=29–36 |doi=10.1016/0004-6981(87)90267-8 |bibcode=1987AtmEn..21...29B}}</ref>
-Pollution can also occur as a result of natural disasters. Hurricanes, for example, frequently result in sewage contamination and petrochemical spills from burst boats or automobiles. When coastal oil rigs or refineries are involved, larger-scale and environmental damage is not unusual. When accidents occur, some pollution sources, such as nuclear power stations or oil ships, can create extensive and potentially catastrophic emissions.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Environmental disasters |url=https://www.lenntech.com/environmental-disasters.htm |access-date=2022-06-07 |website=www.lenntech.com}}</ref>
+Pollution can also occur as a result of natural disasters. Hurricanes, for example, frequently result in sewage contamination and petrochemical spills from burst boats or automobiles. When coastal oil rigs or refineries are involved, larger-scale and environmental damage is not unusual. When accidents occur, some pollution sources, such as nuclear power stations or oil ships, can create extensive and potentially catastrophic emissions.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Environmental disasters |url=https://www.lenntech.com/environmental-disasters.htm |access-date=7 June 2022 |website=www.lenntech.com}}</ref>
+Plastic pollution is choking our oceans by making plastic gyres, entangling marine animals, poisoning our food and water supply, and ultimately inflicting havoc on the health and well-being of humans and wildlife globally. With the exception of a small amount that has been incinerating, virtually every piece of plastic that was ever made in the past still exists in one form or another.  And since most of the plastics do not biodegrade in any meaningful sense, all that [[plastic waste]] could exist for hundreds or even thousands of years. If plastic production is not circumscribed, plastic pollution will be disastrous and will eventually outweigh fish in oceans.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hassan |first1=Sidra |last2=Haq |first2=Ihsan ul |date=27 June 2019 |title=Pervasive Pollution Problems Caused by Plastics and its Degradation |url=https://online-journals.org/index.php/i-joe/article/view/10873 |journal=International Journal of Online and Biomedical Engineering |language=en |volume=15 |issue=10 |pages=29–39 |doi=10.3991/ijoe.v15i10.10873 |s2cid=198582480 |issn=2626-8493|doi-access=free }}</ref>
-The motor vehicle is the most common cause of noise pollution, accounting for over 90% of all undesirable noise globally.
-Plastic pollution is choking our oceans by making plastic gyres, entangling marine animals, poisoning our food and water supply, and ultimately inflicting havoc on the health and well-being of humans and wildlife globally. With the exception of a small amount that has been incinerating, virtually every piece of plastic that was ever made in the past still exists in one form or another.  And since most of the plastics do not biodegrade in any meaningful sense, all that [[plastic waste]] could exist for hundreds or even thousands of years. If plastic production is not circumscribed, plastic pollution will be disastrous and will eventually outweigh fish in oceans.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hassan |first1=Sidra |last2=Haq |first2=Ihsan ul |date=2019-06-27 |title=Pervasive Pollution Problems Caused by Plastics and its Degradation |url=https://online-journals.org/index.php/i-joe/article/view/10873 |journal=International Journal of Online and Biomedical Engineering |language=en |volume=15 |issue=10 |pages=29–39 |doi=10.3991/ijoe.v15i10.10873 |s2cid=198582480 |issn=2626-8493|doi-access=free }}</ref>
 === Greenhouse gas emissions ===
@@ Line 56: / Line 55: @@
 [[File:CO2-by-country--1990-2025.png|thumb|upright=1.35|Historical and projected CO<sub>2</sub> emissions by country (as of 2005).<br />
-Source: Energy Information Administration.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080423003259/http://ftp.eia.doe.gov/pub/oiaf/1605/cdrom/pdf/ggrpt/057304.pdf World Carbon Dioxide Emissions] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080326004201/http://[email protected]/pub/oiaf/1605/cdrom/pdf/ggrpt/057304.pdf|date=2008-03-26}} (Table 1, Report DOE/EIA-0573, 2004, [[Energy Information Administration]])</ref><ref>[http://rainforests.mongabay.com/09-carbon_emissions.htm Carbon dioxide emissions chart] (graph on Mongabay website page based on Energy Information Administration's tabulated data)</ref>]]
+Source: Energy Information Administration.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080423003259/http://ftp.eia.doe.gov/pub/oiaf/1605/cdrom/pdf/ggrpt/057304.pdf World Carbon Dioxide Emissions] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080326004201/http://[email protected]/pub/oiaf/1605/cdrom/pdf/ggrpt/057304.pdf|date=26 March 2008}} (Table 1, Report DOE/EIA-0573, 2004, [[Energy Information Administration]])</ref><ref>[http://rainforests.mongabay.com/09-carbon_emissions.htm Carbon dioxide emissions chart] (graph on Mongabay website page based on Energy Information Administration's tabulated data)</ref>]]
 [[Carbon dioxide]], while vital for [[photosynthesis]], is sometimes referred to as pollution, because raised levels of the gas in the atmosphere are affecting the Earth's climate. Disruption of the environment can also highlight the connection between areas of pollution that would normally be classified separately, such as those of water and air. Recent studies have investigated the potential for long-term rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide to cause slight but critical [[ocean acidification|increases in the acidity of ocean waters]], and the possible effects of this on marine ecosystems.
-In February 2007, a report by the [[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change]] (IPCC), representing the work of 2,500 scientists, economists, and policymakers from more than 120 countries, confirmed that humans have been the primary cause of global warming since 1950. Humans have ways to cut greenhouse gas emissions and avoid the consequences of global warming, a major climate report concluded. But to change the climate, the transition from [[fossil fuels]] like coal and oil needs to occur within decades, according to the final report this year<!-- what year is that then? --> from the UN's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC).<ref>{{cite web|title=Global Warming Can Be Stopped, World Climate Experts Say|url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/05/070504-global-warming.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070509013424/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/05/070504-global-warming.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=May 9, 2007|access-date=2010-08-26|publisher=News.nationalgeographic.com}}</ref>
+In February 2007, a report by the [[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change]] (IPCC), representing the work of 2,500 scientists, economists, and policymakers from more than 120 countries, confirmed that humans have been the primary cause of global warming since 1950. Humans have ways to cut greenhouse gas emissions and avoid the consequences of global warming, a major climate report concluded. But to change the climate, the transition from [[fossil fuels]] like coal and oil needs to occur within decades, according to the final report this year<!-- what year is that then? --> from the UN's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC).<ref>{{cite web|title=Global Warming Can Be Stopped, World Climate Experts Say|url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/05/070504-global-warming.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070509013424/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/05/070504-global-warming.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=9 May 2007|access-date=26 August 2010|publisher=News.nationalgeographic.com}}</ref>
 ==Effects==
 ===Human health===
 {{further|Soil pollution#Health effects|Toxic hotspots|List of pollution-related diseases|Air pollution#Health effects}}
-[[File:Health effects of pollution.png|thumb|upright=1.6|Overview of main health effects on humans from some common types of pollution<ref>[http://earthtrends.wri.org/updates/node/325 World Resources Institute: August 2008 Monthly Update: Air Pollution's Causes, Consequences and Solutions] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090501181320/http://earthtrends.wri.org/updates/node/325 |date=2009-05-01 }} Submitted by Matt Kallman on Wed, 2008-08-20 18:22. Retrieved on April 17, 2009</ref><ref>[http://www.waterhealthconnection.org/chapter3.asp waterhealthconnection.org Overview of Waterborne Disease Trends] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080905155251/http://www.waterhealthconnection.org/chapter3.asp |date=2008-09-05 }} By Patricia L. Meinhardt, MD, MPH, MA, Author. Retrieved on April 16, 2009</ref><ref>[http://pubs.cas.psu.edu/FreePubs/pdfs/uo198.pdf Pennsylvania State University &gt; Potential Health Effects of Pesticides.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130811175133/http://pubs.cas.psu.edu/FreePubs/pdfs/uo198.pdf |date=2013-08-11 }} by Eric S. Lorenz. 2007.</ref>]]
+[[File:Health effects of pollution.png|thumb|upright=1.6|Overview of main health effects on humans from some common types of pollution<ref>[http://earthtrends.wri.org/updates/node/325 World Resources Institute: August 2008 Monthly Update: Air Pollution's Causes, Consequences and Solutions] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090501181320/http://earthtrends.wri.org/updates/node/325 |date=1 May 2009 }} Submitted by Matt Kallman on Wed, 20 August 2008 18:22. Retrieved on 17 April 2009</ref><ref>[http://www.waterhealthconnection.org/chapter3.asp waterhealthconnection.org Overview of Waterborne Disease Trends] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080905155251/http://www.waterhealthconnection.org/chapter3.asp |date=5 September 2008 }} By Patricia L. Meinhardt, MD, MPH, MA, Author. Retrieved on 16 April 2009</ref><ref>[http://pubs.cas.psu.edu/FreePubs/pdfs/uo198.pdf Pennsylvania State University &gt; Potential Health Effects of Pesticides.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130811175133/http://pubs.cas.psu.edu/FreePubs/pdfs/uo198.pdf |date=11 August 2013 }} by Eric S. Lorenz. 2007.</ref>]]
-Pollution affects humans in every part of the world. An October 2017 study by the Lancet Commission on Pollution and Health found that global pollution, specifically toxic air, water, soil and workplaces, kills nine million people annually, which is triple the number of deaths caused by AIDS, tuberculosis and malaria combined, and 15 times higher than deaths caused by wars and other forms of human violence.<ref>{{cite news |last=Stanglin |first=Doug |date=October 20, 2017 |title=Global pollution is the world's biggest killer and a threat to survival of mankind, study finds |work=[[USA Today]] |url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/2017/10/20/study-global-pollution-worlds-biggest-killer-and-threat-survival-mankind/783321001/ |access-date=October 20, 2017}}</ref> The study concluded that "pollution is one of the great existential challenges of the [[Anthropocene]] era. Pollution endangers the stability of the Earth's support systems and threatens the continuing survival of human societies."<ref name="Carrington" />
+Pollution affects humans in every part of the world. An October 2017 study by the Lancet Commission on Pollution and Health found that global pollution, specifically toxic air, water, soil and workplaces, kills nine million people annually, which is triple the number of deaths caused by AIDS, tuberculosis and malaria combined, and 15 times higher than deaths caused by wars and other forms of human violence.<ref>{{cite news |last=Stanglin |first=Doug |date=20 October 2017 |title=Global pollution is the world's biggest killer and a threat to survival of mankind, study finds |work=[[USA Today]] |url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/2017/10/20/study-global-pollution-worlds-biggest-killer-and-threat-survival-mankind/783321001/ |access-date=20 October 2017}}</ref> The study concluded that "pollution is one of the great existential challenges of the [[Anthropocene]] era. Pollution endangers the stability of the Earth's support systems and threatens the continuing survival of human societies."<ref name="Carrington" />
-Adverse [[air quality]] can kill many organisms, including humans. Ozone pollution can cause [[respiratory disease]], [[cardiovascular disease]], [[throat]] inflammation, chest pain, and [[Nasal congestion|congestion]]. A 2010 analysis estimated that 1.2 million people died prematurely each year in [[People's Republic of China|China]] alone because of air pollution.<ref>{{cite web |last=Wong |first=Edward |date=1 April 2013 |title=Air Pollution Linked to 1.2 Million Deaths in China |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/04/02/world/asia/air-pollution-linked-to-1-2-million-deaths-in-china.html |access-date=1 December 2017 |website=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref> China's high smog levels can damage the human body and cause various diseases.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Maji |first1=Kamal Jyoti |last2=Arora |first2=Mohit |last3=Dikshit |first3=Anil Kumar |date=2017-04-01 |title=Burden of disease attributed to ambient PM2.5 and PM10 exposure in 190 cities in China |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=24 |issue=12 |pages=11559–11572 |doi=10.1007/s11356-017-8575-7 |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=28321701 |bibcode=2017ESPR...2411559M |s2cid=37640939}}</ref> In 2019, air pollution caused 1.67 million deaths in India (17.8% of total deaths nationally).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Pandey |first1=Anamika |last2=Brauer |first2=Michael |last3=Cropper |first3=Maureen L |last4=Balakrishnan |first4=Kalpana |last5=Mathur |first5=Prashant |last6=Dey |first6=Sagnik |last7=Turkgulu |first7=Burak |last8=Kumar |first8=G Anil |last9=Khare |first9=Mukesh |last10=Beig |first10=Gufran |last11=Gupta |first11=Tarun |last12=Krishnankutty |first12=Rinu P |last13=Causey |first13=Kate |last14=Cohen |first14=Aaron J |last15=Bhargava |first15=Stuti |date=21 December 2020 |title=Health and economic impact of air pollution in the states of India: the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019 |url=https://doi.org/10.1016/S2542-5196(20)30298-9 |journal=The Lancet Planetary Health |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=e25–e38 |doi=10.1016/s2542-5196(20)30298-9 |issn=2542-5196 |pmc=7805008 |pmid=33357500}}</ref> Studies have estimated that the number of people killed annually in the United States could be over 50,000.<ref>{{cite web |author=David, Michael, and Caroline |title=Air Pollution – Effects |url=http://library.thinkquest.org/26026/Environmental_Problems/air_pollution_-_effects.html |access-date=2010-08-26 |publisher=Library.thinkquest.org |archive-date=2011-04-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110430113828/http://library.thinkquest.org/26026/Environmental_Problems/air_pollution_-_effects.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> A study published in 2022 in ''[[American Geophysical Union#Publications|GeoHealth]]'' concluded that energy-related fossil fuel emissions in the United States cause 46,900–59,400 premature deaths each year and PM2.5-related illness and death costs the nation $537–$678 billion annually.<ref name="GeoHealth_20220516">{{cite journal |last1=Mailloux |first1=Nicholas A. |last2=Abel |first2=David W. |last3=Holloway |first3=Tracey |last4=Patz |first4=Jonathan A. |date=16 May 2022 |title=Nationwide and Regional PM2.5-Related Air Quality Health Benefits From the Removal of Energy-Related Emissions in the United States |journal=GeoHealth |volume=6 |issue=5 |pages=e2022GH000603 |doi=10.1029/2022GH000603 |pmc=9109601 |pmid=35599962}}</ref>
+Adverse [[air quality]] can kill many organisms, including humans. Ozone pollution can cause [[respiratory disease]], [[cardiovascular disease]], [[throat]] inflammation, chest pain, and [[Nasal congestion|congestion]]. A 2010 analysis estimated that 1.2 million people died prematurely each year in [[People's Republic of China|China]] alone because of air pollution.<ref>{{cite web |last=Wong |first=Edward |date=1 April 2013 |title=Air Pollution Linked to 1.2 Million Deaths in China |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/04/02/world/asia/air-pollution-linked-to-1-2-million-deaths-in-china.html |access-date=1 December 2017 |website=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref> China's high smog levels can damage the human body and cause various diseases.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Maji |first1=Kamal Jyoti |last2=Arora |first2=Mohit |last3=Dikshit |first3=Anil Kumar |date=1 April 2017 |title=Burden of disease attributed to ambient PM2.5 and PM10 exposure in 190 cities in China |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=24 |issue=12 |pages=11559–11572 |doi=10.1007/s11356-017-8575-7 |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=28321701 |bibcode=2017ESPR...2411559M |s2cid=37640939}}</ref> In 2019, air pollution caused 1.67 million deaths in India (17.8% of total deaths nationally).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Pandey |first1=Anamika |last2=Brauer |first2=Michael |last3=Cropper |first3=Maureen L |last4=Balakrishnan |first4=Kalpana |last5=Mathur |first5=Prashant |last6=Dey |first6=Sagnik |last7=Turkgulu |first7=Burak |last8=Kumar |first8=G Anil |last9=Khare |first9=Mukesh |last10=Beig |first10=Gufran |last11=Gupta |first11=Tarun |last12=Krishnankutty |first12=Rinu P |last13=Causey |first13=Kate |last14=Cohen |first14=Aaron J |last15=Bhargava |first15=Stuti |date=21 December 2020 |title=Health and economic impact of air pollution in the states of India: the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019 |url=https://doi.org/10.1016/S2542-5196(20)30298-9 |journal=The Lancet Planetary Health |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=e25–e38 |doi=10.1016/s2542-5196(20)30298-9 |issn=2542-5196 |pmc=7805008 |pmid=33357500}}</ref> Studies have estimated that the number of people killed annually in the United States could be over 50,000.<ref>{{cite web |author1=David |author2=Michael |author3=Caroline, Mindy |author4=Neil Franklin |author5=Vikas |title=Air Pollution – Effects |url=http://library.thinkquest.org/26026/Environmental_Problems/air_pollution_-_effects.html |access-date=26 August 2010 |publisher=Library.thinkquest.org |archive-date=30 April 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110430113828/http://library.thinkquest.org/26026/Environmental_Problems/air_pollution_-_effects.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> A study published in 2022 in ''[[American Geophysical Union#Publications|GeoHealth]]'' concluded that energy-related fossil fuel emissions in the United States cause 46,900–59,400 premature deaths each year and PM2.5-related illness and death costs the nation $537–$678 billion annually.<ref name="GeoHealth_20220516">{{cite journal |last1=Mailloux |first1=Nicholas A. |last2=Abel |first2=David W. |last3=Holloway |first3=Tracey |last4=Patz |first4=Jonathan A. |date=16 May 2022 |title=Nationwide and Regional PM2.5-Related Air Quality Health Benefits From the Removal of Energy-Related Emissions in the United States |journal=GeoHealth |volume=6 |issue=5 |pages=e2022GH000603 |doi=10.1029/2022GH000603 |pmc=9109601 |pmid=35599962|bibcode=2022GHeal...6..603M }}</ref> In the US, deaths caused by coal pollution were highest in 1999, but decreased sharply after 2007. The number dropped by about 95% by 2020, as coal plants have been closed or have [[scrubbers]] installed.<ref name="News 2023 i191">{{cite web | title=Particulate pollution from coal associated with double the risk of mortality than PM2.5 from other sources | website=News | date=23 Nov 2023 | url=https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/news/press-releases/particulate-pollution-from-coal-associated-with-double-the-risk-of-mortality-than-pm2-5-from-other-sources/ | access-date=10 Apr 2024}}</ref>
-In 2019, [[water pollution]] caused 1.4 million premature deaths.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fuller |first1=Richard |last2=Landrigan |first2=Philip J |last3=Balakrishnan |first3=Kalpana |last4=Bathan |first4=Glynda |last5=Bose-O'Reilly |first5=Stephan |last6=Brauer |first6=Michael |last7=Caravanos |first7=Jack |last8=Chiles |first8=Tom |last9=Cohen |first9=Aaron |last10=Corra |first10=Lilian |last11=Cropper |first11=Maureen |last12=Ferraro |first12=Greg |last13=Hanna |first13=Jill |last14=Hanrahan |first14=David |last15=Hu |first15=Howard |date=June 2022 |title=Pollution and health: a progress update |journal=The Lancet Planetary Health |volume=6 |issue=6 |pages=e535–e547 |doi=10.1016/s2542-5196(22)00090-0 |pmid=35594895 |issn=2542-5196|doi-access=free }}</ref> [[Water pollution|Contamination of drinking water]] by untreated [[sewage]] in [[developing countries]] is an issue, for example, over 732 million Indians (56% of the population) and over 92 million Ethiopians (92.9% of the population) do not have access to basic [[sanitation]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=WaterAid |date=November 2017 |title=Out of Order – The State of the World's Toilets 2017 |url=https://www.wateraid.org/uk/sites/g/files/jkxoof211/files/Out%20of%20Order%20report%202017_0.pdf |journal=}}</ref> In 2013 over 10 million people in India fell ill with waterborne illnesses in 2013, and 1,535 people died, most of them children.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/pune/Over-1500-lives-lost-to-diarrhoea-in-2013-delay-in-treatment-blamed/articleshow/39186504.cms|title=Over 1,500 lives lost to diarrhoea in 2013, delay in treatment blamed|website=The Times of India|last=Isalkar|first=Umesh|date=29 July 2014|publisher=[[Indiatimes]]|access-date=29 July 2014}}</ref> {{As of|2007}}, nearly 500 million Chinese lack access to safe drinking water.<ref>"[https://www.nytimes.com/2007/08/26/world/asia/26china.html As China Roars, Pollution Reaches Deadly Extremes]". The New York Times. August 26, 2007.</ref>
+In 2019, [[water pollution]] caused 1.4 million premature deaths.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fuller |first1=Richard |last2=Landrigan |first2=Philip J |last3=Balakrishnan |first3=Kalpana |last4=Bathan |first4=Glynda |last5=Bose-O'Reilly |first5=Stephan |last6=Brauer |first6=Michael |last7=Caravanos |first7=Jack |last8=Chiles |first8=Tom |last9=Cohen |first9=Aaron |last10=Corra |first10=Lilian |last11=Cropper |first11=Maureen |last12=Ferraro |first12=Greg |last13=Hanna |first13=Jill |last14=Hanrahan |first14=David |last15=Hu |first15=Howard |date=June 2022 |title=Pollution and health: a progress update |journal=The Lancet Planetary Health |volume=6 |issue=6 |pages=e535–e547 |doi=10.1016/s2542-5196(22)00090-0 |pmid=35594895 |issn=2542-5196|doi-access=free }}</ref> [[Water pollution|Contamination of drinking water]] by untreated [[sewage]] in [[developing countries]] is an issue, for example, over 732 million Indians (56% of the population) and over 92 million Ethiopians (92.9% of the population) do not have access to basic [[sanitation]].<ref>{{Cite journal |website=WaterAid |date=November 2017 |title=Out of Order – The State of the World's Toilets 2017 |url=https://www.wateraid.org/uk/sites/g/files/jkxoof211/files/Out%20of%20Order%20report%202017_0.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20231207115250/https://www.wateraid.org/uk/sites/g/files/jkxoof211/files/Out%20of%20Order%20report%202017_0.pdf |archive-date= Dec 7, 2023 }}</ref> In 2013 over 10 million people in India fell ill with waterborne illnesses in 2013, and 1,535 people died, most of them children.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/pune/Over-1500-lives-lost-to-diarrhoea-in-2013-delay-in-treatment-blamed/articleshow/39186504.cms|title=Over 1,500 lives lost to diarrhoea in 2013, delay in treatment blamed|website=The Times of India|last=Isalkar|first=Umesh|date=29 July 2014|publisher=[[Indiatimes]]|access-date=29 July 2014}}</ref> {{As of|2007}}, nearly 500 million Chinese lack access to safe drinking water.<ref>"[https://www.nytimes.com/2007/08/26/world/asia/26china.html As China Roars, Pollution Reaches Deadly Extremes]". The New York Times. 26 August 2007.</ref>
-Acute exposure to certain pollutants can have short and long term effects. Oil spills can cause [[human skin|skin]] irritations and [[rash]]es. Noise pollution induces [[hearing loss]], [[high blood pressure]], [[stress (medicine)|stress]], and [[sleep disturbance]]. [[Mercury poisoning|Mercury]] has been linked to [[developmental disorder|developmental deficits]] in children and [[neurology|neurologic]] symptoms. Older people are significantly exposed to [[Health effects of air pollution|diseases induced by air pollution]]. Those with heart or lung disorders are at additional risk. Children and infants are also at serious risk. [[Lead poisoning|Lead]] and other [[Toxic metal|heavy metals]] have been shown to cause neurological problems, intellectual disabilities and behavioural problems.<ref>{{Cite web |last=World Health Organisation |date=31 August 2022 |title=Lead poisoning |url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/lead-poisoning-and-health |access-date=2023-07-05 |website=www.who.int |language=en}}</ref> Chemical and [[radioactive]] substances can [[Carcinogen|cause]] [[cancer]] and [[birth defect]]s.
+Acute exposure to certain pollutants can have short and long term effects. Oil spills can cause [[human skin|skin]] irritations and [[rash]]es. Noise pollution induces [[hearing loss]], [[high blood pressure]], [[stress (medicine)|stress]], and [[sleep disturbance]]. [[Mercury poisoning|Mercury]] has been linked to [[developmental disorder|developmental deficits]] in children and [[neurology|neurologic]] symptoms. Older people are significantly exposed to [[Health effects of air pollution|diseases induced by air pollution]]. Those with heart or lung disorders are at additional risk. Children and infants are also at serious risk. [[Lead poisoning|Lead]] and other [[Toxic metal|heavy metals]] have been shown to cause neurological problems, intellectual disabilities and behavioural problems.<ref>{{Cite web |last=World Health Organisation |date=31 August 2022 |title=Lead poisoning |url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/lead-poisoning-and-health |access-date=5 July 2023 |website=www.who.int |language=en}}</ref> Chemical and [[radioactive]] substances can [[Carcinogen|cause]] [[cancer]] and [[birth defect]]s.
 ==== Socio economic impacts ====
-The health impacts of pollution have both direct and lasting social consequences. A 2021 study found that exposure to pollution causes an increase in violent crime.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Herrnstadt |first1=Evan |last2=Heyes |first2=Anthony |last3=Muehlegger |first3=Erich |last4=Saberian |first4=Soodeh |date=2021 |title=Air Pollution and Criminal Activity: Microgeographic Evidence from Chicago |url=https://www.aeaweb.org/articles?id=10.1257/app.20190091 |journal=American Economic Journal: Applied Economics |language=en |volume=13 |issue=4 |pages=70–100 |doi=10.1257/app.20190091 |issn=1945-7782 |hdl-access=free |hdl=10871/122348 |s2cid=226513602}}</ref> A 2019 paper linked pollution to adverse school outcomes for children.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Heissel |first1=Jennifer |last2=Persico |first2=Claudia |last3=Simon |first3=David |date=2019 |title=Does Pollution Drive Achievement? The Effect of Traffic Pollution on Academic Performance |url=http://www.nber.org/papers/w25489 |doi=10.3386/w25489 |hdl-access=free |hdl=10945/61763 |s2cid=135425218 |website=National Bureau of Economic Research|series=Working Paper Series }}</ref> A number of studies show that pollution has an adverse effect on the productivity of both indoor and outdoor workers.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zivin |first1=Joshua Graff |last2=Neidell |first2=Matthew |date=2012-12-01 |title=The Impact of Pollution on Worker Productivity |journal=American Economic Review |volume=102 |issue=7 |pages=3652–3673 |doi=10.1257/aer.102.7.3652 |issn=0002-8282 |pmc=4576916 |pmid=26401055}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Li |first1=Teng |last2=Liu |first2=Haoming |last3=Salvo |first3=Alberto |date=2015-05-29 |title=Severe Air Pollution and Labor Productivity |location=Rochester, NY |publisher=Social Science Research Network |ssrn=2581311}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Neidell |first1=Matthew |last2=Gross |first2=Tal |last3=Graff Zivin |first3=Joshua |last4=Chang |first4=Tom Y. |date=2019 |title=The Effect of Pollution on Worker Productivity: Evidence from Call Center Workers in China |url=http://www.nber.org/papers/w22328.pdf |journal=American Economic Journal: Applied Economics |language=en |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=151–172 |doi=10.1257/app.20160436 |issn=1945-7782 |doi-access=free |s2cid=3329058}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Salvo |first1=Alberto |last2=Liu |first2=Haoming |last3=He |first3=Jiaxiu |date=2019 |title=Severe Air Pollution and Labor Productivity: Evidence from Industrial Towns in China |url=https://econpapers.repec.org/RePEc:iza:izadps:dp8916 |journal=American Economic Journal: Applied Economics |language=en |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=173–201 |doi=10.1257/app.20170286 |issn=1945-7782 |s2cid=41838178}}</ref>
+The health impacts of pollution have both direct and lasting social consequences. A 2021 study found that exposure to pollution causes an increase in violent crime.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Herrnstadt |first1=Evan |last2=Heyes |first2=Anthony |last3=Muehlegger |first3=Erich |last4=Saberian |first4=Soodeh |date=2021 |title=Air Pollution and Criminal Activity: Microgeographic Evidence from Chicago |url=https://www.aeaweb.org/articles?id=10.1257/app.20190091 |journal=American Economic Journal: Applied Economics |language=en |volume=13 |issue=4 |pages=70–100 |doi=10.1257/app.20190091 |issn=1945-7782 |hdl-access=free |hdl=10871/122348 |s2cid=226513602}}</ref> A 2019 paper linked pollution to adverse school outcomes for children.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Heissel |first1=Jennifer |last2=Persico |first2=Claudia |last3=Simon |first3=David |date=2019 |title=Does Pollution Drive Achievement? The Effect of Traffic Pollution on Academic Performance |url=http://www.nber.org/papers/w25489 |doi=10.3386/w25489 |hdl-access=free |hdl=10945/61763 |s2cid=135425218 |website=National Bureau of Economic Research|series=Working Paper Series }}</ref> A number of studies show that pollution has an adverse effect on the productivity of both indoor and outdoor workers.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zivin |first1=Joshua Graff |last2=Neidell |first2=Matthew |date=1 December 2012 |title=The Impact of Pollution on Worker Productivity |journal=American Economic Review |volume=102 |issue=7 |pages=3652–3673 |doi=10.1257/aer.102.7.3652 |issn=0002-8282 |pmc=4576916 |pmid=26401055}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Li |first1=Teng |last2=Liu |first2=Haoming |last3=Salvo |first3=Alberto |date=29 May 2015 |title=Severe Air Pollution and Labor Productivity |location=Rochester, NY |publisher=Social Science Research Network |ssrn=2581311}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Neidell |first1=Matthew |last2=Gross |first2=Tal |last3=Graff Zivin |first3=Joshua |last4=Chang |first4=Tom Y. |date=2019 |title=The Effect of Pollution on Worker Productivity: Evidence from Call Center Workers in China |url=http://www.nber.org/papers/w22328.pdf |journal=American Economic Journal: Applied Economics |language=en |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=151–172 |doi=10.1257/app.20160436 |issn=1945-7782 |doi-access=free |s2cid=3329058}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Salvo |first1=Alberto |last2=Liu |first2=Haoming |last3=He |first3=Jiaxiu |date=2019 |title=Severe Air Pollution and Labor Productivity: Evidence from Industrial Towns in China |url=https://econpapers.repec.org/RePEc:iza:izadps:dp8916 |journal=American Economic Journal: Applied Economics |language=en |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=173–201 |doi=10.1257/app.20170286 |issn=1945-7782 |s2cid=41838178}}</ref>
 ===Environment===
 [[File:Pacific-garbage-patch-map 2010 noaamdp.jpg|thumb|[[Great Pacific garbage patch]] ]]
-Pollution has been found to be present widely in the [[environment (biophysical)|environment]].A 2022 study published in ''[[Environmental Science & Technology]]'' found that levels of anthropogenic chemical pollution have exceeded [[planetary boundaries]] and now threaten entire ecosystems around the world.<ref name=":2">{{cite journal |last1=Persson |first1=Linn |display-authors=etal. |date=2022 |title=Outside the Safe Operating Space of the Planetary Boundary for Novel Entities |journal=Environmental Science & Technology |volume=56 |issue=3 |pages=1510–1521 |bibcode=2022EnST...56.1510P |doi=10.1021/acs.est.1c04158 |pmc=8811958 |pmid=35038861}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{cite news |last=Carrington |first=Damian |date=January 18, 2022 |title=Chemical pollution has passed safe limit for humanity, say scientists |work=The Guardian |location= |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2022/jan/18/chemical-pollution-has-passed-safe-limit-for-humanity-say-scientists |access-date=January 18, 2022}}</ref>
+Pollution has been found to be present widely in the natural [[environment (biophysical)|environment]]. A 2022 study published in ''[[Environmental Science & Technology]]'' found that levels of anthropogenic chemical pollution have exceeded [[planetary boundaries]] and now threaten entire ecosystems around the world.<ref name=":2">{{cite journal |last1=Persson |first1=Linn |display-authors=etal. |date=2022 |title=Outside the Safe Operating Space of the Planetary Boundary for Novel Entities |journal=Environmental Science & Technology |volume=56 |issue=3 |pages=1510–1521 |bibcode=2022EnST...56.1510P |doi=10.1021/acs.est.1c04158 |pmc=8811958 |pmid=35038861}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{cite news |last=Carrington |first=Damian |date=18 January 2022 |title=Chemical pollution has passed safe limit for humanity, say scientists |work=The Guardian |location= |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2022/jan/18/chemical-pollution-has-passed-safe-limit-for-humanity-say-scientists |access-date=18 January 2022}}</ref>
 There are a number of effects of this:
@@ Line 98: / Line 97: @@
 [[File:Litter trap.jpg|thumb|A litter trap catches floating waste in the [[Yarra River]], east-central [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]], Australia.]]
 [[File:Thermal-oxidizer-rto.jpg|thumb|Air pollution control system, known as a [[Thermal oxidiser|thermal oxidizer]], decomposes hazard gases from industrial air streams at a factory in the [[United States]].]]
-[[File:Dust collector kosovo.jpg|thumb|A [[dust collector]] in [[Pristina]], [[Kosovo]]]]Pollution control is a term used in [[environmental management]]. It means the control of [[emission standard|emissions]] and [[effluents]] into air, water or soil. Without pollution control, the [[waste]] products from [[overconsumption]], heating, agriculture, mining, manufacturing, transportation and other human activities, whether they accumulate or disperse, will degrade the [[environment (biophysical)|environment]]. In the hierarchy of controls, pollution prevention and [[waste minimization]] are more desirable than pollution control. In the field of [[land development]], [[Low-impact development (Canada/US)|low impact development]] is a similar technique for the prevention of [[urban runoff]].
+[[File:Dust collector kosovo.jpg|thumb|A [[dust collector]] in [[Pristina]], [[Kosovo]]]]Pollution control is a term used in [[environmental management]]. It refers to the control of [[emission standard|emissions]] and [[effluents]] into air, water or soil. Without pollution control, the [[waste]] products from [[overconsumption]], heating, agriculture, mining, manufacturing, transportation and other human activities, whether they accumulate or disperse, will degrade the [[environment (biophysical)|environment]]. In the hierarchy of controls, pollution prevention and [[waste minimization]] are more desirable than pollution control. In the field of [[land development]], [[Low-impact development (Canada/US)|low impact development]] is a similar technique for the prevention of [[urban runoff]].
 [[Policy]], [[law]] and monitoring/transparency/[[life-cycle assessment]]-attached [[economics]] could be developed and enforced to control pollution.<ref name="ChangPires2015">{{cite book | author1 = Ni-Bin Chang | author2 = Ana Pires | date = 18 February 2015 | title = Sustainable Solid Waste Management: A Systems Engineering Approach | publisher = John Wiley & Sons | page = 209 | isbn = 978-1-118-96453-8 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Vli-BgAAQBAJ}}</ref> A review concluded that there is a lack of attention and action such as work on a [[global governance|globally]] supported "formal [[applied science|science]]–[[policy]] interface", e.g. to "[[Group decision-making|inform]] intervention, influence research, and guide funding".<ref name="10.1016/S2542-5196(22)00090-0"/>
-In September 2023 a [[Global Framework on Chemicals]] aiming to reduce pollution was agreed during an international conference in Bonn, Germany. The framework includes 28 targets, for example, stop using dangerous pesticides by 2035.<ref>{{cite web |title=New UN framework to protect environment from harmful chemicals |url=https://news.un.org/en/story/2023/09/1141717 |website=United Nations |date=30 September 2023 |access-date=12 October 2023}}</ref>
+In September 2023 a [[Global Framework on Chemicals]] aiming to reduce pollution was agreed during an international conference in [[Bonn]], Germany. The framework includes 28 targets, for example, to “end the use of hazardous pesticides in agriculture where the risks have not been managed” by 2035.<ref>{{cite web |title=New UN framework to protect environment from harmful chemicals |url=https://news.un.org/en/story/2023/09/1141717 |website=United Nations |date=30 September 2023 |access-date=12 October 2023}}</ref>
 ===Practices===
@@ Line 113: / Line 112: @@
 ===Devices===
-*  [[Air pollution|Air pollution control]]
+* [[Air pollution|Air pollution control]]
-** [[CityTrees|CityTree]]
+** [[Green wall]]
 ** [[Smog tower|Smog Tower]]
 ** [[Thermal oxidiser|Thermal oxidizer]]
+* [[Bioremediation]]
 * [[Dust collector|Dust collection systems]]
 ** [[Dust collector#Types of baghouses|Baghouses]]
@@ Line 143: / Line 143: @@
 ==Cost==
-Pollution has a cost.<ref>[https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/energy-environment/wp/2016/01/29/the-staggering-economic-cost-of-air-pollution/ The staggering economic cost of air pollution] By Chelsea Harvey, ''Washington Post'', January 29, 2016</ref><ref>[https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/11/081112124418.htm Freshwater Pollution Costs US At Least $4.3 Billion A Year], ''[[Science Daily]]'', November 17, 2008</ref><ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2014/jun/30/the-human-cost-of-chinas-untold-soil-pollution-problem The human cost of China's untold soil pollution problem], ''[[The Guardian]]'',  Monday 30 June 2014 11.53 EDT</ref> Manufacturing activities that cause [[air pollution]] impose health and clean-up costs on the whole of society. A manufacturing activity that causes air pollution is an example of a negative [[externality]] in production. A negative externality in production occurs "when a firm's production reduces the well-being of others who are not compensated by the firm."<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Jonathan.|first=Gruber|title=Public finance and public policy|date=2013|publisher=Worth Publishers|isbn=978-1-4292-7845-4|edition=4th|location=New York|oclc=819816787}}</ref> For example, if a laundry firm exists near a polluting steel manufacturing firm, there will be increased costs for the laundry firm because of the dirt and smoke produced by the steel manufacturing firm.<ref>{{Cite book|last=D.|first=Kolstad, Charles|title=Environmental economics|date=2011|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-973264-7|edition=2nd|location=New York|oclc=495996799}}</ref> If external costs exist, such as those created by pollution, the manufacturer will choose to produce more of the product than would be produced if the manufacturer were required to pay all associated environmental costs. Because responsibility or consequence for self-directed action lies partly outside the self, an element of [[Cost externalization|externalization]] is involved. If there are external benefits, such as in [[public safety]], less of the good may be produced than would be the case if the producer were to receive payment for the external benefits to others. Goods and services that involve negative externalities in production, such as those that produce pollution, tend to be overproduced and underpriced since the externality is not being priced into the market.<ref name=":0"/>
+Pollution has a cost.<ref>[https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/energy-environment/wp/2016/01/29/the-staggering-economic-cost-of-air-pollution/ The staggering economic cost of air pollution] By Chelsea Harvey, ''Washington Post'', 29 January 2016</ref><ref>[https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/11/081112124418.htm Freshwater Pollution Costs US At Least $4.3 Billion A Year], ''[[Science Daily]]'', 17 November 2008</ref><ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2014/jun/30/the-human-cost-of-chinas-untold-soil-pollution-problem The human cost of China's untold soil pollution problem], ''[[The Guardian]]'',  Monday 30 June 2014 11.53 EDT</ref> Manufacturing activities that cause [[air pollution]] impose health and clean-up costs on the whole of society. A manufacturing activity that causes air pollution is an example of a negative [[externality]] in production. A negative externality in production occurs "when a firm's production reduces the well-being of others who are not compensated by the firm."<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Jonathan.|first=Gruber|title=Public finance and public policy|date=2013|publisher=Worth Publishers|isbn=978-1-4292-7845-4|edition=4th|location=New York|oclc=819816787}}</ref> For example, if a laundry firm exists near a polluting steel manufacturing firm, there will be increased costs for the laundry firm because of the dirt and smoke produced by the steel manufacturing firm.<ref>{{Cite book |author=Kolstad, Charles D. |title=Environmental economics|date=2011|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-973264-7|edition=2nd|location=New York|oclc=495996799}}</ref> If external costs exist, such as those created by pollution, the manufacturer will choose to produce more of the product than would be produced if the manufacturer were required to pay all associated environmental costs. Because responsibility or consequence for self-directed action lies partly outside the self, an element of [[Cost externalization|externalization]] is involved. If there are external benefits, such as in [[public safety]], less of the good may be produced than would be the case if the producer were to receive payment for the external benefits to others. Goods and services that involve negative externalities in production, such as those that produce pollution, tend to be overproduced and underpriced since the externality is not being priced into the market.<ref name=":0"/>
-Pollution can also create costs for the firms producing the pollution. Sometimes firms choose, or are forced by regulation, to reduce the amount of pollution that they are producing. The associated costs of doing this are called abatement costs, or [[marginal abatement cost]]s if measured by each additional unit.<ref>{{cite web|title=Abatement and Marginal Abatement Cost (MAC)|url=http://www.econport.org/content/handbook/Environmental/pollution-control-revised/Abatement-MAC.html|access-date=2018-03-07|website=www.econport.org|language=en}}</ref> In 2005 pollution abatement capital expenditures and operating costs in the US amounted to nearly $27 billion.<ref>{{cite web|last=EPA, OA, OP, NCEE|first=US|title=Pollution Abatement Costs and Expenditures: 2005 Survey {{!}} US EPA|url=https://www.epa.gov/environmental-economics/pollution-abatement-costs-and-expenditures-2005-survey|access-date=2018-03-07|website=US EPA|date=31 March 2016|language=en}}</ref>
+Pollution can also create costs for the firms producing the pollution. Sometimes firms choose, or are forced by regulation, to reduce the amount of pollution that they are producing. The associated costs of doing this are called abatement costs, or [[marginal abatement cost]]s if measured by each additional unit.<ref>{{cite web|title=Abatement and Marginal Abatement Cost (MAC)|url=http://www.econport.org/content/handbook/Environmental/pollution-control-revised/Abatement-MAC.html|access-date=7 March 2018|website=www.econport.org|language=en}}</ref> In 2005 pollution abatement capital expenditures and operating costs in the US amounted to nearly $27 billion.<ref>{{cite web |title=Pollution Abatement Costs and Expenditures: 2005 Survey |url=https://www.epa.gov/environmental-economics/pollution-abatement-costs-and-expenditures-2005-survey|access-date=7 March 2018|website=US EPA|date=31 March 2016|language=en}}</ref>
 == Dirtiest industries ==
-The [[Blacksmith Institute|Pure Earth]], an international non-for-profit organization dedicated to eliminating life-threatening pollution in the developing world, issues an annual list of some of the world's most polluting industries. Below is the list for 2016:<ref>{{cite web|title=World's Worst Pollution Problems|url=http://www.worstpolluted.org/docs/WorldsWorst2016.pdf}}</ref>
+The [[Blacksmith Institute|Pure Earth]], an international non-for-profit organization dedicated to eliminating life-threatening pollution in the developing world, issues an annual list of some of the world's most polluting industries. Below is the list for 2016:<ref>{{cite web|title= 2016 World's Worst Pollution Problems|url=http://www.worstpolluted.org/docs/WorldsWorst2016.pdf |publisher=Pure Earth, Green Cross Switzerland |website=WorstPolluted.org |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240223181158/http://www.worstpolluted.org/docs/WorldsWorst2016.pdf |archive-date= 23 February 2024 }}</ref>
 * [[Lead–acid battery]] recycling
 * [[Mining]] and [[extractive metallurgy]]
@@ Line 160: / Line 160: @@
 * [[Dyeing]]
-A 2018 report by the [[Institute for Agriculture and Trade Policy]] and [[GRAIN]] says that the meat and dairy industries are poised to surpass the oil industry as the world's worst polluters.<ref>{{cite news|last=Gabbatiss|first=Josh|date=July 18, 2018|title=Meat and dairy companies to surpass oil industry as world's biggest polluters, report finds|work=[[The Independent]]|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/environment/meat-dairy-industry-greenhouse-gas-emissions-fossil-fuels-oil-pollution-iatp-grain-a8451871.html|access-date=June 29, 2019}}</ref>
+A 2018 report by the [[Institute for Agriculture and Trade Policy]] and [[GRAIN]] says that the meat and dairy industries are poised to surpass the oil industry as the world's worst polluters.<ref>{{cite news|last=Gabbatiss|first=Josh|date=18 July 2018|title=Meat and dairy companies to surpass oil industry as world's biggest polluters, report finds|work=[[The Independent]]|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/environment/meat-dairy-industry-greenhouse-gas-emissions-fossil-fuels-oil-pollution-iatp-grain-a8451871.html|access-date=29 June 2019}}</ref>
 === Textile industry ===
@@ Line 170: / Line 170: @@
 == Socially optimal level ==
 {{See also|Right to a healthy environment}}
-Society derives some indirect [[utility]] from pollution; otherwise, there would be no incentive to pollute. This utility may come from the consumption of goods and services that inherently create pollution (albeit the level can vary) or lower prices or lower required efforts (or inconvenience) to abandon or substitute these goods and services. Therefore, it is important that policymakers attempt to balance these indirect benefits with the costs of pollution in order to achieve an efficient outcome.<ref>{{cite journal|title=18.1 Maximizing the Net Benefits of Pollution {{!}} Principles of Economics|url=https://open.lib.umn.edu/principleseconomics/chapter/18-1-maximizing-the-net-benefits-of-pollution/|access-date=2018-03-07|website=open.lib.umn.edu|date=17 June 2016|language=en-US}}</ref>{{additional citation needed|date=July 2022}}
+Society derives some indirect [[utility]] from pollution; otherwise, there would be no incentive to pollute. This utility may come from the consumption of goods and services that inherently create pollution (albeit the level can vary) or lower prices or lower required efforts (or inconvenience) to abandon or substitute these goods and services. Therefore, it is important that policymakers attempt to balance these indirect benefits with the costs of pollution in order to achieve an efficient outcome.<ref>{{cite journal|title=18.1 Maximizing the Net Benefits of Pollution {{!}} Principles of Economics|url=https://open.lib.umn.edu/principleseconomics/chapter/18-1-maximizing-the-net-benefits-of-pollution/|access-date=7 March 2018|website=open.lib.umn.edu|date=17 June 2016|language=en-US}}</ref>{{additional citation needed|date=July 2022}}
 [[File:Pollution- A Negative Externality in Production.png|thumb|upright=1.8|A visual comparison of the free market and socially optimal outcomes]]
 It is possible to use [[environmental economics]] to determine which level of pollution is deemed the social optimum. For economists, pollution is an "external cost and occurs only when one or more individuals suffer a loss of welfare". There is a socially optimal level of pollution at which [[welfare]] is maximized.<ref>{{Cite book|last=William)|first=Pearce, David W. (David|title=Economics of natural resources and the environment|date=1990|publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press|others=Turner, R. Kerry.|isbn=978-0-8018-3987-0|location=Baltimore|oclc=20170416}}</ref> This is because consumers derive utility from the good or service manufactured, which will outweigh the [[social cost]] of pollution until a certain point. At this point the damage of one extra unit of pollution to society, the [[marginal cost]] of pollution, is exactly equal to the [[marginal benefit]] of consuming one more unit of the good or service.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|last=R.|first=Krugman, Paul|title=Microeconomics|date=2013|publisher=Worth Publishers|others=Wells, Robin.|isbn=978-1-4292-8342-7|edition=3rd|location=New York|oclc=796082268}}</ref>
@@ Line 178: / Line 178: @@
 In markets with pollution, or other negative externalities in production, the [[free market]] equilibrium will not account for the costs of pollution on society'''.''' If the social costs of pollution are higher than the private costs incurred by the firm, then the true supply curve will be higher. The point at which the social marginal cost and market [[demand]] intersect gives the socially optimal level of pollution. At this point, the quantity will be lower and the price will be higher in comparison to the free market equilibrium.<ref name=":1"/> Therefore, the free market outcome could be considered a [[market failure]] because it "does not maximize efficiency".<ref name=":0"/>
-This model can be used as a basis to evaluate different methods of internalizing the externality. Some examples include [[tariff]]s, a [[carbon tax]] and [[Emissions trading|cap and trade]] systems.
+This model can be used as a basis to evaluate different methods of internalizing the externality, such as [[tariff]]s, a [[Pigouvian tax]] (such as a [[carbon tax]]) and [[Emissions trading|cap and trade]] systems.
 == History ==
@@ Line 187: / Line 187: @@
 Metal [[forging]] appears to be a key turning point in the creation of significant air pollution levels outside the home. Core samples of [[List of glaciers in Greenland|glaciers in Greenland]] indicate increases in pollution associated with Greek, Roman, and Chinese metal production.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Hong|first=Sungmin|display-authors=etal|year=1996|title=History of Ancient Copper Smelting Pollution During Roman and Medieval Times Recorded in Greenland Ice|journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]]|volume=272|issue=5259|pages=246–249 [p. 248]|bibcode=1996Sci...272..246H|doi=10.1126/science.272.5259.246|s2cid=176767223}}</ref>[[File:DARK CLOUDS OF FACTORY SMOKE OBSCURE CLARK AVENUE BRIDGE - NARA - 550179.jpg|thumb|Air pollution in the US, 1973]]
-The burning of coal and wood, and the presence of many horses in concentrated areas made the cities the primary sources of pollution. [[Edward I of England|King Edward I]] of England banned the burning of [[wikt:seacoal|sea-coal]] by proclamation in [[London]] in 1272, after its smoke became a problem;<ref name="Pea-souper">{{cite web|author=David Urbinato|date=Summer 1994|title=London's Historic "Pea-Soupers"|url=https://www.epa.gov/aboutepa/londons-historic-pea-soupers|access-date=2006-08-02|publisher=[[United States Environmental Protection Agency]]}}</ref><ref name="Deadly">{{cite web|date=2003-01-17|title=Deadly Smog|url=https://www.pbs.org/now/science/smog.html|access-date=2006-08-02|publisher=PBS}}</ref> the fuel was so common in England that this earliest of names for it was acquired because it could be carted away from some shores by the [[wheelbarrow]].
+The burning of coal and wood, and the presence of many horses in concentrated areas made the cities the primary sources of pollution. [[Edward I of England|King Edward I]] of England banned the burning of [[wikt:seacoal|sea-coal]] by proclamation in [[London]] in 1272, after its smoke became a problem;<ref name="Pea-souper">{{cite web|author=David Urbinato|date=Summer 1994|title=London's Historic "Pea-Soupers"|url=https://www.epa.gov/aboutepa/londons-historic-pea-soupers|access-date=2 August 2006|publisher=[[United States Environmental Protection Agency]]}}</ref><ref name="Deadly">{{cite web|date=17 January 2003|title=Deadly Smog|url=https://www.pbs.org/now/science/smog.html|access-date=2 August 2006|publisher=PBS}}</ref> the fuel was so common in England that this earliest of names for it was acquired because it could be carted away from some shores by the [[wheelbarrow]].
 === 19th century ===
@@ Line 201: / Line 201: @@
 The emergence of great factories and consumption of immense quantities of coal gave rise to unprecedented [[air pollution]] and the large volume of industrial chemical discharges added to the growing load of untreated human waste. [[Chicago]] and [[Cincinnati]] were the first two American cities to enact laws ensuring cleaner air in 1881. Pollution became a major issue in the United States in the early twentieth century, as [[Progressive Era|progressive reformers]] took issue with air pollution caused by coal burning, water pollution caused by bad sanitation, and street pollution caused by the three million horses who worked in American cities in 1900, generating large quantities of urine and [[manure]]. As historian Martin Melosi notes, the generation that first saw automobiles replacing the horses saw cars as "miracles of cleanliness".<ref>Patrick Allitt, ''A Climate of Crisis: America in the Age of Environmentalism'' (2014)  p 206</ref> By the 1940s, automobile-caused [[smog]] was a major issue in [[Los Angeles]].<ref>{{cite book|author1=Jeffry M. Diefendorf|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YeVqitbSP_AC&pg=PA44|title=City, Country, Empire: Landscapes in Environmental History|author2=Kurkpatrick Dorsey|publisher=University of Pittsburgh Press|year=2009|isbn=978-0-8229-7277-8|pages=44–49}}</ref>
-Other cities followed around the country until early in the 20th century, when the short lived Office of Air Pollution was created under the [[United States Department of the Interior|Department of the Interior]]. Extreme smog events were experienced by the cities of Los Angeles and [[Donora, Pennsylvania]], in the late 1940s, serving as another public reminder.<ref name="Donora">{{cite web|last1=Fleming|first1=James R.|last2=Knorr|first2=Bethany R.|title=History of the Clean Air Act|url=http://www.ametsoc.org/sloan/cleanair/|access-date=2006-02-14|publisher=[[American Meteorological Society]]}}</ref>
+Other cities followed around the country until early in the 20th century, when the short lived Office of Air Pollution was created under the [[United States Department of the Interior|Department of the Interior]]. Extreme smog events were experienced by the cities of Los Angeles and [[Donora, Pennsylvania]], in the late 1940s, serving as another public reminder.<ref name="Donora">{{cite web|last1=Fleming|first1=James R.|last2=Knorr|first2=Bethany R.|title=History of the Clean Air Act|url=http://www.ametsoc.org/sloan/cleanair/|access-date=14 February 2006|publisher=[[American Meteorological Society]]}}</ref>
-Air pollution would continue to be a problem in England, especially later during the industrial revolution, and extending into the recent past with the [[Great Smog of 1952]]. Awareness of atmospheric  pollution spread widely after World War II, with fears triggered by reports of radioactive fallout from atomic warfare and testing.<ref>Patrick Allitt, ''A Climate of Crisis: America in the Age of Environmentalism'' (2014)  pp. 15–21</ref> Then a non-nuclear event&nbsp;– the Great Smog of 1952 in London&nbsp;– killed at least 4000 people.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/9/newsid_4506000/4506390.stm 1952: London fog clears after days of chaos] (BBC News)</ref> This prompted some of the first major modern environmental legislation: the [[Clean Air Act 1956|Clean Air Act of 1956]].
+Air pollution would continue to be a problem in England, especially later during the industrial revolution, and extending into the recent past with the [[Great Smog of 1952]]. Awareness of atmospheric  pollution spread widely after World War II, with fears triggered by reports of [[radioactive fallout]] from atomic warfare and testing.<ref>Patrick Allitt, ''A Climate of Crisis: America in the Age of Environmentalism'' (2014)  pp. 15–21</ref> Then a non-nuclear event&nbsp;– the Great Smog of 1952 in London&nbsp;– killed at least 4000 people.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/9/newsid_4506000/4506390.stm 1952: London fog clears after days of chaos] (BBC News)</ref> This prompted some of the first major modern environmental legislation: the [[Clean Air Act 1956|Clean Air Act of 1956]].
-Pollution began to draw major public attention in the United States between the mid-1950s and early 1970s, when Congress passed the [[Noise Control Act]], the [[Clean Air Act (United States)|Clean Air Act]], the [[Clean Water Act]], and the [[National Environmental Policy Act]].<ref name="issues">{{cite web|author=John Tarantino|title=Environmental Issues|url=http://www.theenvironmentalblog.org/environmental-issues/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120111153436/http://www.theenvironmentalblog.org/environmental-issues/|archive-date=2012-01-11|access-date=2011-12-10|publisher=The Environmental Blog}}</ref> [[File:Air-pollution-taiwan.JPG|thumb|Smog pollution in [[Taiwan]]]]
+Pollution began to draw major public attention in the United States between the mid-1950s and early 1970s, when Congress passed the [[Noise Control Act]], the [[Clean Air Act (United States)|Clean Air Act]], the [[Clean Water Act]], and the [[National Environmental Policy Act]].<ref name="issues">{{cite web|author=John Tarantino|title=Environmental Issues|url=http://www.theenvironmentalblog.org/environmental-issues/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120111153436/http://www.theenvironmentalblog.org/environmental-issues/|archive-date=11 January 2012|access-date=10 December 2011|publisher=The Environmental Blog}}</ref> [[File:Air-pollution-taiwan.JPG|thumb|Smog pollution in [[Taiwan]]]]
 Severe incidents of pollution helped increase consciousness. [[Polychlorinated biphenyl|PCB]] dumping in the [[Hudson River]] resulted in a ban by the [[United States Environmental Protection Agency|EPA]] on consumption of its fish in 1974. National news stories in the late 1970s&nbsp;– especially the long-term [[Polychlorinated dibenzodioxins|dioxin]] contamination at [[Love Canal]] starting in 1947 and uncontrolled [[Waste disposal|dumping]] in [[Valley of the Drums]]&nbsp;– led to the [[Superfund (environmental law)|Superfund]] legislation of 1980.<ref>Judith A. Layzer, "Love Canal: hazardous waste and politics of fear" in Layzer, ''The Environmental Case'' ([[CQ Press]], 2012) pp. 56–82.</ref> The pollution of industrial land gave rise to the name [[brownfield]], a term now common in [[city planning]].
@@ Line 215: / Line 215: @@
 International catastrophes such as the wreck of the [[Amoco Cadiz]] oil tanker off the coast of [[Brittany]] in 1978 and the [[Bhopal disaster]] in 1984 have demonstrated the universality of such events and the scale on which efforts to address them needed to engage. The borderless nature of atmosphere and oceans inevitably resulted in the implication of pollution on a planetary level with the issue of [[global warming]]. Most recently the term [[persistent organic pollutant]] (POP) has come to describe a group of chemicals such as [[PBDE]]s and [[Fluorocarbon|PFCs]] among others. Though their effects remain somewhat less well understood owing to a lack of experimental data, they have been detected in various ecological habitats far removed from industrial activity such as the Arctic, demonstrating diffusion and [[bioaccumulation]] after only a relatively brief period of widespread use.
+The [[Great Pacific Garbage Patch]] is a concentration of plastics in the [[North Pacific Gyre]]. It and other garbage patches contain debris that can trsonport invasive species and that can entangle and be ingested by wildlife.<ref>{{Cite web |date=21 March 2024 |title=Garbage Patches |url=https://marinedebris.noaa.gov/discover-marine-debris/garbage-patches#:~:text=So%20far%2C%20we%20know%20that,fishing%20nets%20are%20especially%20dangerous. |access-date=8 June 2024 |website=NOAA Marine Debris Program}}</ref> Organizations such as [[5 Gyres]] and the Algalita Marine Research Foundation have researched the Great Pacific Garbage Patch and found [[microplastics]] in the water.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hoare |first=Rose |date=22 May 2012 |title=Research ship finds the world's oceans are 'plasticized' |url=https://www.cnn.com/2012/05/21/world/asia/algalita-eco-solutions |access-date=8 June 2024 |website=CNN}}</ref>
-A much more recently discovered problem is the [[Great Pacific Garbage Patch]], a huge concentration of plastics, [[chemical sludge]] and other [[debris]] which has been collected into a large area of the Pacific Ocean by the [[North Pacific Gyre]]. This is a less well known pollution problem than the others described above, but nonetheless has multiple and serious consequences such as increasing wildlife mortality, the spread of invasive species and human ingestion of toxic chemicals. Organizations such as [[5 Gyres]] have researched the pollution and, along with artists like [[Marina DeBris]], are working toward publicizing the issue.
-Pollution introduced by light at night is becoming a global problem, more severe in urban centres, but nonetheless contaminating also large territories, far away from towns.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Falchi|first1=Fabio|last2=Cinzano|first2=Pierantonio|last3=Duriscoe|first3=Dan|last4=Kyba|first4=Christopher C. M.|last5=Elvidge|first5=Christopher D.|last6=Baugh|first6=Kimberly|last7=Portnov|first7=Boris A.|last8=Rybnikova|first8=Nataliya A.|last9=Furgoni|first9=Riccardo|date=2016-06-01|title=The new world atlas of artificial night sky brightness|journal=[[Science Advances]]|language=en|volume=2|issue=6|pages=e1600377|arxiv=1609.01041|bibcode=2016SciA....2E0377F|doi=10.1126/sciadv.1600377|issn=2375-2548|pmc=4928945|pmid=27386582}}</ref>
+Pollution introduced by light at night is becoming a global problem, more severe in urban centres, but nonetheless contaminating also large territories, far away from towns.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Falchi|first1=Fabio|last2=Cinzano|first2=Pierantonio|last3=Duriscoe|first3=Dan|last4=Kyba|first4=Christopher C. M.|last5=Elvidge|first5=Christopher D.|last6=Baugh|first6=Kimberly|last7=Portnov|first7=Boris A.|last8=Rybnikova|first8=Nataliya A.|last9=Furgoni|first9=Riccardo|date=1 June 2016|title=The new world atlas of artificial night sky brightness|journal=[[Science Advances]]|language=en|volume=2|issue=6|pages=e1600377|arxiv=1609.01041|bibcode=2016SciA....2E0377F|doi=10.1126/sciadv.1600377|issn=2375-2548|pmc=4928945|pmid=27386582}}</ref>
 Growing evidence of local and global pollution and an increasingly informed public over time have given rise to [[environmentalism]] and the [[environmental movement]], which generally seek to limit [[human impact on the environment]].

v t e Pollution
History
Air	Acid rain Air quality index Atmospheric dispersion modeling Chlorofluorocarbon Combustion Biofuel Biomass Joss paper Open burning of waste Bauwesen Renovation Demolition Exhaust gas Diesel exhaust Haze Smoke Indoor air quality Internal combustion engine Global dimming Global distillation Mining Ozone depletion Particulates Asbestos Metal working Oil refining Wood dust Welding Persistent organic pollutant Smelting Smog Aerosol Soot Black carbon Volatile organic compound Waste
Biological	Biological hazard Genetic pollution Introduced species Invasive species
Digital	Information pollution
Electromagnetic	Light Ecological light pollution Overillumination Radio spectrum pollution
Natural	Ozone Radium and radon in the environment Volcanic ash Wildfire
Noise	Transport Land Water Air Rail Sustainable transport Urban Sonar Marine mammals and sonar Industrial Military Abstract Noise control
Radiation	Actinides Bioremediation Nuclear fission Nuclear fallout Plutonium Poisoning Radioactivity Uranium Electromagnetic radiation and health Radioactive waste
Soil	Agricultural pollution Herbicides Manure waste Pesticides Land degradation Bioremediation Open defecation Electrical resistance heating Soil guideline values Phytoremediation
Solid waste	Advertising mail Biodegradable waste Brown waste Electronic waste Battery recycling Foam food container Food waste Green waste Hazardous waste Biomedical waste Chemical waste Construction waste Lead poisoning Mercury poisoning Toxic waste Industrial waste Lead smelting Litter Mining Coal mining Gold mining Surface mining Deep sea mining Mining waste Uranium mining Municipal solid waste Garbage Nanomaterials Plastic pollution Microplastics Packaging waste Post-consumer waste Waste management Landfill Thermal treatment
Space	Satellite
Visual	Air travel Clutter (advertising) Traffic signs Overhead power lines Vandalism
War	Chemical warfare Herbicidal warfare (Agent Orange) Nuclear holocaust (Nuclear fallout - nuclear famine - nuclear winter) Scorched earth Unexploded ordnance War and environmental law
Water	Agricultural wastewater Biological pollution Diseases Eutrophication Firewater Freshwater Groundwater Hypoxia Industrial wastewater Marine debris Monitoring Nonpoint source pollution Nutrient pollution Ocean acidification Oil exploitation Oil exploration Oil spill Pharmaceuticals Sewage Septic tanks Pit latrine Shipping Stagnation Sulfur water Surface runoff Thermal Turbidity Urban runoff Water quality
Topics	Pollutants Heavy metals Paint Brain health and pollution
Misc	Area source Debris Dust Garbology Legacy pollution Midden Point source Waste
Responses	Cleaner production Industrial ecology Pollution haven hypothesis Pollutant release and transfer register Polluter pays principle Pollution control Waste minimisation Zero waste
Lists	Diseases Law by country Most polluted cities Least polluted cities by PM_2.5 Most polluted countries Treaties
Kategorien (by country) Commons WikiProject Environment WikiProject Ecology Environment portal Ecology portal

v t e Environmental science
Main fields	Atmospheric science Biogeochemistry Ecology Environmental chemistry Geosciences Hydrology Limnology Oceanography Soil science
Related fields	Biology Chemistry green Ecological economics Environmental design Environmental economics Environmental engineering Environmental health epidemiology Environmental studies Environmental humanities Environmental statistics Environmental toxicology Geodesy Physics Radioecology Sustainability science Systems ecology Urban ecology
Applications	Energy conservation Environmental technology Natural resource management Pollution control Public transport encouragement Recycling Remediation Renewable energy Road ecology Sewage treatment Urban metabolism Water purification Waste management
Lists	Degrees Journals Research institutes Glossary Environment by year
See also	Human impact on the environment Nachhaltigkeit Technogaianism
Kategorie scientists Commons Environment portal WikiProject

v t e Population
Major topics	Demographics of the world Demographic transition Estimates of historical world population Population growth Population momentum Projections of population growth World population
Population biology	Population decline Population density Physiological density Population dynamics Population model Population pyramid
Population ecology	Biocapacity Carrying capacity I = P × A × T Kaya identity Malthusian growth model Overshoot (population) World3 model
Society and population	Eugenics Dysgenics Human overpopulation Malthusian catastrophe Human population planning Compulsory sterilization Family planning One-child policy Two-child policy Overconsumption Political demography Population ethics Antinatalism Mere addition paradox Natalism Non-identity problem Reproductive rights Sustainable population Zero population growth
Publications	Population and Environment Population and Development Review
Lists	Population and housing censuses by country Largest cities World population milestones 6 billion 7 8 Population concern organizations
Events and organizations	7 Billion Actions Church of Euthanasia International Conference on Population and Development Population Action International Population Connection Population Matters United Nations Population Fund United Nations world population conferences Voluntary Human Extinction Movement World Population Conference World Population Day World Population Foundation
Related topics	Bennett's law Green Revolution Human impact on the environment Migration Nachhaltigkeit
Commons Kategorie

v t e Lists of countries by population statistics
Global	Current population United Nations Demographics of the world
Continents/subregions	Africa Antarktis Asia Europa North America Caribbean Oceania South America
Intercontinental	Americas Arab world Commonwealth of Nations Eurasia European Union Islands Latin America Middle East
Cities/urban areas	World cities National capitals Megacities Megalopolises
Past and future	Past and future population World population estimates 1 1000 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 1939 1989 2000 2005 2010 2015 Population milestones
Population density	Current density Past and future population density Person-to-arable land ratio
Growth indicators	Population growth rate Natural increase Net reproduction rate Number of births Number of deaths Birth rate Mortality rate Fertility rate Past fertility rate
Life expectancy	World Africa Asia Europa North America Oceania South America world regions past life expectancy
Other demographics	Age at childbearing Age at first marriage Age structure Dependency ratio Divorce rate Ethnic and cultural diversity level Ethnic composition Immigrant population Linguistic diversity Median age Net migration rate Number of households Religion / Irreligion Sex ratio Urban population Urbanization
Health	Antidepressant consumption Antiviral medications for pandemic influenza HIV/AIDS adult prevalence rate Infant and under-five mortality rates Maternal mortality rate Obesity rate Percentage suffering from undernourishment Health expenditure by country by type of financing Suicide rate Total health expenditure per capita Total healthcare spending as % of GDP Body mass index (BMI)
Education and innovation	Bloomberg Innovation Index Education Index Global Innovation Index International Innovation Index Literacy rate Programme for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS) Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) Tertiary education attainment World Intellectual Property Indicators
Economic	Access to financial services Development aid donors Official Development Assistance received Employment rate Irrigated land area Human Development Index by country inequality-adjusted planetary pressures–adjusted HDI Human Poverty Index Imports Exports Income equality Labour force Share of income of top 1% Number of millionaires (US dollars) Number of billionaires (US dollars) Percentage living in poverty Public sector Unemployment rate Wealth inequality
List of international rankings Lists by country