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{{Short description|Trans-Fly language of the Australian Torres Strait Islands}}
{{distinguish|Miriam language (Nigeria)}}
{{distinguish|Miriam language (Nigeria)}}
{{EngvarB|date=July 2016}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2016}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2016}}
{{Use Australian English|date=July 2018}}
{{Use Australian English|date=July 2018}}
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|speakers=217
|speakers=217
|date=2016 census
|date=2016 census
|ref=<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://stat.data.abs.gov.au/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=ABS_C16_T09_SA|title=Census 2016, Language spoken at home by Sex (SA2+)|publisher=ABS|website=stat.data.abs.gov.au|language=en-au|access-date=2017-10-30}}</ref>
|ref=<ref name=2016census>{{Cite web|url=http://stat.data.abs.gov.au/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=ABS_C16_T09_SA|title=Census 2016, Language spoken at home by Sex (SA2+)|publisher=ABS|website=stat.data.abs.gov.au|language=en-au|access-date=2017-10-30}}</ref>
|familycolor=Papuan
|familycolor=Papuan
|fam1=[[Trans-Fly languages|Trans-Fly]]
|fam1=[[Trans-Fly languages|Trans-Fly]]
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|lingua=20-OD(A-a)
|lingua=20-OD(A-a)
|notice=IPA
|notice=IPA
| map = Lang Status 60-DE.svg
| mapcaption = {{center|{{small|Meriam Mir is classified as Definitely Endangered by the [[UNESCO]] [[Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger]] (2010)}}}}
}}
}}
[[File:Torres Strait Islander Languages used at home.jpg|thumb|Languages used at home by Torres Strait Islanders in localities with significant share of Torres Strait islander population.<ref name="Australian 2021 Census dataset “2021 Census - Cultural Diversity, 2021">{{cite web|url= https://tablebuilder.abs.gov.au/|title=“2021 Census - Cultural Diversity, 2021, TableBuilder”|publisher=Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS)}}</ref>]]

'''Meriam''' (in the language itself '''''Meriam Mìr'''''; also ''Miriam, Meryam, Mer, Mir, Miriam-Mir'', etc. and ''Eastern, Isten, Esten'' and ''Able Able'') or the '''Eastern Torres Strait language''' is the language of the people of the small islands of ''Mer'' ([[Murray Island, Queensland|Murray Island]]), ''Waier'' and ''Dauar'', ''Erub'' ([[Darnley Island (Queensland)|Darnley Island]]), and ''Ugar'' ([[Stephens Island (Torres Strait)|Stephens Island]]) in the eastern [[Torres Strait]], [[Queensland]], Australia. In the Western Torres Strait language, [[Kalaw Lagaw Ya]], it is called ''Mœyam'' or ''Mœyamau Ya''. It is the only [[Papuan language]] in [[Australian]] territory.
'''Meriam''' ({{lang-ulk|Meriam Mìr}}; also ''Miriam, Meryam, Mer, Mir, Miriam-Mir'', etc. and ''Eastern, Isten, Esten'' and ''Able Able'') or the '''Eastern Torres Strait language''' is the language of the people of the small islands of ''Mer'' ([[Murray Island, Queensland|Murray Island]]), ''Waier'' and ''Dauar'', ''Erub'' ([[Darnley Island (Queensland)|Darnley Island]]), and ''Ugar'' ([[Stephens Island (Torres Strait)|Stephens Island]]) in the eastern [[Torres Strait]], [[Queensland]], Australia. In the Western Torres Strait language, [[Kalaw Lagaw Ya]], it is called ''Mœyam'' or ''Mœyamau Ya''. It is the only [[Papuan language]] in [[Australia|Australian]] territory.


==Classification==
==Classification==
Meriam was classified in the [[Eastern Trans-Fly languages|Eastern Trans-Fly family]] of the [[Trans–New Guinea languages|Trans–New Guinea]] Phylum by [[Stephen Wurm]], who however felt that these have retained remnants of pre-Trans–New Guinea languages; this is followed by [[Ethnologue]] (2005). In 2005 [[Malcolm Ross (linguist)|Malcolm Ross]] concluded that the Eastern Trans-Fly languages were not part of the Trans–New Guinea phylum. [[R. M. W. Dixon]] (2002) regards claims of a relationship between the Fly River languages and Meriam as unproven, though what he bases his claim on is not clear, as Meriam Mir has a high cognacy rate with its sister languages, and a certain amount of mutual intelligibility is claimed by Meriam speakers. Mitchell finds that Meriam Mìr has 78% cognates with its sister Trans-Fly Papuan languages, the remaining vocabulary being mainly of Australian origin .{{sfn|Mitchell|2015}} Such Trans-Fly cognates include personal pronouns, and verbal and nominal morphology.
Meriam was classified in the [[Eastern Trans-Fly languages|Eastern Trans-Fly family]] of the [[Trans–New Guinea languages|Trans–New Guinea]] Phylum by [[Stephen Wurm]], who however felt that these have retained remnants of pre-Trans–New Guinea languages; this is followed by [[Ethnologue]] (2005). In 2005 [[Malcolm Ross (linguist)|Malcolm Ross]] concluded that the Eastern Trans-Fly languages were not part of the Trans–New Guinea phylum. [[R. M. W. Dixon]] (2002) regards claims of a relationship between the Fly River languages and Meriam as unproven, though what he bases his claim on is not clear, as Meriam Mir has a high cognacy rate with its sister languages, and a certain amount of mutual intelligibility is claimed by Meriam speakers. Mitchell finds that Meriam Mìr has 78% cognates with its sister Trans-Fly Papuan languages, the remaining vocabulary being mainly of Australian origin.{{sfn|Mitchell|2015}} Such Trans-Fly cognates include personal pronouns, and verbal and nominal morphology.


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|+Percentages of Australian, Papuan and Austronesian content <br> ''(2) = number of items; Mitchell, Holman et al. 40-word list ''
|+Percentages of Australian, Papuan and Austronesian content <br /> ''(2) = number of items; Mitchell, Holman et al. 40-word list ''
! Source || WCL || MM
! Source || WCL || MM
|-
|-
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| Papuan || 22.5% (9) || 62.5% (25)
| Papuan || 22.5% (9) || 62.5% (25)
|-
|-
| Derivations/Compounds || 20% (8) || 17.5% (7) <br> [common to Eastern Trans-Fly 15% (6)]
| Derivations/Compounds || 20% (8) || 17.5% (7) <br /> [common to Eastern Trans-Fly 15% (6)]
|-
|-
| Austronesian || 12.5% (5) || 2.5% (1)
| Austronesian || 12.5% (5) || 2.5% (1)
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|}
|}


==Status==
In the [[2016 Australian census]], 217 speakers were recorded,<ref name=2016census/> up slightly on the previous (2011) census, which recorded 186.<ref name=AIATSIS/> It is considered an [[endangered language]] by [[UNESCO]].<ref name=hymns/>

There is a push to preserve the language in [[North Queensland]]. A group of [[Torres Strait Islander]] people in [[Mackay, Queensland|Mackay]] region, where there are only four fluent speakers left, are practising and teaching traditional [[hymn]]s sung in Meriam Mir in an effort to help more people to learn the language and pass it down. It is hoped that a program to teach the hymns will be introduced into schools.<ref name=hymns>{{cite web | last=Macqueen | first=Cristy-Lee | title=Torres Strait Islander language Meriam Mir preserved through Christmas hymn recordings | website=ABC News (Australian Broadcasting Corporation) | date=21 December 2020 | url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-12-22/torres-strait-language-preserved-in-mackay-christmas-hymns/12995086 | access-date=24 December 2020}}</ref>
==Meriam Mìr and its neighbours==
==Meriam Mìr and its neighbours==


Meriam has around 40 percent of its vocabulary in common with its unrelated Western Torres Strait neighbour [[Kala Lagaw Ya]], which is an [[Australian language]].{{sfn|Mitchell|2015}} The shared words cover a wide range of semantic domains (body parts, kin, human classification, language, mythology, ceremony, artefacts, topography, natural elements, marine life, qualities, locations, directions and time), though not verbs. This latter strengthens arguments about genetic diversity, however there is still much to suggest mutual influence. The common vocabulary range from "exact cognates" to words that appear related, but have undergone semantic changes, as in the following selected from a list of 250 items (Mitchell 1995) (where exact "cognates" number 62 (24.8%), partial "cognates" 26 (10%) and "cognates" with semantic differentiation number 34 (13.7%)):
Meriam has around 40 percent of its vocabulary in common with its unrelated Western Torres Strait neighbour [[Kala Lagaw Ya]], which is an [[Australian language]].{{sfn|Mitchell|2015}} The shared words cover a wide range of semantic domains (body parts, kin, human classification, language, mythology, ceremony, artefacts, topography, natural elements, marine life, qualities, locations, directions and time), though not verbs. This latter strengthens arguments about genetic diversity, however there is still much to suggest mutual influence. The common vocabulary range from "exact cognates" to words that appear related, but have undergone semantic changes, as in the following selected from a list of 250 items (Mitchell 1995) (where exact "cognates" number 62 (24.8%), partial "cognates" 26 (10%) and "cognates" with semantic differentiation number 34 (13.7%), [122 "cognates" in total, 48.8%]):


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
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{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
! word !! MM !! Gizrra !! Bine !! Wipi !! PETrF !! Kiwai !! Idi !! WCL !! Gudang !! Urradhi !! PP !! PSEPap
! word !! MM !! Gizrra !! Bine !! Wipi !! PETrF !! Kiwai !! Idi/Agöb !! WCL !! Gudang !! Urradhi !! PP !! PSEPap
|-
|-
| '''louse''' || nem || ngüóm, ngóm || ngaamo, ngame, ngamwe || ngüɨm || *ŋamͻ || nimo || A kabana || aari <br/> (unknown origin) || aaku ''tick, louse'' || aku ''tick, louse'' || -- || --
| '''louse''' || nem || ngüóm, ngóm || ngaamo, ngame, ngamwe || ngüɨm || *ŋamͻ || nimo || A. kabana || aari <br/> (unknown origin) || aaku ''tick, louse'' || aku ''tick, louse'' || -- || --
|-
|-
| '''two''' || neis || nis || neneni || nœmog <br/> cf. MM mog "piece" || *ni-[isV] || netewa, <br/> Bamu teibo || komblebe || ùka- "two" <br/> ùkasar(a) "two (only)" <br/> (-sar(a) "small number") || ilaabayu (cf. Y inychantu, At/A ilvan many)|| Y/A udhima, At udhyama/makyaana, <br/> W aroma/adhoma|| *gujarra || *drua
| '''two''' || neis || nis || neneni || nœmog <br/> cf. MM mog "piece" || *ni-[isV] || netewa, <br/> Bamu teibo || komblebe || ùka- "two" <br/> ùkasar(a) "two (only)" <br/> (-sar(a) "small number") || ilaabayu (cf. Y inychantu, At/A ilvan many)|| Y/A udhima, At udhyama/makyaana, <br/> W aroma/adhoma|| *gujarra || *drua
|-
|-
| '''water''' (1) || gur "salt water" || -gul- "wash" <br/> bapür- PlOb, apür VN|| atnana ''wash VN'' || gony "washing" <br/> imangena "swimming" || *gulV "water, swim, wash" || obo, <br/> Kope oru'o ''wash self'' VN || Idi tetu "wash", D bemine "sea water" || wœr~wur~uur~wœir "water" || G ungunya ''salt water'' || -- || -- || *wair "water"
| '''water''' (1) || gur "salt water" || -gul- "wash" <br/> bapür- PlOb, apür VN|| atnana ''wash VN'' || gony "washing" <br/> imangena "swimming" || *gulV "water, swim, wash" || obo, <br/> Kope oru'o ''wash self'' VN || I. tetu "wash", A. bemine "sea water" || wœr~wur~uur~wœir "water" || G ungunya ''salt water'' || -- || -- || *wair "water"
|-
|-
| '''water''' (2) <br/> (fresh; drink, juice) || ni || naiy, nai, nae || niye, niiye || ni, niya, nyɨ, ngi || *niya/*nayi || obo || ni || ngùki || --|| --|| *ŋugu/*ŋugi || --
| '''water''' (2) <br/> (fresh; drink, juice) || ni || naiy, nai, nae || niye, niiye || ni, niya, nyɨ, ngi || *niya/*nayi || obo || ni || ngùki || --|| --|| *ŋugu/*ŋugi || --
|-
|-
| '''ear''' <br/> cf. '''hear''' || laip, girip || gublang, gublam || tablamo || yɨpiya, yɨpyar, yɨkɨpya, yɨrpya, irkɨpia ''ear''; <br/> yɨpiarom, yakrom ''outer early'' || *?(+*raamo ''leaf'') || gare ''ear'', sepate ''lobe, external ear'' || ran ''ear'', ika ''external ear'', A laandra || kaura <br/> kurusai- (in compounds) || iwunya || Y iwuny<br/>At ikuchi<br/>W iwui || *gaalu || --
| '''ear''' <br/> cf. '''hear''' || laip, girip || gublang, gublam || tablamo || yɨpiya, yɨpyar, yɨkɨpya, yɨrpya, irkɨpia ''ear''; <br/> yɨpiarom, yakrom ''outer early'' || *?(+*raamo ''leaf'') || gare ''ear'', sepate ''lobe, external ear'' || ran ''ear'', ika ''external ear'', A. laandra || kaura <br/> kurusai- (in compounds) || iwunya || Y iwuny<br/>At ikuchi<br/>W iwui || *gaalu || --
|-
|-
| '''death''' || eud ''death''; <br/> eumi Sg, baum PL "die"; <br/> bud "mourning" || büdül "dead", <br/> budül- "die" || budre ''death''; (w)uje ''die'' || budɨ "death"; <br/> (w)uj(e) "dead, death" || *wudi "die" || odio, P para, M uparu "dead"; <br/> orisiai, M/Kerewo oihiai "die" || kududar "die" || uum(a) "death, unconsciousness" <br/> awum(a) "mourning, wailing" (for a death) <br/> buudh(a) "white paint" (traditionally used for mourning) || ithuurra/ithuulma "dead" || Y/A yuthu, At ruthu, <br/> W alghan "dead", W unga "mourn", U alga "death" || -- || --
| '''death''' || eud ''death''; <br/> eumi Sg, baum PL "die"; <br/> bud "mourning" || büdül "dead", <br/> budül- "die" || budre ''death''; (w)uje ''die'' || budɨ "death"; <br/> (w)uj(e) "dead, death" || *wudi "die" || odio, P para, M uparu "dead"; <br/> orisiai, M/Kerewo oihiai "die" || kududar "die" || uum(a) "death, unconsciousness" <br/> awum(a) "mourning, wailing" (for a death) <br/> buudh(a) "white paint" (traditionally used for mourning) || ithuurra/ithuulma "dead" || Y/A yuthu, At ruthu, <br/> W alghan "dead", W unga "mourn", U alga "death" || -- || --
|-
|-
| '''I''' || ka || kó || cane, kane || kon || *ka(nV) || mai || ngén, A ngana || ngayi || G []yuba, aipaana || Y/A/At ayu(va) || *ŋayi || --
| '''I''' || ka || kó || cane, kane || kon || *ka(nV) || mai || ngén, A. ngana || ngayi || G []yuba, aipaana || Y/A/At ayu(va) || *ŋayi || --
|-
|-
| '''liver''' || o || konkon (puringai) || owolaamo, <br/> uweraame || wurom, vurom, <br/> sukəp, tsɨkɨp || *ͻwͻ <br/> +*raamͻ "leaf" <br/> *siba+kapu || K/Kerewo beu, M beo <br/> M siba "heart", D sibo "heart") || D yoa/siba; <br/> A zebe || siib(a) ''liver; centre'' || iipa "heart" || Y/A yipa, At lipa, W tepa, tipa || *jiba || --
| '''liver''' || o || konkon (puringai) || owolaamo, <br/> uweraame || wurom, vurom, <br/> sukəp, tsɨkɨp || *ͻwͻ <br/> +*raamͻ "leaf" <br/> *siba+kapu || K/Kerewo beu, M beo <br/> M siba "heart", D sibo "heart") || A. yoa/siba/zebe || siib(a) ''liver; centre'' || iipa "heart" || Y/A yipa, At lipa, W tepa, tipa || *jiba || --
|-
|-
| '''eye''' || ponì (unknown origin) <br/> erkep || ilküp, ilkóküp || irecu || yɨr, yer "eye", yɨrkɨp, ilkɨp, yɨrtyen, yɨttwin "eyeball" || *iri "see", *kapu "seed, body part, fruit, etc." || damari, Kerewo idomai || kalye, A yende "eye ", <br/> ikép/ikapa "eye-ball" (kép "egg") || pùrka (unknown origin) <br/> daan(a) '' (also "pool", "life", <br/> "kernel", "shell-food") <br/> cf. -kap(u) "body part" || daanha, rathair || Y anngal, At ipanh, A angwaa, W yeithi/yithi || -- || *dano "lake, pool"
| '''eye''' || ponì (unknown origin) <br/> erkep || ilküp, ilkóküp || irecu || yɨr, yer "eye", yɨrkɨp, ilkɨp, yɨrtyen, yɨttwin "eyeball" || *iri "see", *kapu "seed, body part, fruit, etc." || damari, Kerewo idomai || kalye, A. yende "eye ", <br/> ikép/ikapa "eye-ball" (kép "egg") || pùrka (unknown origin) <br/> daan(a) (also "pool", "life", <br/> "kernel", "shell-food") <br/> cf. -kap(u) "body part" || daanha, rathair || Y anngal, At ipanh, A angwaa, W yeithi/yithi || -- || *dano "lake, pool"
|-
|-
| '''hand''' || tag || tang, tan ''arm, hand'' || imo "hand, arm" || yɨm || *taaŋV, *iimo "hand, arm" || K tu, Bamu tuu ''hand, arm'' || tang, A tranga || geth(a) <br/> (unknown origin) || arta || Y/At/A mata, W ara || *mara || *taŋa
| '''hand''' || tag || tang, tan ''arm, hand'' || imo "hand, arm" || yɨm || *taaŋV, *iimo "hand, arm" || K tu, Bamu tuu ''hand, arm'' || tang, A. tranga || geth(a) <br/> (unknown origin) || arta || Y/At/A mata, W ara || *mara || *taŋa
|-
|-
| '''hear''' || asor- || -rrkrru-, -rrkurru- || -tecij- (-tecind-~cind-) ''hear'', <br/> ätecija VN ''hear/listen'' || utkunj~utkund- || *Vrkundi || irovidiro, Mawata erebidiro, Kope orovidio VN || A dandarla || karnge[mi]-, kœrngai VN; <br/> kùrùsai- ''ear''|| ? || Y/A/At ami- || -- || *roŋor
| '''hear''' || asor- || -rrkrru-, -rrkurru- || -tecij- (-tecind-~cind-) ''hear'', <br/> ätecija VN ''hear/listen'' || utkunj~utkund- || *Vrkundi || irovidiro, Mawata erebidiro, Kope orovidio VN || A. dandarla || karnge[mi]-, kœrngai VN; <br/> kùrùsai- ''ear''|| ? || Y/A/At ami- || -- || *roŋor
|-
|-
| '''tree''' <br/> (also "plant", "wood", "magic") || lu(g) "tree, plant, magic" || nugup "tree" || uli, uri "tree, plant" || wul(a), ul "tree" || *wuli, *[ln]ugu[p] "tree" || ota "tree, plant", Kope nu'a "tree" || lu, A ra/rati-ra/ro || ''puuy(i)'', OKY ''puuRi''; <br/> yuu "spit, skewer" || puri "tree", yuuku "wood", <br/> upiirri "medicine" || Y/At/A yuku "wood, tree, stick, log", <br/> Y/At/A upirri "sore, painful, witchcraft" || *lugu "tree, wood" || *pu[l]i magic
| '''tree''' <br/> (also "plant", "wood", "magic") || lu(g) "tree, plant, magic" || nugup "tree" || uli, uri "tree, plant" || wul(a), ul "tree" || *wuli, *[ln]ugu[p] "tree" || ota "tree, plant", Kope nu'a "tree" || lu, A. ra/rati-ra/ro || ''puuy(i)'', OKY ''puuRi''; <br/> yuu "spit, skewer" || puri "tree", yuuku "wood", <br/> upiirri "medicine" || Y/At/A yuku "wood, tree, stick, log", <br/> Y/At/A upirri "sore, painful, witchcraft" || *lugu "tree, wood" || *pu[l]i magic
|-
|-
| '''fish''' || lar <br/> (unknown origin) || wapi, wapui || kibu, cupya, <br/> kopae, kopäi || kabum; <br/> waji || -- || arimina/irisina ''food, fish''; <br/> Kerewo na, Kope nai ''fish''|| kwalba || waapi <br/> (unknown origin) || waapi || Y yatpan/yadpa, <br/> A inhanyii, W nheya || -- || --
| '''fish''' || lar <br/> (unknown origin) || wapi, wapui || kibu, cupya, <br/> kopae, kopäi || kabum; <br/> waji || -- || arimina/irisina ''food, fish''; <br/> Kerewo na, Kope nai ''fish''|| kwalba || waapi <br/> (unknown origin) || waapi || Y yatpan/yadpa, <br/> A inhanyii, W nheya || -- || --
|-
|-
| '''name''' || nei || ngi, ngui || ngi || ni, niœ, nyœ || *nyilya || paina, Kerewo paena || ben, A bena || nel <br/> ''Saibai variant'' nei || yini || At angyal, A anyii, W anyel || -- || --
| '''name''' || nei || ngi, ngui || ngi || ni, niœ, nyœ || *nyilya || paina, Kerewo paena || ben, A. bena || nel <br/> ''Saibai variant'' nei || yini || At angyal, A anyii, W anyel || -- || --
|-
|-
| '''stone''' || bakìr <br/> (unknown origin) || inglkup, inglkurp || kula, kura || gli(muz), gɨmo, gɨmokɨp, kula, guma, nadi, motɨr || *kula || kura, M nora || dadar, A dader || kùla || uulpa || Y/A aypany, At aypanh || *gul(g)an || --
| '''stone''' || bakìr <br/> (unknown origin) || inglkup, inglkurp || kula, kura || gli(muz), gɨmo, gɨmokɨp, kula, guma, nadi, motɨr || *kula || kura, M nora || dadar, A. dader || kùla || uulpa || Y/A aypany, At aypanh || *gul(g)an || --
|-
|-
| '''tooth''' || tìrìg <br/> cf. ereg "eat" <br/> deg "edge, side"|| zirgup (gup ''body part, fruit, etc.'' || giricu; <br/> cidi "edge" || orkak <br/> or- "eat", kak "bone" <br/> dɨng "thorn" || *daŋa "tooth, edge, etc." || ibuanara, Parama iawa; K iawa "incisor" || dhéndhég "bite INF"; D ngui, nggoia, uguwoi "tooth"; A lenge, lenga "tooth" || dhang(a) <br/> (also "edge") || ampu || Y/A ampu, At ngampu || *jaaŋa "tooth, edge, etc." || --
| '''tooth''' || tìrìg <br/> cf. ereg "eat" <br/> deg "edge, side"|| zirgup (gup ''body part, fruit, etc.'' || giricu; <br/> cidi "edge" || orkak <br/> or- "eat", kak "bone" <br/> dɨng "thorn" || *daŋa "tooth, edge, etc." || ibuanara, Parama iawa; K iawa "incisor" || dhéndhég "bite INF"; A. ngui, nggoia, uguwoi "tooth"; A lenge, lenga "tooth" || dhang(a) <br/> (also "edge") || ampu || Y/A ampu, At ngampu || *jaaŋa "tooth, edge, etc." || --
|-
|-
| '''breast''' <br/> (cf. ''mother'', ''milk'') || nano <br/> ama, apu "mum, mother, aunty" <br/> nanosus "milk" (sus "white sap", "foam") || ngum, ngiam, ngüam; <br/> aip ''mother'' || ngaamo, nono; <br/> mago "mother", yääye "Mum" || ngom, ngum, ngiam, ngɨmb, ngɨmdor; <br/> mog, ag "mother" || *ŋaamͻ "breast, mother" <br/> *maago ''mother'' <br/> *susu "breast, milk" || bodoro; <br/> aida, M maramu, Bamu onoo, Kerewo mamo ''mother'' || ngém/nono "breast"; <br/> nene "mother" || ama "mum, mother, aunty" <br/> aapu(wa) "mother, aunt" <br/> susu (also "white sap"; "loaf"), <br/> susuikai "milk" (ikai "juice, sap") || []yuungu "breast, milk", athiinya "mother" || Y/At/A ungunyu "mother, breast, milk" <br/> A also awucha, yathu "milk", <br/> W nono "mother, breast" || *ŋam[u/a]ŋ "breast, mother" <br/> *juju "breast, milk" || *susu "breast, milk"
| '''breast''' <br/> (cf. ''mother'', ''milk'') || nano <br/> ama, apu "mum, mother, aunty" <br/> nanosus "milk" (sus "white sap", "foam") || ngum, ngiam, ngüam; <br/> aip ''mother'' || ngaamo, nono; <br/> mago "mother", yääye "Mum" || ngom, ngum, ngiam, ngɨmb, ngɨmdor; <br/> mog, ag "mother" || *ŋaamͻ "breast, mother" <br/> *maago ''mother'' <br/> *susu "breast, milk" || bodoro; <br/> aida, M maramu, Bamu onoo, Kerewo mamo ''mother'' || ngém/nono "breast"; <br/> nene "mother" || ama "mum, mother, aunty" <br/> aapu(wa) "mother, aunt" <br/> susu (also "white sap"; "loaf"), <br/> susuikai "milk" (ikai "juice, sap") || []yuungu "breast, milk", athiinya "mother" || Y/At/A ungunyu "mother, breast, milk" <br/> A also awucha, yathu "milk", <br/> W nono "mother, breast" || *ŋam[u/a]ŋ "breast, mother" <br/> *juju "breast, milk" || *susu "breast, milk"
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| '''fire''' || ur || uur || ulikobo, uliobo, urikobe, <br/> ulikobe, olobo, uli, <br/> Kunini muye-uliobo || uur, [wul(a)]para || *uur[], *kͻbͻ, *pVrV "fire", *wuli "tree, wood" || era, Bamu mahi || yu || mui (Boigu,KY also mœi) || uma || Y/At/A uma, W entovo || *tuma || --
| '''fire''' || ur || uur || ulikobo, uliobo, urikobe, <br/> ulikobe, olobo, uli, <br/> Kunini muye-uliobo || uur, [wul(a)]para || *uur[], *kͻbͻ, *pVrV "fire", *wuli "tree, wood" || era, Bamu mahi || yu || mui (Boigu,KY also mœi) || uma || Y/At/A uma, W entovo || *tuma || --
|-
|-
| '''tongue''' || werut || ulit || wätä, wärtä, warta, wate || welat, we(y)at, vlat, yat || *wilͻtV || watotorope, Kerewo mototobe || D dogmar, <br/> A dangamai || nœi <br/> (unknown origin) || unt[h]aar[r]a || Y yalan, punhu, At lalan, A yalan || -- || --
| '''tongue''' || werut || ulit || wätä, wärtä, warta, wate || welat, we(y)at, vlat, yat || *wilͻtV || watotorope, Kerewo mototobe || A. dogmar, dangamai || nœi <br/> (unknown origin) || unt[h]aar[r]a || Y yalan, punhu, At lalan, A yalan || -- || --
|-
|-
| '''skin''' || gegur; <br/> tep ''skin of fruit'' || sopai, sopae; <br/> kwan, kuan ''bark'' || tääpo, tääpe, taape, tääpwo; <br/> uli tääpo (etc.) ''bark'' || gɨm (one dialect gunja); <br/> wul gɨm, gɨm, yug ''bark'' || *taapi || tama || thoe || gœngáw(u), <br/> KLY gœngaawu, <br/> KulY ''gœngáy(u) || ikwurra ''skin'' <br/> ranga ''bark'' || Y/At/A akuny ''skin, bark' || *Cagurr
| '''skin''' || gegur; <br/> tep ''skin of fruit'' || sopai, sopae; <br/> kwan, kuan ''bark'' || tääpo, tääpe, taape, tääpwo; <br/> uli tääpo (etc.) ''bark'' || gɨm (one dialect gunja); <br/> wul gɨm, gɨm, yug ''bark'' || *taapi || tama || thoe || gœngáw(u), <br/> KLY gœngaawu, <br/> KulY gœngáy(u) || ikwurra ''skin'' <br/> ranga ''bark'' || Y/At/A akuny ''skin, bark'' || *Cagurr
|-
|-
| '''night''' || ki || irrüb, irrub, irrib || kiye, ciye || sɨwɨny, sɨwɨn, sowɨny, <br/> sɨrɨn, sowi, tsowony, sɨwɨng, sɨrɨng, sɨrɨm || *kiya || duo, Bamu duwo || D kuteine, <br/> A kwete || kubil <br/> (derived, kùbi "charcoal") || G yulpalga ''night, darkness'' || Y yupul, <br/> Y manara, At manma ''night, darkness'', <br/> W jagula || -- || --
| '''night''' || ki || irrüb, irrub, irrib || kiye, ciye || sɨwɨny, sɨwɨn, sowɨny, <br/> sɨrɨn, sowi, tsowony, sɨwɨng, sɨrɨng, sɨrɨm || *kiya || duo, Bamu duwo || A. kuteine, kwete || kubil <br/> (derived, kùbi "charcoal") || G yulpalga ''night, darkness'' || Y yupul, <br/> Y manara, At manma ''night, darkness'', <br/> W jagula || -- || --
|-
|-
| '''leaf''' || (lu)lam <br/> (lu "plant") || lam, lang (mainly compounds), <br/> pórgae~prangai, prórngae, pórngae || laamo, racme, raame || (wulœ)rom'' <br/> (wulœ "tree") || *laamͻ "leaf" || ota-pasa, M ota-pea <br/> (ota ''tree'') || oro-popo/ru-pi/ro-rual <br/> (oro/ru/ro ''tree, plant''); <br/> (lu)pi <br/> (lu ''tree, plant'') || niis(a) || itrara "leaf" || Y/At/A yukum yampa (yuku "tree, wood"), A ithagha, W alway; <br/> Y/At/A yampa "leaf, flower, lung"; <br/> AT yamparra, A inparra "lung" || -- || --
| '''leaf''' || (lu)lam <br/> (lu "plant") || lam, lang (mainly compounds), <br/> pórgae~prangai, prórngae, pórngae || laamo, racme, raame || (wulœ)rom <br/> (wulœ "tree") || *laamͻ "leaf" || ota-pasa, M ota-pea <br/> (ota ''tree'') || oro-popo/ru-pi/ro-rual <br/> (oro/ru/ro ''tree, plant''); <br/> (lu)pi <br/> (lu ''tree, plant'') || niis(a) || itrara "leaf" || Y/At/A yukum yampa (yuku "tree, wood"), A ithagha, W alway; <br/> Y/At/A yampa "leaf, flower, lung"; <br/> AT yamparra, A inparra "lung" || -- || --
|-
|-
| '''blood''' || mam <br/> (unknown origin) || ói, óe || uudi || woi, woj, kus, ku || *wodi || arima, <br/> Kope ora || D mem, mam, A teia || kùlka <br/> (unknown origin) || ichunya || Y/A lukuny, At uchuny || --|| --
| '''blood''' || mam <br/> (unknown origin) || ói, óe || uudi || woi, woj, kus, ku || *wodi || arima, <br/> Kope ora || A. mem, mam, teia || kùlka <br/> (unknown origin) || ichunya || Y/A lukuny, At uchuny || --|| --
|-
|-
| '''horn''' || -- || -- || -- || -- || -- || -- || -- || -- || -- || --|| --|| --
| '''horn''' || -- || -- || -- || -- || -- || -- || -- || -- || -- || --|| --|| --
|-
|-
| '''person''' || -am/-iam; <br/> le || -pam; <br/> pam, pama || -yame/-yamo; <br/> binamo, biname, binam; <br/> imä, im ''male'', <br/> rooriye, loori "man" || -am, -iam; <br/> rɨga "man, male" <br/> leo "husband" || *pyama; <br/> *[rl]i[g]ͻ || dubu, Kerewo meréha; <br/> arubi,-rubi ''people'', Kerewo oubi; <br/> Kope dubuiro ''person, man''; <br/> M auana ''man'', didiri ''men'', mere ''male'' || la "man" || -ig(a) personal nominaliser) <br/> mabaig(a)'' (derived, lit. "walker", maab(a) "walk" || ama || Y/At/A ama || *bama || --
| '''person''' || -am/-iam; <br/> le || -pam; <br/> pam, pama || -yame/-yamo; <br/> binamo, biname, binam; <br/> imä, im ''male'', <br/> rooriye, loori "man" || -am, -iam; <br/> rɨga "man, male" <br/> leo "husband" || *pyama; <br/> *[rl]i[g]ͻ || dubu, Kerewo meréha; <br/> arubi,-rubi ''people'', Kerewo oubi; <br/> Kope dubuiro ''person, man''; <br/> M auana ''man'', didiri ''men'', mere ''male'' || la "man" || -ig(a) personal nominaliser) <br/> mabaig(a) (derived, lit. "walker", maab(a) "walk" || ama || Y/At/A ama || *bama || --
|-
|-
| '''knee''' (1) || kolo || -- || (ngawengawe ''elbow'') || kumkak, yɨmkak ''elbow''<br/> (kak ''bone'') || *kͻlͻ "knee, elbow, corner" || -- || -- || kulu <br/> cf. ''kudu'' "elbow", <br/> ''kœru'' "corner" || yurtu ''elbow'' || Y/At yutu, A yurtu ''elbow''|| *yurru "elbow" || *turu "knee, elbow"
| '''knee''' (1) || kolo || -- || (ngawengawe ''elbow'') || kumkak, yɨmkak ''elbow''<br/> (kak ''bone'') || *kͻlͻ "knee, elbow, corner" || -- || -- || kulu <br/> cf. ''kudu'' "elbow", <br/> ''kœru'' "corner" || yurtu ''elbow'' || Y/At yutu, A yurtu ''elbow''|| *yurru "elbow" || *turu "knee, elbow"
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| '''knee''' (2) || kokni <br/> kok "leg joint+?" <br/> wageb "kneecap" || wagusingül, wagósingül, wagasingól || koko/coco(rar/kaako) <br/> (rare, kaako, kak, ror "bone") || kɨ, kɨror, kum; <br/> kumop ''knee ball'', <br/> (mop "end, head") || *kͻkͻ "leg joint" || popu ''knee, elbow'' || D tubu, tang-kum; <br/> putukupi ''kneecap''; <br/> A tran-kwimbe ''elbow'' || kokan(i) "kneecap"; <br/> kuku ''inside part of knee, knee joint'' || iingku ''knee''|| Y/A/At wungku, W owen || PP *wuŋgu[ ] "knee" || --
| '''knee''' (2) || kokni <br/> kok "leg joint+?" <br/> wageb "kneecap" || wagusingül, wagósingül, wagasingól || koko/coco(rar/kaako) <br/> (rare, kaako, kak, ror "bone") || kɨ, kɨror, kum; <br/> kumop ''knee ball'', <br/> (mop "end, head") || *kͻkͻ "leg joint" || popu ''knee, elbow'' || D tubu, tang-kum; <br/> putukupi ''kneecap''; <br/> A tran-kwimbe ''elbow'' || kokan(i) "kneecap"; <br/> kuku ''inside part of knee, knee joint'' || iingku ''knee''|| Y/A/At wungku, W owen || PP *wuŋgu[ ] "knee" || --
|-
|-
| '''one/other'''|| nerut "another" <br/> wader "some, others" (unknown origin) <br/> netat ''one''|| darrpan, dórpan'' "one, one of group" <br/> darrü "other" (+ -pan) || yepä, neetera ''one''; <br/> nuuja ''other, another'' || yepa ''one''; <br/> nɨnda ''other, others, some''; <br/> b’enga ''other, another (different)'' || *ni+[rl]ͻtV ''other'' <br/> *[yi/dVr]pͻnV, *ni+ta[tr]V "one"|| ata, Bamu kaiibi ''one, other'', nau ''one'' || D tupulibi || wara, war "one of group, other" (unknown origin) <br/> dhurai "some, others" <br/> wœrapùn, ùrapùn, ùrpùn <br/> (''older'' waraponi) "one only" <br/> wara "one of group, other" + -pùn[i] || ipiyamanha <br/> inyaanha ''another''|| Y/A ipima, Y also ipinyama, At nhipima; <br/> W wema ''one, alone'' <br/> Y unya, At unyinha, wanhu, A unyinha ''other, different'' <br/> W emo ''other''|| *nyupun, *NipiyamaNa || --
| '''one/other'''|| nerut "another" <br/> wader "some, others" (unknown origin) <br/> netat ''one''|| darrpan, dórpan "one, one of group" <br/> darrü "other" (+ -pan) || yepä, neetera ''one''; <br/> nuuja ''other, another'' || yepa ''one''; <br/> nɨnda ''other, others, some''; <br/> b’enga ''other, another (different)'' || *ni+[rl]ͻtV ''other'' <br/> *[yi/dVr]pͻnV, *ni+ta[tr]V "one"|| ata, Bamu kaiibi ''one, other'', nau ''one'' || A. tupulibi || wara, war "one of group, other" (unknown origin) <br/> dhurai "some, others" <br/> wœrapùn, ùrapùn, ùrpùn <br/> (''older'' waraponi) "one only" <br/> wara "one of group, other" + -pùn[i] || ipiyamanha <br/> inyaanha ''another''|| Y/A ipima, Y also ipinyama, At nhipima; <br/> W wema ''one, alone'' <br/> Y unya, At unyinha, wanhu, A unyinha ''other, different'' <br/> W emo ''other''|| *nyupun, *NipiyamaNa || --
|-
|-
| '''nose''' || pit "nose, beak, <br/> point (of land)"|| syók || keke, cece || so, sok, sokak <br/> (kak ''bone'') || ? || wodi, Kope modi (cf. Bamu pito ''hole'') || D murung, <br/> A wede || piti "nose" <br/> (unknown origin; buna ''beak''; nguur ''point'') || iyi ''nose, beak'' || Y/A iyi, W enmoi, nundagel; <br/> At umughanhu|| -- || --
| '''nose''' || pit "nose, beak, <br/> point (of land)"|| syók || keke, cece || so, sok, sokak <br/> (kak ''bone'') || ? || wodi, Kope modi (cf. Bamu pito ''hole'') || A. murung, wede || piti "nose" <br/> (unknown origin; buna ''beak''; nguur ''point'') || iyi ''nose, beak'' || Y/A iyi, W enmoi, nundagel; <br/> At umughanhu|| -- || --
|-
|-
| '''full''' || (e)osmer (lit. "protrude, show self": <br/> unknown origin) || buku, iib || puuwe || ngor ''full(ness) '' || ? || Kerewo arara'ohuai || -- || 1) ''gùdapœlam(a)'' <br/> (derived : "opening-SpecLOC+cause-VerbForm) <br/> (2) KLY/KulY/MY-KY pùsakar(a), <br/> cf. sakar "space" || mur[r]ku ''gorged'' || Y/At/A wampan ''full/swollen'', W weithinyo ''full'' || --|| --
| '''full''' || (e)osmer (lit. "protrude, show self": <br/> unknown origin) || buku, iib || puuwe || ngor ''full(ness) '' || ? || Kerewo arara'ohuai || -- || 1) ''gùdapœlam(a)'' <br/> (derived : "opening-SpecLOC+cause-VerbForm) <br/> (2) KLY/KulY/MY-KY pùsakar(a), <br/> cf. sakar "space" || mur[r]ku ''gorged'' || Y/At/A wampan ''full/swollen'', W weithinyo ''full'' || --|| --
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| '''come''' (2) <br/> (imperative)|| taba <br/> (ta-ba "come-INTR"), <br/> maiem (?+ALL) || -- || tädi M, tocli F || ayo || -- || -- || abe Sg, yebe PL; <br/> A yau || aye, KKY aya imperative adverb <br/> (Malay or similar loan : ''ayo'', ''ayu'') || -- || -- || -- || *mai "come"
| '''come''' (2) <br/> (imperative)|| taba <br/> (ta-ba "come-INTR"), <br/> maiem (?+ALL) || -- || tädi M, tocli F || ayo || -- || -- || abe Sg, yebe PL; <br/> A yau || aye, KKY aya imperative adverb <br/> (Malay or similar loan : ''ayo'', ''ayu'') || -- || -- || -- || *mai "come"
|-
|-
| '''star''' || wer || wimurr || wale, walo, gugie, griga <br/> (see ''sun, day'') || ikui, ɨki, ɨkwi, guje (one dialect bedam) || *wa[rl]i || gugi, M zogubo, Kope oroi'io || D piro, A kwatai || Wœœy(i), OKY WœœRi "Venus" <br/> thithúy(i), KLY thithuuyi, OKY thithúRi; <br/> zugub(a) ''constellation, significant star'' || uunpi || Y/At/A unpi, At wintamwintama (avoidance)|| -- || *waRi ''sun'' <br/> PSEPap*pituqon, <br/> PCD *pitui, *pitiu, *pitiriu "star"
| '''star''' || wer || wimurr || wale, walo, gugie, griga <br/> (see ''sun, day'') || ikui, ɨki, ɨkwi, guje (one dialect bedam) || *wa[rl]i || gugi, M zogubo, Kope oroi'io || A. piro, kwatai || Wœœy(i), OKY WœœRi "Venus" <br/> thithúy(i), KLY thithuuyi, OKY thithúRi; <br/> zugub(a) ''constellation, significant star'' || uunpi || Y/At/A unpi, At wintamwintama (avoidance)|| -- || *waRi ''sun'' <br/> PSEPap*pituqon, <br/> PCD *pitui, *pitiu, *pitiriu "star"
|-
|-
| '''hill''' || paser || podo ''hill'', dorro ''high ground'' || podo, doro ''hill'', doro ''mainland, shore'' || podo, dor ''hill'' || *pͻntͻ[r], *doro || podo, Mawata also damera; <br/> idodoro ''cliff'' || duidui, A pad || paad(a) <br/> (also "top, height, crest, peak "); <br/> baudhar(a) ''mountain, peak'' || pada || Y yantal, At rantal, A yantaa; <br/> W mara ''mountain'' || *baanda "top" || *pantar "hill, mountain"
| '''hill''' || paser || podo ''hill'', dorro ''high ground'' || podo, doro ''hill'', doro ''mainland, shore'' || podo, dor ''hill'' || *pͻntͻ[r], *doro || podo, Mawata also damera; <br/> idodoro ''cliff'' || I. duidui, A. pad || paad(a) <br/> (also "top, height, crest, peak "); <br/> baudhar(a) ''mountain, peak'' || pada || Y yantal, At rantal, A yantaa; <br/> W mara ''mountain'' || *baanda "top" || *pantar "hill, mountain"
|-
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| '''bone, leaf rib''' || lid || kus || kaako, kaake, caace ''bone''; <br/> raare ''bone'', rare ''shell, spoon'' || kak, kaak, kagɨ kak, kaga ''bone, stick, (hard) piece, stalk''; <br/> ror ''bone'' (in compounds)|| *riida/*raadi "bone, leaf rib" || soro, M kako || A kwetr/kut || riidh(a) || athirra || Y/At/A apudha, A avoidance ikyalitha, W watha/ua || -- || --
| '''bone, leaf rib''' || lid || kus || kaako, kaake, caace ''bone''; <br/> raare ''bone'', rare ''shell, spoon'' || kak, kaak, kagɨ kak, kaga ''bone, stick, (hard) piece, stalk''; <br/> ror ''bone'' (in compounds)|| *riida/*raadi "bone, leaf rib" || soro, M kako || A. kwetr/kut || riidh(a) || athirra || Y/At/A apudha, A avoidance ikyalitha, W watha/ua || -- || --
|-
|-
| '''we inclusive''' || mi, mer- inclusive || mi || mine || men, mɨn || *mi(ni) || nimo, Kerewo imo [exc and inc.] || ybi || ngœba dual inclusive <br/> ngalpa plural inclusive || ? || Y/At/A ali(va) DU, ana(va) PL || *ŋali inclusive; *ŋana(pula) (dual) exclusive || *kita
| '''we inclusive''' || mi, mer- inclusive || mi || mine || men, mɨn || *mi(ni) || nimo, Kerewo imo [exc and inc.] || ybi || ngœba dual inclusive <br/> ngalpa plural inclusive || ? || Y/At/A ali(va) DU, ana(va) PL || *ŋali inclusive; *ŋana(pula) (dual) exclusive || *kita
|-
|-
| '''we exclusive''' || ki, ker- exclusive || ki || kine, cine|| sɨn || *ki(ni) || nimo, Kerewo imo [exc and inc.] || bi, A ba || ngalbai, KKY ngalbe, archaic KulY ngœibai, dual exclusive <br/> ngœi, ngœlmù-, KKY/MY-KY ngœimù-, OKY ngœRi(mù-) plural exclusive || aaku || Y/A/At ampu(la) || *ŋali inclusive; *ŋana(pula) (dual) exclusive || *kami
| '''we exclusive''' || ki, ker- exclusive || ki || kine, cine|| sɨn || *ki(ni) || nimo, Kerewo imo [exc and inc.] || bi, A. ba || ngalbai, KKY ngalbe, archaic KulY ngœibai, dual exclusive <br/> ngœi, ngœlmù-, KKY/MY-KY ngœimù-, OKY ngœRi(mù-) plural exclusive || aaku || Y/A/At ampu(la) || *ŋali inclusive; *ŋana(pula) (dual) exclusive || *kami
|-
|-
| '''drink''' (verb) || iri || -(a)nan- || ene-|| -ona-~-ena- Sg, anain- NSg|| *ini/ani/ina || Kope idio ''drink'', odio ''he is drinking'' || A ine/ngi -ni-/-na- ''drink water'' <br/> (-ni/na- ''eat'') || wani- <br/> (unknown origin; derived? <br/> < wanai- "put" active stem) || ungkenka ''drink'' || Y/At ungye, A ungya ''drink, eat''; <br/> W ical ''drink'' || -- || --
| '''drink''' (verb) || iri || -(a)nan- || ene-|| -ona-~-ena- Sg, anain- NSg|| *ini/ani/ina || Kope idio ''drink'', odio ''he is drinking'' || A. ine/ngi -ni-/-na- ''drink water'' <br/> (-ni/na- ''eat'') || wani- <br/> (unknown origin; derived? <br/> < wanai- "put" active stem) || ungkenka ''drink'' || Y/At ungye, A ungya ''drink, eat''; <br/> W ical ''drink'' || -- || --
|-
|-
| '''see, find''' || dasmer, erdar <br/> (stem er-) || -sen- ''see'' || -pän, pan- ''see, find'', <br/> ire ''see'' VN || yɨr -ong- (ong ''bite''), <br/> yɨr -a- ''see, look'', <br/> yeri-, yiry-, oraka VN ''find, search'', <br/> ɨdar Sg, adar NSg ''find'' || *ira ''see'' || eáuri ''see'' VN || -ndee- ''see'' || iima-|| angkanya ''find'' || W iangin ''find'' || *kiima "see" || --
| '''see, find''' || dasmer, erdar <br/> (stem er-) || -sen- ''see'' || -pän, pan- ''see, find'', <br/> ire ''see'' VN || yɨr -ong- (ong ''bite''), <br/> yɨr -a- ''see, look'', <br/> yeri-, yiry-, oraka VN ''find, search'', <br/> ɨdar Sg, adar NSg ''find'' || *ira ''see'' || eáuri ''see'' VN || -ndee- ''see'' || iima-|| angkanya ''find'' || W iangin ''find'' || *kiima "see" || --
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==Recent loans==
==Recent loans==
The main source of loan words to the language since the mid 1800s has been Yumplatòk ([[Torres Strait Creole]]) and English. There are also some minor loans from [[Dehu language|Lifu/Drehu]], Polynesian (in particular [[Samoan language|Samoan]] and to a lesser extent [[Rotuman language|Rotuman]]), Indonesian, Philippine, Japanese, and European origin. Many such outsiders were recruited – or in some rare cases [[black-birded]] – in the 19th century for pearl diving and other marine work, while others (from Lifu and Samoa) were missionaries with the British and Foreign Bible Society.
The main source of [[loan word]]s to the language since the mid 1800s has been Yumplatòk ([[Torres Strait Creole]]) and English. There are also some minor loans from [[Dehu language|Lifu/Drehu]], Polynesian (in particular [[Samoan language|Samoan]] and to a lesser extent [[Rotuman language|Rotuman]]), Indonesian, Philippine, Japanese, and European origin. Many such outsiders were recruited – or in some rare cases [[black-birded]] – in the 19th century for pearl diving and other marine work, while others (from Lifu and Samoa) were missionaries with the [[British and Foreign Bible Society]].{{cn|date=December 2020}}


==Dialects==
==Dialects==
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| {{IPA|u}} {{Angbr|u}}
| {{IPA|u}} {{Angbr|u}}
|-
|-
! [[High vowel|Retracted High]]
! [[Near-close vowel|Near-high]]
| {{IPA|ɪ}} {{Angbr|i}}{{Angbr|e}}{{Angbr|ì}}
| {{IPA|ɪ}} {{Angbr|ì}}
| {{IPA|ʊ}} {{Angbr|ù}}
| {{IPA|ʊ}} {{Angbr|u}}{{Angbr|ù}}
|-
|-
! [[Mid vowel|Mid]]
! [[Mid vowel|Mid]]
| {{IPA|e}} {{Angbr|e}}
| {{IPA|e}}, {{IPA|ɛ}} {{Angbr|e}}
| {{IPA|o}} {{Angbr|o}}
| {{IPA|o}} {{Angbr|o}}
|-
|-
Line 277: Line 283:
The sounds represented by {{IPA|[a]}} and {{IPA|[ʌ]}} are allophonic. {{IPA|[ʌ]}} appears mainly in syllables ''before'' the stress accent and optionally in open unstressed syllables otherwise. {{IPA|[a]}} appears in stressed syllables and in unstressed closed syllables.
The sounds represented by {{IPA|[a]}} and {{IPA|[ʌ]}} are allophonic. {{IPA|[ʌ]}} appears mainly in syllables ''before'' the stress accent and optionally in open unstressed syllables otherwise. {{IPA|[a]}} appears in stressed syllables and in unstressed closed syllables.


For some speakers the following pairs exhibit variation, and perhaps have unidentified allophonic variation: {{IPA|[e]}} and {{IPA|[ɪ]}} (mainly Erub/Ulag), {{IPA|[ɪ]}} and {{IPA|[i]}} (mainly Mer), {{IPA|[u]}} and {{IPA|[ʊ]}}, {{IPA|[ʊ]}} and {{IPA|[o]}}, and {{IPA|[o]}} and {{IPA|[ɔ]}}. Older speakers appear to keep the vowels more distinct.
For some speakers the following pairs exhibit variation, and perhaps have unidentified allophonic variation: {{IPA|[e]}}, {{IPA|[ɛ]}} and {{IPA|[ɪ]}} (mainly Erub/Ulag), {{IPA|[ɪ]}} and {{IPA|[i]}} (mainly Mer), {{IPA|[u]}} and {{IPA|[ʊ]}}, {{IPA|[ʊ]}} and {{IPA|[o]}}, and {{IPA|[o]}} and {{IPA|[ɔ]}}. Older speakers appear to keep the vowels more distinct.


===Consonants===
===Consonants===
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!colspan="2"|
!colspan="2"|
! [[Bilabial consonant|Bilabial]]
! [[Bilabial consonant|Bilabial]]
! [[Alveolar consonant|Dental]]
! [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
! [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
! [[Alveolar consonant|Alveo-Palatal]]
! [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
! [[Palatal consonant|Velar]]
! [[Palatal consonant|Velar]]
|-
|-
Line 291: Line 296:
! <small>[[Voiceless consonant|Voiceless]]</small>
! <small>[[Voiceless consonant|Voiceless]]</small>
| {{IPA|p}}
| {{IPA|p}}
| {{IPA|t}}
|{{IPA|t}}
|
|
|
| {{IPA|k}}
| {{IPA|k}}
Line 298: Line 302:
! <small>[[Voiced consonant|Voiced]]</small>
! <small>[[Voiced consonant|Voiced]]</small>
| {{IPA|b}}
| {{IPA|b}}
|
| {{IPA|d}}
| {{IPA|d}}
|
|
Line 305: Line 308:
!colspan="2"| [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
!colspan="2"| [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
| {{IPA|m}}
| {{IPA|m}}
| {{IPA|n}}
|{{IPA|n}}
|
|
|
|
|
Line 313: Line 315:
! <small>[[Voiceless consonant|Voiceless]]</small>
! <small>[[Voiceless consonant|Voiceless]]</small>
|
|
⚫
|{{IPA|s}}
|
|
|
⚫
| {{IPA|s}}
|
|
|-
|-
! <small>[[Voiced consonant|Voiced]]</small>
! <small>[[Voiced consonant|Voiced]]</small>
|
|
⚫
|{{IPA|z}}
|
|
|
⚫
| {{IPA|z}}
|
|
|-
|-
!colspan="2"| [[Lateral consonant|Lateral]]
!colspan="2"| [[Lateral consonant|Lateral]]
|
|
| {{IPA|l}}
|{{IPA|l}}
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|-
!colspan="2"| [[Trill consonant|Trill]]/[[Flap consonant|Tap]]
!colspan="2"| [[Flap consonant|Tap]]
|
|
⚫
| {{IPA|ɾ}}
|
⚫
| {{IPA|r}}
|
|
|
|
Line 341: Line 339:
!colspan="2"| [[Semivowel]]
!colspan="2"| [[Semivowel]]
| {{IPA|w}}
| {{IPA|w}}
|
|
|
| {{IPA|j}}
| {{IPA|j}}
|
|
|}
|}
{{IPA|/ɾ/}} is heard as {{IPA|[ɹ]}} when occurring before or after consonants.


===Stress===
===Stress===
[[Stress (linguistics)|Stress]] is contrastive in Meriam and can occur on the first or second syllable. Examples include ''tábo'' 'snake', ''tabó'' 'neck'''.
[[Stress (linguistics)|Stress]] is contrastive in Meriam and can occur on the first or second syllable. Examples include ''tábo'' 'snake', ''tabó'' 'neck'.


==Sign language==
==Sign language==
Line 360: Line 358:


==Bibliography==
==Bibliography==
*{{cite book |last=Dixon |first=R. M. W. |authorlink=R. M. W. Dixon |year=2002 |title=Australian Languages: Their Nature and Development |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url=http://www.cambridge.org/catalogue/catalogue.asp?isbn=0521473780}}
*{{cite book |last=Dixon |first=R. M. W. |author-link=R. M. W. Dixon |year=2002 |title=Australian Languages: Their Nature and Development |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url=http://www.cambridge.org/catalogue/catalogue.asp?isbn=0521473780}}
* {{citation
* {{citation
|last=Mitchell
|last=Mitchell
|first=Rod
|first=Rod
|authorlink=R. Mitchell
|author-link=R. Mitchell
|date=April 2015
|date=April 2015
|title=Ngalmun Lagaw Yangukudu: The Language of our Homeland ''in'' Goemulgaw Lagal: Cultural and Natural Histories of the Island of Mabuyag, Torres Strait
|title=Ngalmun Lagaw Yangukudu: The Language of our Homeland ''in'' Goemulgaw Lagal: Cultural and Natural Histories of the Island of Mabuyag, Torres Strait
|journal=Memoirs of the Queensland Museum: Culture
|journal=Memoirs of the Queensland Museum – Culture
|volume=8
|volume=8
|issue=1
|issue=1
Line 375: Line 373:
*{{cite book |last=Passi |first=Gamalai Ken |author2=Piper, Nick |year=1994 |chapter=Meryam Mir |editor=Nick Thieberger |editor2=William McGregor |title=Macquarie Aboriginal Words |publisher=Macquarie Library |pages=320–351}}
*{{cite book |last=Passi |first=Gamalai Ken |author2=Piper, Nick |year=1994 |chapter=Meryam Mir |editor=Nick Thieberger |editor2=William McGregor |title=Macquarie Aboriginal Words |publisher=Macquarie Library |pages=320–351}}
*{{cite book |last=Piper |first=N. |year=1989 |title=A sketch grammar of Meryam Mer |others=MA thesis |publisher=Australian National University}}
*{{cite book |last=Piper |first=N. |year=1989 |title=A sketch grammar of Meryam Mer |others=MA thesis |publisher=Australian National University}}
*{{cite book |last=Ross |first=Malcolm |authorlink=Malcolm Ross (linguist) |year=2005 |chapter=Pronouns as a preliminary diagnostic for grouping Papuan languages |editor=Andrew Pawley |editor2=Robert Attenborough |editor3=Robin Hide |editor4=Jack Golson |title=Papuan pasts: cultural, linguistic and biological histories of Papuan-speaking peoples |pages=15–66 |location=Canberra |publisher=Pacific Linguistics}}
*{{cite book |last=Ross |first=Malcolm |author-link=Malcolm Ross (linguist) |year=2005 |chapter=Pronouns as a preliminary diagnostic for grouping Papuan languages |editor=Andrew Pawley |editor2=Robert Attenborough |editor3=Robin Hide |editor4=Jack Golson |title=Papuan pasts: cultural, linguistic and biological histories of Papuan-speaking peoples |pages=15–66 |location=Canberra |publisher=Pacific Linguistics}}
*{{cite book |last=Lawrie |first=Margaret |year=1970 |title=Myths and Legends of Torres Strait |location=St. Lucia |publisher=University of Queensland Press}}
*{{cite book |last=Lawrie |first=Margaret |year=1970 |title=Myths and Legends of Torres Strait |location=St. Lucia |publisher=University of Queensland Press}}


==External links==
==External links==
{{incubator|ulk}}
* {{cite web | last=Greenhill | first=Simon J. | title=Meriam | website= Pronoun Paradigms Database | url=http://pdb.simon.net.nz/language/meriam?sort=-word}}
*[http://justus.anglican.org/resources/bcp/PNG/meriam_hc.html Opolera Wetpur] Anglican Holy Communion service in Meriam
*[http://justus.anglican.org/resources/bcp/PNG/meriam_hc.html Opolera Wetpur] Anglican Holy Communion service in Meriam
*[https://onesearch.slq.qld.gov.au/permalink/61SLQ_INST/11l3i0/alma99183850919702061 Kala Lagaw Ya & Miriam Mir (Torres Strait Islands) Community Language Journey Digital Story], [[State Library of Queensland]]. Part of [https://onesearch.slq.qld.gov.au/permalink/61SLQ_INST/bumb4u/alma99183673120702061 Spoken: Celebrating Queensland Languages Digital Stories Collection]


{{Torres Strait |state=autocollapse}}
{{Torres Strait |state=autocollapse}}
Line 385: Line 386:


[[Category:Eastern Trans-Fly languages]]
[[Category:Eastern Trans-Fly languages]]
[[Category:Torres Strait Islands culture]]
[[Category:Culture of the Torres Strait Islands]]
[[Category:Languages of Australia]]
[[Category:Languages of Australia]]

Latest revision as of 18:10, 23 June 2024

Not to be confused with Miriam language (Nigeria).

Meriam
Eastern Torres Strait
Meriam Mir
RegionMurray Island, Torres Strait, Queensland, Australia
EthnicityMeriam
Native speakers
217 (2016 census)[1]
Eastern Torres Strait Islander Sign Language
Language codes
ISO 639-3ulk
Glottologmeri1244
AIATSIS[2]Y3
ELPMeriam
Linguasphere20-OD(A-a)
Meriam Mir is classified as Definitely Endangered by the UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger (2010)
This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA.
Languages used at home by Torres Strait Islanders in localities with significant share of Torres Strait islander population.[3]

Meriam (Meriam Mir: Meriam Mìr; also Miriam, Meryam, Mer, Mir, Miriam-Mir, etc. and Eastern, Isten, Esten and Able Able) or the Eastern Torres Strait language is the language of the people of the small islands of Mer (Murray Island), Waier and Dauar, Erub (Darnley Island), and Ugar (Stephens Island) in the eastern Torres Strait, Queensland, Australia. In the Western Torres Strait language, Kalaw Lagaw Ya, it is called Mœyam or Mœyamau Ya. It is the only Papuan language in Australian territory.

Classification

[edit]

Meriam was classified in the Eastern Trans-Fly family of the Trans–New Guinea Phylum by Stephen Wurm, who however felt that these have retained remnants of pre-Trans–New Guinea languages; this is followed by Ethnologue (2005). In 2005 Malcolm Ross concluded that the Eastern Trans-Fly languages were not part of the Trans–New Guinea phylum. R. M. W. Dixon (2002) regards claims of a relationship between the Fly River languages and Meriam as unproven, though what he bases his claim on is not clear, as Meriam Mir has a high cognacy rate with its sister languages, and a certain amount of mutual intelligibility is claimed by Meriam speakers. Mitchell finds that Meriam Mìr has 78% cognates with its sister Trans-Fly Papuan languages, the remaining vocabulary being mainly of Australian origin.[4] Such Trans-Fly cognates include personal pronouns, and verbal and nominal morphology.

Percentages of Australian, Papuan and Austronesian content
(2) = number of items; Mitchell, Holman et al. 40-word list
Source WCL MM
Australian 22.5% (9) 5% (2)
Papuan 22.5% (9) 62.5% (25)
Derivations/Compounds 20% (8) 17.5% (7)
[common to Eastern Trans-Fly 15% (6)]
Austronesian 12.5% (5) 2.5% (1)
More than one possible origin 15% (6) 17.5% (7)
Unclassifiable 32.5% (13) 20% (8)

Status

[edit]

In the 2016 Australian census, 217 speakers were recorded,[1] up slightly on the previous (2011) census, which recorded 186.[2] It is considered an endangered language by UNESCO.[5]

There is a push to preserve the language in North Queensland. A group of Torres Strait Islander people in Mackay region, where there are only four fluent speakers left, are practising and teaching traditional hymns sung in Meriam Mir in an effort to help more people to learn the language and pass it down. It is hoped that a program to teach the hymns will be introduced into schools.[5]

Meriam Mìr and its neighbours

[edit]

Meriam has around 40 percent of its vocabulary in common with its unrelated Western Torres Strait neighbour Kala Lagaw Ya, which is an Australian language.[4] The shared words cover a wide range of semantic domains (body parts, kin, human classification, language, mythology, ceremony, artefacts, topography, natural elements, marine life, qualities, locations, directions and time), though not verbs. This latter strengthens arguments about genetic diversity, however there is still much to suggest mutual influence. The common vocabulary range from "exact cognates" to words that appear related, but have undergone semantic changes, as in the following selected from a list of 250 items (Mitchell 1995) (where exact "cognates" number 62 (24.8%), partial "cognates" 26 (10%) and "cognates" with semantic differentiation number 34 (13.7%), [122 "cognates" in total, 48.8%]):

Exact "cognates"
WCL MM meaning
dhangal(a) deger "dugong"
bal bar "across/crooked"
gamu gem "body"
riidh(a) lid "bone, leaf rib"
saamu sam "cassowary"
thawal(a) tawer "coast"
gabu geb "cold(ness)"
ùmai omái "dog"
ngœnakap(u) nerkep "heart"
naigay(i) naiger "north/north-east"
wathai watwet "dry"
partial "cognates"
WCL meaning MM meaning
dhang(a)
KLY dhaanga		 "edge, tooth" deg "edge, side"
wati "bad, evil" wìt "wrong doing"
mùdh(a)
KLY mùùdha		 "shelter, backyard, shaded place, haven" mùd "shade"
gœiga
stem gœigœyi-		 "sun, day" gerger "day"
wœibadh(a) "roe"
(badh(a) "food bed")		 wer "egg"
Baba, Baab(a) "Dad, Daddy" bab "father"
[wœra]kapu "one (only)"
(wara "one of a group, other")		 kepkep "few"
karùm(a) "goanna; clumsiness, mistake" karom "black skink; clumsiness, mistake"
ngœna "breath, intellect, memory" ner "breath"
kaimi;
kaimel, KKY kalmel		 "companionship, companion, co-";
"together, along with"		 kem "company; associative (case)"
semantic differentiation
WCL meaning MM meaning
thapi "thin piece of bark or wood, page" tep "fruit skin"
kapu "prong" kep "arrow"
maitha "belly" mait "chest"
susu "white sap" susu
sus		 "spray, foam"
"white sap"
uum(a)
awum(a)		 "death"
"mourning"		 eumi (singular)
baum (plural)
(stem -um)		 "die"
buudh(a) "white paint"
(for mourning)		 bud "mourning"
aap(a)
apa-		 "garden bed"

"down, below, under"

sep "earth, ground;
down, below, under"
KKY, KulY kom(a)
KKY, KulY kœman(a)
KLY, MY-KY kœman(a)		 "heat, burn"
"steam"
"heat, burn, steam"		 kemur "smoke"
(ur "fire")
bibir(i)
KLY biber(e)		 "strength, power" beber
beberbeber		 "weight"
"heavy, weighty"

There are also various items of semantic relationship, but not formal relationship, such as WCL puuy(i), MM lu "plant, tree; magic".

Mitchell and Piper (unpublished research notes) used the Holman et al. 40-word list below, which shows 9 (22.5%) exact items, 5 (12.5%) partial, and 3 (7.5%) semantically related words. However, this list was designed for use with Euro-Asian languages, and is perhaps somewhat inappropriate; for example, no horned animals exist, neither language has a verb ‘come’, and Holman et al. assume one form for 'we'; WCL has 4, and MM has 2.

PCD Proto Central-District Papuan Austronesian, PETrf Proto East Trans Fly; POC Proto Oceanic Austronesian; PP Proto Paman; PSEPap Proto South-East Papuan Austronesian [neighbouring languages noted : Papuan : Gizrra, Bine/Kunini, Wipi (Eastern Trans Fly Family), Kiwai (Trans-New Guinea Phylum), Idi, Agöb (Pahoturi family); Australian : Gudang, and the Northern Cape York Language, dialects : Wudhadhi, Atampaya, Angkamuthi, Yadhaykenu]

word MM Gizrra Bine Wipi PETrF Kiwai Idi/Agöb WCL Gudang Urradhi PP PSEPap
louse nem ngüóm, ngóm ngaamo, ngame, ngamwe ngüɨm *ŋamͻ nimo A. kabana aari
(unknown origin)		 aaku tick, louse aku tick, louse -- --
two neis nis neneni nœmog
cf. MM mog "piece"		 *ni-[isV] netewa,
Bamu teibo		 komblebe ùka- "two"
ùkasar(a) "two (only)"
(-sar(a) "small number")		 ilaabayu (cf. Y inychantu, At/A ilvan many) Y/A udhima, At udhyama/makyaana,
W aroma/adhoma		 *gujarra *drua
water (1) gur "salt water" -gul- "wash"
bapür- PlOb, apür VN		 atnana wash VN gony "washing"
imangena "swimming"		 *gulV "water, swim, wash" obo,
Kope oru'o wash self VN		 I. tetu "wash", A. bemine "sea water" wœr~wur~uur~wœir "water" G ungunya salt water -- -- *wair "water"
water (2)
(fresh; drink, juice)		 ni naiy, nai, nae niye, niiye ni, niya, nyɨ, ngi *niya/*nayi obo ni ngùki -- -- *ŋugu/*ŋugi --
ear
cf. hear		 laip, girip gublang, gublam tablamo yɨpiya, yɨpyar, yɨkɨpya, yɨrpya, irkɨpia ear;
yɨpiarom, yakrom outer early		 *?(+*raamo leaf) gare ear, sepate lobe, external ear ran ear, ika external ear, A. laandra kaura
kurusai- (in compounds)		 iwunya Y iwuny
At ikuchi
W iwui		 *gaalu --
death eud death;
eumi Sg, baum PL "die";
bud "mourning"		 büdül "dead",
budül- "die"		 budre death; (w)uje die budɨ "death";
(w)uj(e) "dead, death"		 *wudi "die" odio, P para, M uparu "dead";
orisiai, M/Kerewo oihiai "die"		 kududar "die" uum(a) "death, unconsciousness"
awum(a) "mourning, wailing" (for a death)
buudh(a) "white paint" (traditionally used for mourning)		 ithuurra/ithuulma "dead" Y/A yuthu, At ruthu,
W alghan "dead", W unga "mourn", U alga "death"		 -- --
I ka kó cane, kane kon *ka(nV) mai ngén, A. ngana ngayi G []yuba, aipaana Y/A/At ayu(va) *ŋayi --
liver o konkon (puringai) owolaamo,
uweraame		 wurom, vurom,
sukəp, tsɨkɨp		 *ͻwͻ
+*raamͻ "leaf"
*siba+kapu		 K/Kerewo beu, M beo
M siba "heart", D sibo "heart")		 A. yoa/siba/zebe siib(a) liver; centre iipa "heart" Y/A yipa, At lipa, W tepa, tipa *jiba --
eye ponì (unknown origin)
erkep		 ilküp, ilkóküp irecu yɨr, yer "eye", yɨrkɨp, ilkɨp, yɨrtyen, yɨttwin "eyeball" *iri "see", *kapu "seed, body part, fruit, etc." damari, Kerewo idomai kalye, A. yende "eye ",
ikép/ikapa "eye-ball" (kép "egg")		 pùrka (unknown origin)
daan(a) (also "pool", "life",
"kernel", "shell-food")
cf. -kap(u) "body part"		 daanha, rathair Y anngal, At ipanh, A angwaa, W yeithi/yithi -- *dano "lake, pool"
hand tag tang, tan arm, hand imo "hand, arm" yɨm *taaŋV, *iimo "hand, arm" K tu, Bamu tuu hand, arm tang, A. tranga geth(a)
(unknown origin)		 arta Y/At/A mata, W ara *mara *taŋa
hear asor- -rrkrru-, -rrkurru- -tecij- (-tecind-~cind-) hear,
ätecija VN hear/listen		 utkunj~utkund- *Vrkundi irovidiro, Mawata erebidiro, Kope orovidio VN A. dandarla karnge[mi]-, kœrngai VN;
kùrùsai- ear		 ? Y/A/At ami- -- *roŋor
tree
(also "plant", "wood", "magic")		 lu(g) "tree, plant, magic" nugup "tree" uli, uri "tree, plant" wul(a), ul "tree" *wuli, *[ln]ugu[p] "tree" ota "tree, plant", Kope nu'a "tree" lu, A. ra/rati-ra/ro puuy(i), OKY puuRi;
yuu "spit, skewer"		 puri "tree", yuuku "wood",
upiirri "medicine"		 Y/At/A yuku "wood, tree, stick, log",
Y/At/A upirri "sore, painful, witchcraft"		 *lugu "tree, wood" *pu[l]i magic
fish lar
(unknown origin)		 wapi, wapui kibu, cupya,
kopae, kopäi		 kabum;
waji		 -- arimina/irisina food, fish;
Kerewo na, Kope nai fish		 kwalba waapi
(unknown origin)		 waapi Y yatpan/yadpa,
A inhanyii, W nheya		 -- --
name nei ngi, ngui ngi ni, niœ, nyœ *nyilya paina, Kerewo paena ben, A. bena nel
Saibai variant nei		 yini At angyal, A anyii, W anyel -- --
stone bakìr
(unknown origin)		 inglkup, inglkurp kula, kura gli(muz), gɨmo, gɨmokɨp, kula, guma, nadi, motɨr *kula kura, M nora dadar, A. dader kùla uulpa Y/A aypany, At aypanh *gul(g)an --
tooth tìrìg
cf. ereg "eat"
deg "edge, side"		 zirgup (gup body part, fruit, etc. giricu;
cidi "edge"		 orkak
or- "eat", kak "bone"
dɨng "thorn"		 *daŋa "tooth, edge, etc." ibuanara, Parama iawa; K iawa "incisor" dhéndhég "bite INF"; A. ngui, nggoia, uguwoi "tooth"; A lenge, lenga "tooth" dhang(a)
(also "edge")		 ampu Y/A ampu, At ngampu *jaaŋa "tooth, edge, etc." --
breast
(cf. mother, milk)		 nano
ama, apu "mum, mother, aunty"
nanosus "milk" (sus "white sap", "foam")		 ngum, ngiam, ngüam;
aip mother		 ngaamo, nono;
mago "mother", yääye "Mum"		 ngom, ngum, ngiam, ngɨmb, ngɨmdor;
mog, ag "mother"		 *ŋaamͻ "breast, mother"
*maago mother
*susu "breast, milk"		 bodoro;
aida, M maramu, Bamu onoo, Kerewo mamo mother		 ngém/nono "breast";
nene "mother"		 ama "mum, mother, aunty"
aapu(wa) "mother, aunt"
susu (also "white sap"; "loaf"),
susuikai "milk" (ikai "juice, sap")		 []yuungu "breast, milk", athiinya "mother" Y/At/A ungunyu "mother, breast, milk"
A also awucha, yathu "milk",
W nono "mother, breast"		 *ŋam[u/a]ŋ "breast, mother"
*juju "breast, milk"		 *susu "breast, milk"
path gab kwat, kuat gaabo, raare nia, nga, nyau *gaabͻ gabo nyénggo yabu, KLY yaabu alka Y/A ulumu, At ulumu/anyaarra ? POC *tyapu
you Sg ma ma maane, maano man(a) *ma(nV) rai be (S/Du/Pl) KLY/KulY/KY ni
KKY/OKY ngi		 (an)tuuba/tuuba Y/At antu(va), A antu(ba), W endouva *ŋin/*nin *kau
fire ur uur ulikobo, uliobo, urikobe,
ulikobe, olobo, uli,
Kunini muye-uliobo		 uur, [wul(a)]para *uur[], *kͻbͻ, *pVrV "fire", *wuli "tree, wood" era, Bamu mahi yu mui (Boigu,KY also mœi) uma Y/At/A uma, W entovo *tuma --
tongue werut ulit wätä, wärtä, warta, wate welat, we(y)at, vlat, yat *wilͻtV watotorope, Kerewo mototobe A. dogmar, dangamai nœi
(unknown origin)		 unt[h]aar[r]a Y yalan, punhu, At lalan, A yalan -- --
skin gegur;
tep skin of fruit		 sopai, sopae;
kwan, kuan bark		 tääpo, tääpe, taape, tääpwo;
uli tääpo (etc.) bark		 gɨm (one dialect gunja);
wul gɨm, gɨm, yug bark		 *taapi tama thoe gœngáw(u),
KLY gœngaawu,
KulY gœngáy(u)		 ikwurra skin
ranga bark		 Y/At/A akuny skin, bark *Cagurr
night ki irrüb, irrub, irrib kiye, ciye sɨwɨny, sɨwɨn, sowɨny,
sɨrɨn, sowi, tsowony, sɨwɨng, sɨrɨng, sɨrɨm		 *kiya duo, Bamu duwo A. kuteine, kwete kubil
(derived, kùbi "charcoal")		 G yulpalga night, darkness Y yupul,
Y manara, At manma night, darkness,
W jagula		 -- --
leaf (lu)lam
(lu "plant")		 lam, lang (mainly compounds),
pórgae~prangai, prórngae, pórngae		 laamo, racme, raame (wulœ)rom
(wulœ "tree")		 *laamͻ "leaf" ota-pasa, M ota-pea
(ota tree)		 oro-popo/ru-pi/ro-rual
(oro/ru/ro tree, plant);
(lu)pi
(lu tree, plant)		 niis(a) itrara "leaf" Y/At/A yukum yampa (yuku "tree, wood"), A ithagha, W alway;
Y/At/A yampa "leaf, flower, lung";
AT yamparra, A inparra "lung"		 -- --
blood mam
(unknown origin)		 ói, óe uudi woi, woj, kus, ku *wodi arima,
Kope ora		 A. mem, mam, teia kùlka
(unknown origin)		 ichunya Y/A lukuny, At uchuny -- --
horn -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --
person -am/-iam;
le		 -pam;
pam, pama		 -yame/-yamo;
binamo, biname, binam;
imä, im male,
rooriye, loori "man"		 -am, -iam;
rɨga "man, male"
leo "husband"		 *pyama;
*[rl]i[g]ͻ		 dubu, Kerewo meréha;
arubi,-rubi people, Kerewo oubi;
Kope dubuiro person, man;
M auana man, didiri men, mere male		 la "man" -ig(a) personal nominaliser)
mabaig(a) (derived, lit. "walker", maab(a) "walk"		 ama Y/At/A ama *bama --
knee (1) kolo -- (ngawengawe elbow) kumkak, yɨmkak elbow
(kak bone)		 *kͻlͻ "knee, elbow, corner" -- -- kulu
cf. kudu "elbow",
kœru "corner"		 yurtu elbow Y/At yutu, A yurtu elbow *yurru "elbow" *turu "knee, elbow"
knee (2) kokni
kok "leg joint+?"
wageb "kneecap"		 wagusingül, wagósingül, wagasingól koko/coco(rar/kaako)
(rare, kaako, kak, ror "bone")		 kɨ, kɨror, kum;
kumop knee ball,
(mop "end, head")		 *kͻkͻ "leg joint" popu knee, elbow D tubu, tang-kum;
putukupi kneecap;
A tran-kwimbe elbow		 kokan(i) "kneecap";
kuku inside part of knee, knee joint		 iingku knee Y/A/At wungku, W owen PP *wuŋgu[ ] "knee" --
one/other nerut "another"
wader "some, others" (unknown origin)
netat one		 darrpan, dórpan "one, one of group"
darrü "other" (+ -pan)		 yepä, neetera one;
nuuja other, another		 yepa one;
nɨnda other, others, some;
b’enga other, another (different)		 *ni+[rl]ͻtV other
*[yi/dVr]pͻnV, *ni+ta[tr]V "one"		 ata, Bamu kaiibi one, other, nau one A. tupulibi wara, war "one of group, other" (unknown origin)
dhurai "some, others"
wœrapùn, ùrapùn, ùrpùn
(older waraponi) "one only"
wara "one of group, other" + -pùn[i]		 ipiyamanha
inyaanha another		 Y/A ipima, Y also ipinyama, At nhipima;
W wema one, alone
Y unya, At unyinha, wanhu, A unyinha other, different
W emo other		 *nyupun, *NipiyamaNa --
nose pit "nose, beak,
point (of land)"		 syók keke, cece so, sok, sokak
(kak bone)		 ? wodi, Kope modi (cf. Bamu pito hole) A. murung, wede piti "nose"
(unknown origin; buna beak; nguur point)		 iyi nose, beak Y/A iyi, W enmoi, nundagel;
At umughanhu		 -- --
full (e)osmer (lit. "protrude, show self":
unknown origin)		 buku, iib puuwe ngor full(ness) ? Kerewo arara'ohuai -- 1) gùdapœlam(a)
(derived : "opening-SpecLOC+cause-VerbForm)
(2) KLY/KulY/MY-KY pùsakar(a),
cf. sakar "space"		 mur[r]ku gorged Y/At/A wampan full/swollen, W weithinyo full -- --
come (1) ta-, te-, ti-, t- to'-, tü- t- (s- allophone) t- irrealis;
ik-, -itk-, -etk- come, tu[i]- Pl, menamena, menon go, come VN		 *ta "come, approach" -ogu-, Kerewo -oho-, Kope -o'u- go, come -be- ngapa TR/INTR adverb,
cf. nga- 1st person, pa- telic, -pa dative
bœi INTR adverb,
cf. pœipai, KKY bœi "nearside"		 impiibinhu come, approach (-nhu DAT), ainpirra go Y/A/W ana, At ana/anma go, come -- --
come (2)
(imperative)		 taba
(ta-ba "come-INTR"),
maiem (?+ALL)		 -- tädi M, tocli F ayo -- -- abe Sg, yebe PL;
A yau		 aye, KKY aya imperative adverb
(Malay or similar loan : ayo, ayu)		 -- -- -- *mai "come"
star wer wimurr wale, walo, gugie, griga
(see sun, day)		 ikui, ɨki, ɨkwi, guje (one dialect bedam) *wa[rl]i gugi, M zogubo, Kope oroi'io A. piro, kwatai Wœœy(i), OKY WœœRi "Venus"
thithúy(i), KLY thithuuyi, OKY thithúRi;
zugub(a) constellation, significant star		 uunpi Y/At/A unpi, At wintamwintama (avoidance) -- *waRi sun
PSEPap*pituqon,
PCD *pitui, *pitiu, *pitiriu "star"
hill paser podo hill, dorro high ground podo, doro hill, doro mainland, shore podo, dor hill *pͻntͻ[r], *doro podo, Mawata also damera;
idodoro cliff		 I. duidui, A. pad paad(a)
(also "top, height, crest, peak ");
baudhar(a) mountain, peak		 pada Y yantal, At rantal, A yantaa;
W mara mountain		 *baanda "top" *pantar "hill, mountain"
bone, leaf rib lid kus kaako, kaake, caace bone;
raare bone, rare shell, spoon		 kak, kaak, kagɨ kak, kaga bone, stick, (hard) piece, stalk;
ror bone (in compounds)		 *riida/*raadi "bone, leaf rib" soro, M kako A. kwetr/kut riidh(a) athirra Y/At/A apudha, A avoidance ikyalitha, W watha/ua -- --
we inclusive mi, mer- inclusive mi mine men, mɨn *mi(ni) nimo, Kerewo imo [exc and inc.] ybi ngœba dual inclusive
ngalpa plural inclusive		 ? Y/At/A ali(va) DU, ana(va) PL *ŋali inclusive; *ŋana(pula) (dual) exclusive *kita
we exclusive ki, ker- exclusive ki kine, cine sɨn *ki(ni) nimo, Kerewo imo [exc and inc.] bi, A. ba ngalbai, KKY ngalbe, archaic KulY ngœibai, dual exclusive
ngœi, ngœlmù-, KKY/MY-KY ngœimù-, OKY ngœRi(mù-) plural exclusive		 aaku Y/A/At ampu(la) *ŋali inclusive; *ŋana(pula) (dual) exclusive *kami
drink (verb) iri -(a)nan- ene- -ona-~-ena- Sg, anain- NSg *ini/ani/ina Kope idio drink, odio he is drinking A. ine/ngi -ni-/-na- drink water
(-ni/na- eat)		 wani-
(unknown origin; derived?
< wanai- "put" active stem)		 ungkenka drink Y/At ungye, A ungya drink, eat;
W ical drink		 -- --
see, find dasmer, erdar
(stem er-)		 -sen- see -pän, pan- see, find,
ire see VN		 yɨr -ong- (ong bite),
yɨr -a- see, look,
yeri-, yiry-, oraka VN find, search,
ɨdar Sg, adar NSg find		 *ira see eáuri see VN -ndee- see iima- angkanya find W iangin find *kiima "see" --
new kerkar küsil, küsül, kósil new;
kari, karian little, small		 kirece, mamye, cireni, mamie~karte new;
matimati, matikäli, matikolä, matikola, matikari, geglo little, small		 sisel, sisɨl *kari[kari]/*kira[kira] oliómoto -- kayin(a) -- -- -- --
dog omai umai, umae, ume drenggo, drego, drengo yongg, yongk, yongga, yangg, yoorɨnk *omái Kerewo kaukau, Kope umu dréngg ùmai ingkud[h]iinya Y/At/A utagha *gudaga --
sun, day gerger "day, daylight"
lìm "sun"		 abüs, óbüs bimu, abeji, abweji, abuji;
gugie, griga "star"		 bibɨr day, lom, lomkongga, lemkogal, ganggal sun
(konga, kogal "woman")		 *limͻ/*lͻmi M iwio, Parama ivio, Kerewo hewio, Kope hivio sun;
sai day		 yébodh sun gœiga, gœygœyi-, gœigi-,
OKY gœRigaR(i)		 inga Y/At/A wunga, W unga, W mungbatho day *gari, *wuŋa --

Recent loans

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The main source of loan words to the language since the mid 1800s has been Yumplatòk (Torres Strait Creole) and English. There are also some minor loans from Lifu/Drehu, Polynesian (in particular Samoan and to a lesser extent Rotuman), Indonesian, Philippine, Japanese, and European origin. Many such outsiders were recruited – or in some rare cases black-birded – in the 19th century for pearl diving and other marine work, while others (from Lifu and Samoa) were missionaries with the British and Foreign Bible Society.[citation needed]

Dialects

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The language is currently dialectless. However, there was once a separate dialect spoken on Erub and Ugar islands, characterised in part by the retention of phonemic distinctions between 'ng', 'g', 'n' and 'r' where these have fallen together in two ways in Meriam Mir. The sound 'ng' in Modern Meriam has become 'n' at the beginning of words and 'g' within words; 'n' in many cases has become 'r' within words. Examples are remembered in one important Erub folktale (Lawrie 1970:283–284):

Erub : Aka nade ki andinane? Ge au?

Mer  : Aka nade ki ardirare? Ge au?

Where will we put it? There?

Erub : Mena inggandane/ingandane! Keniba uzen unken a keniba imut unken.

Mer  : Mena igardare! Keriba uzer urker a keriba imut urker.

Keep carrying it! Our paddles and our poling poles are still strong.

The earliest records (early 19th century) of Meriam Mìr included the phrase debelang good taste/nice, in present-day Meriam Mìr debe lag. This shows that the 'ng' > 'n'/'g' change is of fairly recent date; lang, now lag, is identical to the Gizrra lang of the same meaning.

Phonology

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Vowels

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Front Zurück
Hoch i ⟨i⟩ u ⟨u⟩
Near-high ɪ ⟨ì⟩ ʊ ⟨ù⟩
Mid e, ɛ ⟨e⟩ o ⟨o⟩
Niedrig a, ʌ ⟨a⟩ ɔ ⟨o⟩⟨ò⟩

The sounds represented by [a] and [ʌ] are allophonic. [ʌ] appears mainly in syllables before the stress accent and optionally in open unstressed syllables otherwise. [a] appears in stressed syllables and in unstressed closed syllables.

For some speakers the following pairs exhibit variation, and perhaps have unidentified allophonic variation: [e], [ɛ] and [ɪ] (mainly Erub/Ulag), [ɪ] and [i] (mainly Mer), [u] and [ʊ], [ʊ] and [o], and [o] and [ɔ]. Older speakers appear to keep the vowels more distinct.

Consonants

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Bilabial Alveolar Palatal Velar
Stop Voiceless p t k
Voiced b d ɡ
Nasal m n
Fricative Voiceless s
Voiced z
Lateral l
Tippen Sie auf ɾ
Semivowel w j

/ɾ/ is heard as [ɹ] when occurring before or after consonants.

Stress

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Stress is contrastive in Meriam and can occur on the first or second syllable. Examples include tábo 'snake', tabó 'neck'.

Sign language

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The Torres Strait Islanders have signed forms of their languages,[6] though it is not clear from records that they are particularly well-developed compared to other Australian Aboriginal sign languages.[7]

See also

[edit]

References

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  1. ^ a b "Census 2016, Language spoken at home by Sex (SA2+)". stat.data.abs.gov.au. ABS. Retrieved 30 October 2017.
  2. ^ a b Y3 Meriam at the Australian Indigenous Languages Database, Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies
  3. ^ ""2021 Census - Cultural Diversity, 2021, TableBuilder"". Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS).
  4. ^ a b Mitchell 2015.
  5. ^ a b Macqueen, Cristy-Lee (21 December 2020). "Torres Strait Islander language Meriam Mir preserved through Christmas hymn recordings". ABC News (Australian Broadcasting Corporation). Retrieved 24 December 2020.
  6. ^ Haddon, Alfred C. (1907). The gesture language of the Eastern Islanders, in "Reports of the Cambridge Anthropological Expedition to Torres Straits." Cambridge, England: The University Press, v.3.
  7. ^ Kendon, A. (1988) Sign Languages of Aboriginal Australia: Cultural, Semiotic and Communicative Perspectives. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

Bibliography

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  • Dixon, R. M. W. (2002). Australian Languages: Their Nature and Development. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Mitchell, Rod (April 2015), "Ngalmun Lagaw Yangukudu: The Language of our Homeland in Goemulgaw Lagal: Cultural and Natural Histories of the Island of Mabuyag, Torres Strait", Memoirs of the Queensland Museum – Culture, 8 (1): 323–446, ISSN 1440-4788
  • Passi, Gamalai Ken; Piper, Nick (1994). "Meryam Mir". In Nick Thieberger; William McGregor (eds.). Macquarie Aboriginal Words. Macquarie Library. pp. 320–351.
  • Piper, N. (1989). A sketch grammar of Meryam Mer. MA thesis. Australian National University.
  • Ross, Malcolm (2005). "Pronouns as a preliminary diagnostic for grouping Papuan languages". In Andrew Pawley; Robert Attenborough; Robin Hide; Jack Golson (eds.). Papuan pasts: cultural, linguistic and biological histories of Papuan-speaking peoples. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics. pp. 15–66.
  • Lawrie, Margaret (1970). Myths and Legends of Torres Strait. St. Lucia: University of Queensland Press.
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Meriam language test of Wikipedia at Wikimedia Incubator
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