Nickel titanium: Difference between revisions

Nickel Titanium
	Nitinol wires
Material properties
Melting point	1,310 °C (2,390 °F)
Density	6.45 g/cm3 (0.233 lb/cu in)
Electrical resistivity (austenite)	82×10−6 Ω·cm
(martensite)	76×10−6 Ω·cm
Thermal conductivity (austenite)	0.18 W/cm·K
(martensite)	0.086 W/cm·K
Coefficient of thermal expansion (austenite)	11×10−6/°C
(martensite)	6.6×10−6/°C
Magnetic permeability	< 1.002
Magnetic susceptibility (austenite)	3.7×10−6 emu/g
(martensite)	2.4×10−6 emu/g
Elastic modulus (austenite)	75–83 GPa
(martensite)	28–40 GPa
Yield strength (austenite)	195–690 MPa
(martensite)	70–140 MPa
Poisson's ratio	0.33
	Nitinol properties are particular to the precise composition of the alloy and its processing. These specifications are typical for commercially available shape memory nitinol alloys

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Nickel titanium, also known as nitinol, is a metal alloy of nickel and titanium, where the two elements are present in roughly equal atomic percentages. Different alloys are named according to the weight percentage of nickel; e.g., nitinol 55 and nitinol 60.

Nitinol alloys exhibit two closely related and unique properties: the shape memory effect and superelasticity (also called pseudoelasticity). Shape memory is the ability of nitinol to undergo deformation at one temperature, stay in its deformed shape when the external force is removed, then recover its original, undeformed shape upon heating above its "transformation temperature." Superelasticity is the ability for the metal to undergo large deformations and immediately return to its undeformed shape upon removal of the external load. Nitinol can deform 10 to 30 times as much as ordinary metals and return to its original shape. Whether nitinol behaves with shape memory effect or superelasticity depends on whether it is above its transformation temperature during the action. Action below the transformation temperature exhibits the shape memory effect and above the transformation temperature it behaves superelastically.

History

The word "nitinol" is derived from its composition and its place of discovery: (Nickel Titanium-Naval Ordnance Laboratory). William J. Buehler^[1] along with Frederick E. Wang,^[2] discovered its properties during research at the Naval Ordnance Laboratory in 1959.^[3]^[4] Buehler was attempting to make a better missile nose cone, which could resist fatigue, heat and the force of impact. Having found that a 1:1 alloy of nickel and titanium could do the job, in 1961 he presented a sample at a laboratory management meeting. The sample, folded up like an accordion, was passed around and flexed by the participants. One of them applied heat from his pipe lighter to the sample and, to everyone's surprise, the accordion-shaped strip contracted and took its previous shape.^[5]

While potential applications for nitinol were realized immediately, practical efforts to commercialize the alloy did not take place until a decade later in the 1980s, largely due to the extraordinary difficulty of melting, processing and machining the alloy.

The discovery of the shape-memory effect in general dates back to 1932, when Swedish chemist Arne Ölander^[6] first observed the property in gold–cadmium alloys. The same effect was observed in Cu-Zn (brass) in the early 1950s.^[7]

Mechanism

Nitinol's unusual properties are derived from a reversible solid-state phase transformation known as a martensitic transformation, between two different martensite crystal phases, requiring 69–138 MPa (10,000–20,000 psi) of mechanical stress.

At high temperatures, nitinol assumes an interpenetrating simple cubic structure referred to as austenite (also known as the parent phase). At low temperatures, nitinol spontaneously transforms to a more complicated monoclinic crystal structure known as martensite (daughter phase).^[8] There are four transition temperatures associated to the austenite-to-martensite and martensite-to-austenite transformations. Starting from full austenite, martensite begins to form as the alloy is cooled to the so-called martensite start temperature, or M_s, and the temperature at which the transformation is complete is called the martensite finish temperature, or M_f. When the alloy is fully martensite and is subjected to heating, austenite starts to form at the austenite start temperature, A_s, and finishes at the austenite finish temperature, A_f.^[9]

The cooling/heating cycle shows thermal hysteresis. The hysteresis width depends on the precise nitinol composition and processing. Its typical value is a temperature range spanning about 20–50 °C (36–90 °F) but it can be reduced or amplified by alloying^[10] and processing.^[11]

Crucial to nitinol properties are two key aspects of this phase transformation. First is that the transformation is "reversible", meaning that heating above the transformation temperature will revert the crystal structure to the simpler austenite phase. The second key point is that the transformation in both directions is instantaneous.

Martensite's crystal structure (known as a monoclinic, or B19' structure) has the unique ability to undergo limited deformation in some ways without breaking atomic bonds. This type of deformation is known as twinning, which consists of the rearrangement of atomic planes without causing slip, or permanent deformation. It is able to undergo about 6–8% strain in this manner. When martensite is reverted to austenite by heating, the original austenitic structure is restored, regardless of whether the martensite phase was deformed. Thus the shape of the high temperature austenite phase is "remembered," even though the alloy is severely deformed at a lower temperature.^[12]

A great deal of pressure can be produced by preventing the reversion of deformed martensite to austenite—from 240 MPa (35,000 psi) to, in many cases, more than 690 MPa (100,000 psi). One of the reasons that nitinol works so hard to return to its original shape is that it is not just an ordinary metal alloy, but what is known as an intermetallic compound. In an ordinary alloy, the constituents are randomly positioned in the crystal lattice; in an ordered intermetallic compound, the atoms (in this case, nickel and titanium) have very specific locations in the lattice.^[13] The fact that nitinol is an intermetallic is largely responsible for the complexity in fabricating devices made from the alloy.^[why?]

To fix the original "parent shape," the alloy must be held in position and heated to about 500 °C (930 °F). This process is usually called shape setting.^[14] A second effect, called superelasticity or pseudoelasticity, is also observed in nitinol. This effect is the direct result of the fact that martensite can be formed by applying a stress as well as by cooling. Thus in a certain temperature range, one can apply a stress to austenite, causing martensite to form while at the same time changing shape. In this case, as soon as the stress is removed, the nitinol will spontaneously return to its original shape. In this mode of use, nitinol behaves like a super spring, possessing an elastic range 10 to 30 times greater than that of a normal spring material. There are, however, constraints: the effect is only observed up to about 40 °C (72 °F) above the A_f temperature. This upper limit is referred to as M_d,^[15] which corresponds to the highest temperature in which it is still possible to stress-induce the formation of martensite. Below M_d, martensite formation under load allows superelasticity due to twinning. Above M_d, since martensite is no longer formed, the only response to stress is slip of the austenitic microstructure, and thus permanent deformation.

Nitinol is typically composed of approximately 50 to 51% nickel by atomic percent (55 to 56% weight percent).^[13]^[16] Making small changes in the composition can change the transition temperature of the alloy significantly. Transformation temperatures in nitinol can be controlled to some extent, where A_f temperature ranges from about −20 to +110 °C (−4 to 230 °F). Thus, it is common practice to refer to a nitinol formulation as "superelastic" or "austenitic" if A_f is lower than a reference temperature, while as "shape memory" or "martensitic" if higher. The reference temperature is usually defined as the room temperature or the human body temperature (37 °C or 99 °F).

One often-encountered effect regarding nitinol is the so-called R-phase. The R-phase is another martensitic phase that competes with the martensite phase mentioned above. Because it does not offer the large memory effects of the martensite phase, it is usually of non practical use.

Fertigungsindustrie

Nitinol is exceedingly difficult to make, due to the exceptionally tight compositional control required, and the tremendous reactivity of titanium. Every atom of titanium that combines with oxygen or carbon is an atom that is robbed from the NiTi lattice, thus shifting the composition and making the transformation temperature lower.

There are two primary melting methods used today. Vacuum arc remelting (VAR) is done by striking an electrical arc between the raw material and a water-cooled copper strike plate. Melting is done in a high vacuum, and the mold itself is water-cooled copper. Vacuum induction melting (VIM) is done by using alternating magnetic fields to heat the raw materials in a crucible (generally carbon). This is also done in a high vacuum. While both methods have advantages, it has been demonstrated that an industrial state-of-the-art VIM melted material has smaller inclusions than an industrial state-of-the-art VAR one, leading to a higher fatigue resistance.^[17] Other research report that VAR employing extreme high-purity raw materials may lead to a reduced number of inclusions and thus to an improved fatigue behavior.^[18] Other methods are also used on a boutique scale, including plasma arc melting, induction skull melting, and e-beam melting. Physical vapour deposition is also used on a laboratory scale.

Heat treating nitinol is delicate and critical. It is a knowledge intensive process to fine-tune the transformation temperatures. Aging time and temperature controls the precipitation of various Ni-rich phases, and thus controls how much nickel resides in the NiTi lattice; by depleting the matrix of nickel, aging increases the transformation temperature. The combination of heat treatment and cold working is essential in controlling the properties of nitinol products.^[19]

Herausforderungen

Fatigue failures of nitinol devices are a constant subject of discussion. Because it is the material of choice for applications requiring enormous flexibility and motion (e.g., peripheral stents, heart valves, smart thermomechanical actuators and electromechanical microactuators), it is necessarily exposed to much greater fatigue strains compared to other metals. While the strain-controlled fatigue performance of nitinol is superior to all other known metals, fatigue failures have been observed in the most demanding applications; with a great deal of effort underway to better understand and define the durability limits of nitinol.

Nitinol is half nickel, and thus there has been a great deal of concern in the medical industry regarding the release of nickel, a known allergen and possible carcinogen.^[19] (Nickel is also present in substantial amounts in stainless steel and cobalt-chrome alloys also used in the medical industry.) When treated (via electropolishing or passivation), nitinol forms a very stable protective TiO₂ layer that acts as an effective and self-healing barrier against ion exchange; repeatedly showing that nitinol releases nickel at a slower pace than stainless steel, for example. Early Nitinol medical devices were made without electropolishing, and corrosion was observed.^{[citation needed]} Today's nitinol vascular self-expandable metallic stents show no evidence of corrosion or nickel release, and outcomes in patients with and without nickel allergies are indistinguishable.^{[citation needed]}

There are constant and long-running discussions^{[by whom?]} regarding inclusions in nitinol, both TiC and Ti₂NiO_x. As in all other metals and alloys, inclusions can be found in nitinol. The size, distribution and type of inclusions can be controlled to some extent. Theoretically, smaller, rounder and few inclusions should lead to increased fatigue durability. In literature, some early works report to have failed to show measurable differences,^[20]^[21] while novel studies demonstrate a dependence of fatigue resistance on the typical inclusion size in an alloy.^[17]^[18]^[22]^[23]^[24]

Nitinol is difficult to weld, both to itself and other materials. Laser welding nitinol to itself is a relatively routine process. Strong joints between NiTi wires and stainless steel wires have been made using nickel filler.^[25] Laser and tungsten inert gas (TIG) welds have been made between NiTi tubes and stainless steel tubes.^[26]^[27] More research is ongoing into other processes and other metals to which nitinol can be welded.

Actuation frequency of nitinol is dependent on heat management, especially during the cooling phase. Numerous methods are used to increase the cooling performance, such as forced air,^[28] flowing liquids,^[29] thermoelectric modules (i.e. Peltier or semiconductor heat pumps),^[30] heat sinks,^[31] conductive materials^[32] and higher surface-to-volume ratio^[33] (improvements up to 3.3 Hz with very thin wires^[34] and up to 100 Hz with thin films of nitinol^[35]). The fastest nitinol actuation recorded was carried by a high voltage capacitor discharge which heated an SMA wire in a manner of microseconds, and resulted in a complete phase transformation (and high velocities) in a few milliseconds.^[36]

Recent advances have shown that processing of nitinol can expand thermomechanical capabilities, allowing for multiple shape memories to be embedded within a monolithic structure.^[37]^[38] Research on multi-memory technology is on-going and may deliver enhanced shape memory devices in the near future,^[39]^[40] and the application of new materials and material structures, such hybrid shape memory materials (SMMs) and shape memory composites (SMCs).^[41]

Applications

A nitinol paperclip bent and recovered after being placed in hot water

There are four commonly used types of applications for nitinol:

Free recovery: Nitinol is deformed at a low temperature, remains deformed, and then is heated to recover its original shape through the shape memory effect.
Constrained recovery: Similar to free recovery, except that recovery is rigidly prevented and thus a stress is generated.
Work production: The alloy is allowed to recover, but to do so it must act against a force (thus doing work).
Superelasticity: Nitinol acts as a super spring through the superelastic effect.

Superelastic materials undergo stress-induced transformation and are commonly recognized for their "shape-memory" property. Due to its superelasticity, NiTi wires exhibit "elastocaloric" effect, which is stress-triggered heating/cooling. NiTi wires are currently under research as the most promising material for the technology. The process begins with tensile loading on the wire, which causes fluid (within the wire) to flow to HHEX (hot heat exchanger). Simultaneously, heat will be expelled, which can be used to heat the surrounding. In the reverse process, tensile unloading of the wire leads to fluid flowing to CHEX (cold heat exchanger), causing the NiTi wire to absorb heat from the surrounding. Therefore, the temperature of the surrounding can be decreased (cooled).

Elastocaloric devices are often compared with magnetocaloric devices as new methods of efficient heating/cooling. Elastocaloric device made with NiTi wires has an advantage over magnetocaloric device made with gadolinium due to its specific cooling power (at 2 Hz), which is 70X better (7 kWh/kg vs. 0.1 kWh/kg). However, elastocaloric device made with NiTi wires also have limitations, such as its short fatigue life and dependency on large tensile forces (energy consuming).

In 1989 a survey was conducted in the United States and Canada that involved seven organizations. The survey focused on predicting the future technology, market, and applications of SMAs. The companies predicted the following uses of nitinol in a decreasing order of importance: (1) Couplings, (2) Biomedical and medical, (3) Toys, demonstration, novelty items, (4) Actuators, (5) Heat Engines, (6) Sensors, (7) Cryogenically activated die and bubble memory sockets, and finally (8) lifting devices.^[42]

Thermal and electrical actuators

Nitinol can be used to replace conventional actuators (solenoids, servo motors, etc.), such as in the Stiquito, a simple hexapod robot.
Nitinol springs are used in thermal valves for fluidics, where the material both acts as a temperature sensor and an actuator.
It is used as autofocus actuator in action cameras and as an optical image stabilizer in mobile phones.^[43]
It is used in pneumatic valves for comfort seating and has become an industry standard.
The 2014 Chevrolet Corvette incorporates nitinol actuators, which replaced heavier motorized actuators to open and close the hatch vent that releases air from the trunk, making it easier to close.^[44]

Biocompatible and biomedical applications

Nitinol is highly biocompatible and has properties suitable for use in orthopedic implants. Due to nitinol's unique properties it has seen a large demand for use in less invasive medical devices. Nitinol tubing is commonly used in catheters, stents, and superelastic needles.
In colorectal surgery,^[45] the material is used in devices for reconnecting the intestine after removing the pathogens.
Nitinol is used for devices developed by Franz Freudenthal to treat patent ductus arteriosus, blocking a blood vessel that bypasses the lungs and has failed to close after birth in an infant.^[46]
In dentistry, the material is used in orthodontics for brackets and wires connecting the teeth. Once the SMA wire is placed in the mouth its temperature rises to ambient body temperature. This causes the nitinol to contract back to its original shape, applying a constant force to move the teeth. These SMA wires do not need to be retightened as often as other wires because they can contract as the teeth move unlike conventional stainless steel wires. Additionally, nitinol can be used in endodontics, where nitinol files are used to clean and shape the root canals during the root canal procedure. Because of the high fatigue tolerance and flexibility of nitinol, it greatly decreases the possibility of an endodontic file breaking inside the tooth during root canal treatment, thus improving safety for the patient.^{[citation needed]}
Another significant application of nitinol in medicine is in stents: a collapsed stent can be inserted into an artery or vein, where body temperature warms the stent and the stent returns to its original expanded shape following removal of a constraining sheath; the stent then helps support the artery or vein to improve blood flow. It is also used as a replacement for sutures^{[citation needed]}—nitinol wire can be woven through two structures then allowed to transform into its preformed shape, which should hold the structures in place.^{[citation needed]}
Similarly, collapsible structures composed of braided, microscopically-thin nitinol filaments can be used in neurovascular interventions such as stroke thrombolysis, embolization, and intracranial angioplasty.^[47]
A more recent^[when?] application of nitinol wire is in female contraception, specifically in intrauterine devices.

Damping systems in structural engineering

Superelastic nitinol finds a variety of applications in civil structures such as bridges and buildings. One such application is Intelligent Reinforced Concrete (IRC), which incorporates NiTi wires embedded within the concrete. These wires can sense cracks and contract to heal macro-sized cracks.^[48]
Another application is active tuning of structural natural frequency using nitinol wires to damp vibrations.

Other applications and prototypes

Demonstration model heat engines have been built which use nitinol wire to produce mechanical energy from hot and cold heat sources.^[49] A prototype commercial engine developed in the 1970s by engineer Ridgway Banks at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, was named the Banks Engine.^[50]^[51]^[52]^[53]^[54]
Nitinol is also popular in extremely resilient glasses frames.^[55]
Boeing engineers successfully flight-tested SMA-actuated morphing chevrons on the Boeing 777-300ER Quiet Technology Demonstrator 2.^[56]
The Ford Motor Company has registered a US patent for what it calls a "bicycle derailleur apparatus for controlling bicycle speed". Filed on 22 April 2019, the patent depicts a front derailleur for a bicycle, devoid of cables, instead using two nitinol wires to provide the movement needed to shift gears.^[57]
It is used to make certain surgical implants, such as the SmartToe.
It is used in some novelty products, such as self-bending spoons which can be used by amateur and stage magicians to demonstrate "psychic" powers or as a practical joke, as the spoon will bend itself when used to stir tea, coffee, or any other warm liquid.
Due to the high damping capacity of superelastic nitinol, it is also used as a golf club insert.^[58]
Nickel titanium can be used to make the underwires for underwire bras.^[59]^[60]^[61]

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^ "NiTi Surgical Solutions". www.nitisurgical.com. Archived from the original on 2007-12-08.
^ Alejandra Martins (2014-10-02). "The inventions of the Bolivian doctor who saved thousands of children". BBC Mundo. Retrieved 2015-03-30.
^ Smith, Keith. "Nitinol Micro-Braids for Neurovascular Interventions". US BioDesign. Archived from the original on 2017-02-23. Retrieved 2017-02-22.
^ Shape Memory Alloy Engineering (PDF). 2014. pp. 369–401. ISBN 9781322158457.
^ "Nitinol Heat Engine Kit". Images Scientific Instruments. 2007. Retrieved 14 July 2011.
^ Banks, R. (1975). "The Banks Engine". Die Naturwissenschaften. 62 (7): 305–308. Bibcode:1975NW.....62..305B. doi:10.1007/BF00608890. S2CID 28849141.
^ Vimeo posting of "The Individualist", documentary on Ridgway Banks
^ "Single wire nitinol engine", Ridgway M. Banks, US Patent
^ "Metals that Remember", Popular Science, January 1988
^ "Engine Uses No Fuel", Milwaukee Journal, December 5, 1973
^ Hero Khan (2013-11-01), Nitinol Glasses, archived from the original on 2021-12-13, retrieved 2017-04-05
^ "Boeing Frontiers Online". www.boeing.com. Retrieved 2017-04-05.
^ "Is Ford about to reinvent the bicycle derailleur?". 6 October 2021.
^ "Memory Golf Clubs". spinoff.nasa.gov. Retrieved 2017-04-05.
^ Brady, G. S.; Clauser, H. R.; Vaccari, J. A. (2002). Materials Handbook (15th ed.). McGraw-Hill Professional. p. 633. ISBN 978-0-07-136076-0. Retrieved 2009-05-09.
^ Sang, D.; Ellis, P.; Ryan, L.; Taylor, J.; McMonagle, D.; Petheram, L.; Godding, P. (2005). Scientifica. Nelson Thornes. p. 80. ISBN 978-0-7487-7996-3. Retrieved 2009-05-09.
^ Jones, G.; Falvo, M. R.; Taylor, A. R.; Broadwell, B. P. (2007). "Nanomaterials: Memory Wire". Nanoscale Science. NSTA Press. p. 109. ISBN 978-1-933531-05-2. Retrieved 2009-05-09.

External links

[1] Buehler, W. J.; Gilfrich, J. W.; Wiley, R. C. (1963). "Effects of Low-Temperature Phase Changes on the Mechanical Properties of Alloys Near Composition TiNi". Journal of Applied Physics. 34 (5): 1475–1477. Bibcode:1963JAP....34.1475B. doi:10.1063/1.1729603.

[2] Wang, F. E.; Buehler, W. J.; Pickart, S. J. (1965). "Crystal Structure and a Unique Martensitic Transition of TiNi". Journal of Applied Physics. 36 (10): 3232–3239. Bibcode:1965JAP....36.3232W. doi:10.1063/1.1702955.

[3] "The Alloy That Remembers", Time, 1968-09-13, archived from the original on November 23, 2008

[4] Kauffman, G. B.; Mayo, I. (1997). "The Story of Nitinol: The Serendipitous Discovery of the Memory Metal and Its Applications". The Chemical Educator. 2 (2): 1–21. doi:10.1007/s00897970111a. S2CID 98306580.

[5] Withers, Neil. "Nitinol". Chemistry World. Royal Society of Chemistry. Retrieved 29 January 2018.

[6] Ölander, A. (1932). "An Electrochemical Investigation of Solid Cadmium-Gold Alloys". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 54 (10): 3819–3833. doi:10.1021/ja01349a004.

[7] Hornbogen, E.; Wassermann, G. (1956). "Über den Einfluβ von Spannungen und das Auftreten von Umwandlungsplastizität bei β1-β-Umwandlung des Messings". Zeitschrift für Metallkunde. 47: 427–433.

[8] Otsuka, K.; Ren, X. (2005). "Physical Metallurgy of Ti-Ni-based Shape Memory Alloys". Progress in Materials Science. 50 (5): 511–678. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.455.1300. doi:10.1016/j.pmatsci.2004.10.001.

[9] "Nitinol facts". Nitinol.com. 2013. Archived from the original on 2013-08-18. Retrieved 2010-12-04.

[10] Chluba, Christoph; Ge, Wenwei; Miranda, Rodrigo Lima de; Strobel, Julian; Kienle, Lorenz; Quandt, Eckhard; Wuttig, Manfred (2015-05-29). "Ultralow-fatigue shape memory alloy films". Science. 348 (6238): 1004–1007. Bibcode:2015Sci...348.1004C. doi:10.1126/science.1261164. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 26023135. S2CID 2563331.

[11] Spini, Tatiana Sobottka; Valarelli, Fabrício Pinelli; Cançado, Rodrigo Hermont; Freitas, Karina Maria Salvatore de; Villarinho, Denis Jardim; Spini, Tatiana Sobottka; Valarelli, Fabrício Pinelli; Cançado, Rodrigo Hermont; Freitas, Karina Maria Salvatore de (2014-04-01). "Transition temperature range of thermally activated nickel-titanium archwires". Journal of Applied Oral Science. 22 (2): 109–117. doi:10.1590/1678-775720130133. ISSN 1678-7757. PMC 3956402. PMID 24676581.

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[Robertson-2015-18] Robertson, Scott W.; Launey, Maximilien; Shelley, Oren; Ong, Ich; Vien, Lot; Senthilnathan, Karthike; Saffari, Payman; Schlegel, Scott; Pelton, Alan R. (2015-11-01). "A statistical approach to understand the role of inclusions on the fatigue resistance of superelastic Nitinol wire and tubing". Journal of the Mechanical Behavior of Biomedical Materials. 51: 119–131. doi:10.1016/j.jmbbm.2015.07.003. ISSN 1878-0180. PMID 26241890.

[Pelton-19] Pelton, A.; Russell, S.; DiCello, J. (2003). "The Physical Metallurgy of Nitinol for Medical Applications". JOM. 55 (5): 33–37. Bibcode:2003JOM....55e..33P. doi:10.1007/s11837-003-0243-3. S2CID 135621269.

[20] Morgan, N.; Wick, A.; DiCello, J.; Graham, R. (2006). "Carbon and Oxygen Levels in Nitinol Alloys and the Implications for Medical Device Manufacture and Durability" (PDF). SMST-2006 Proceedings of the International Conference on Shape Memory and Superelastic Technologies. ASM International. pp. 821–828. doi:10.1361/cp2006smst821 (inactive 31 January 2024). ISBN 978-0-87170-862-5. LCCN 2009499204. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 July 2011. Retrieved 26 August 2010.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of January 2024 (link)

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[24] Rahim, M.; Frenzel, J.; Frotscher, M.; Pfetzing-Micklich, J.; Steegmüller, R.; Wohlschlögel, M.; Mughrabi, H.; Eggeler, G. (2013-06-01). "Impurity levels and fatigue lives of pseudoelastic NiTi shape memory alloys". Acta Materialia. 61 (10): 3667–3686. Bibcode:2013AcMat..61.3667R. doi:10.1016/j.actamat.2013.02.054.

[25] US patent 6875949, Hall, P. C., "Method of Welding Titanium and Titanium Based Alloys to Ferrous Metals"

[26] Hahnlen, Ryan; Fox, Gordon (October 29, 2012). "Fusion welding of nickel–titanium and 304 stainless steel tubes: Part I: laser welding". Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and Structures. 24 (8).

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[29] Wellman PS, Peine WJ, Favalora G, Howe RD (1997). "Mechanical Design and Control of a High-Bandwidth Shape Memory Alloy Tactile Display". International Symposium on Experimental Robotics.

[30] Romano R, Tannuri EA (2009). "Modeling, control and experimental validation of a novel actuator based on shape memory alloys". Mechatronics. 19 (7): 1169–1177. doi:10.1016/j.mechatronics.2009.03.007. S2CID 109783521.

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[32] Chee Siong L, Yokoi H, Arai T (2005). "Improving heat sinking in ambient environment for the shape memory alloy (SMA)". Intelligent Robots and Systems: 3560–3565.

[33] An L, Huang WM, Fu YQ, Guo NQ (2008). "A note on size effect in actuating NiTi shape memory alloys by electrical current". Materials & Design. 29 (7): 1432–1437. doi:10.1016/j.matdes.2007.09.001.

[34] "SmartFlex Datasheets" (PDF) (PDF). SAES Group. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-04-06.

[35] Winzek B; Schmitz S; Rumpf H; Sterzl T; Ralf Hassdorf; Thienhaus S (2004). "Recent developments in shape memory thin film technology". Materials Science and Engineering: A. 378 (1–2): 40–46. doi:10.1016/j.msea.2003.09.105.

[36] Vollach, Shahaf, and D. Shilo. "The mechanical response of shape memory alloys under a rapid heating pulse." Experimental Mechanics 50.6 (2010): 803-811.

[37] Khan, M. I.; Zhou Y. N. (2011), Methods and Systems for Processing Materials, Including Shape Memory Materials, WO Patent WO/2011/014,962

[38] Daly, M.; Pequegnat, A.; Zhou, Y.; Khan, M. I. (2012), "Enhanced thermomechanical functionality of a laser processed hybrid NiTi–NiTiCu shape memory alloy", Smart Materials and Structures, 21 (4): 045018, Bibcode:2012SMaS...21d5018D, doi:10.1088/0964-1726/21/4/045018, S2CID 55660651

[39] Daly, M.; Pequegnat, A.; Zhou, Y. N.; Khan, M. I. (2012), "Fabrication of a novel laser-processed NiTi shape memory microgripper with enhanced thermomechanical functionality", Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and Structures, 24 (8): 984–990, doi:10.1177/1045389X12444492, S2CID 55054532

[40] Pequegnat, A.; Daly, M.; Wang, J.; Zhou, Y.; Khan, M. I. (2012), "Dynamic actuation of a novel laser-processed NiTi linear actuator", Smart Materials and Structures, 21 (9): 094004, Bibcode:2012SMaS...21i4004P, doi:10.1088/0964-1726/21/9/094004, S2CID 54204995

[41] Tao T, Liang YC, Taya M (2006). "Bio-inspired actuating system for swimming using shape memory alloy composites". Int J Automat Comput. 3page=366-373.

[42] Miller, R. K.; Walker, T. (1989). Survey on Shape Memory Alloys. Survey Reports. Vol. 89. Future Technology Surveys. p. 17. ISBN 9781558651005. OCLC 38076438.

[43] Actuator Solutions (2015-12-18), SMA AF / OIS Mechanism, archived from the original on 2021-12-13, retrieved 2017-04-05

[44] Bill Hammack (engineerguy) (October 25, 2018). Nitinol: The Shape Memory Effect and Superelasticity. youtube. Event occurs at 9:18.

[45] "NiTi Surgical Solutions". www.nitisurgical.com. Archived from the original on 2007-12-08.

[46] Alejandra Martins (2014-10-02). "The inventions of the Bolivian doctor who saved thousands of children". BBC Mundo. Retrieved 2015-03-30.

[47] Smith, Keith. "Nitinol Micro-Braids for Neurovascular Interventions". US BioDesign. Archived from the original on 2017-02-23. Retrieved 2017-02-22.

[48] Shape Memory Alloy Engineering (PDF). 2014. pp. 369–401. ISBN 9781322158457.

[49] "Nitinol Heat Engine Kit". Images Scientific Instruments. 2007. Retrieved 14 July 2011.

[50] Banks, R. (1975). "The Banks Engine". Die Naturwissenschaften. 62 (7): 305–308. Bibcode:1975NW.....62..305B. doi:10.1007/BF00608890. S2CID 28849141.

[51] Vimeo posting of "The Individualist", documentary on Ridgway Banks

[52] "Single wire nitinol engine", Ridgway M. Banks, US Patent

[53] "Metals that Remember", Popular Science, January 1988

[54] "Engine Uses No Fuel", Milwaukee Journal, December 5, 1973

[55] Hero Khan (2013-11-01), Nitinol Glasses, archived from the original on 2021-12-13, retrieved 2017-04-05

[56] "Boeing Frontiers Online". www.boeing.com. Retrieved 2017-04-05.

[57] "Is Ford about to reinvent the bicycle derailleur?". 6 October 2021.

[58] "Memory Golf Clubs". spinoff.nasa.gov. Retrieved 2017-04-05.

[Brady-59] Brady, G. S.; Clauser, H. R.; Vaccari, J. A. (2002). Materials Handbook (15th ed.). McGraw-Hill Professional. p. 633. ISBN 978-0-07-136076-0. Retrieved 2009-05-09.

[Sang-60] Sang, D.; Ellis, P.; Ryan, L.; Taylor, J.; McMonagle, D.; Petheram, L.; Godding, P. (2005). Scientifica. Nelson Thornes. p. 80. ISBN 978-0-7487-7996-3. Retrieved 2009-05-09.

[GailJones-61] Jones, G.; Falvo, M. R.; Taylor, A. R.; Broadwell, B. P. (2007). "Nanomaterials: Memory Wire". Nanoscale Science. NSTA Press. p. 109. ISBN 978-1-933531-05-2. Retrieved 2009-05-09.

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-{{Short description|High-durability alloy}}
+{{Short description|Alloy known for shape-memory effect}}
 {{Infobox
 |bodystyle    =
@@ Line 52: / Line 52: @@
 }}
-'''Nickel titanium''', also known as '''Nitinol''', is a [[metal]] [[alloy]] of [[nickel]] and [[titanium]], where the two elements are present in roughly equal atomic percentages. Different alloys are named according to the weight percentage of nickel; e.g., Nitinol 55 and [[Nitinol 60]]. It exhibits the [[shape memory]] effect and [[superelasticity]] at different temperatures.
+'''Nickel titanium''', also known as '''nitinol''', is a [[metal]] [[alloy]] of [[nickel]] and [[titanium]], where the two elements are present in roughly equal atomic percentages. Different alloys are named according to the weight percentage of nickel; e.g., nitinol 55 and [[nitinol 60]].
-Nitinol alloys exhibit two closely related and unique properties: the [[shape memory]] effect and [[superelasticity]] (also called [[pseudoelasticity]]). Shape memory is the ability of nitinol to undergo [[Deformation (engineering)|deformation]] at one temperature, stay in its deformed shape when the external force is removed, then recover its original, undeformed shape upon heating above its "transformation temperature". Superelasticity is the ability for the metal to undergo large deformations and immediately return to its undeformed shape upon removal of the external load. Nitinol can deform 10–30 times as much as ordinary metals and return to its original shape. Whether nitinol behaves with the shape memory effect or superelasticity depends on whether it is above the transformation temperature of the specific alloy. Below the transformation temperature it exhibits the shape memory effect, and above that temperature it behaves superelastically.
+Nitinol alloys exhibit two closely related and unique properties: the [[shape memory]] effect and [[superelasticity]] (also called [[pseudoelasticity]]). Shape memory is the ability of nitinol to undergo [[Deformation (engineering)|deformation]] at one temperature, stay in its deformed shape when the external force is removed, then recover its original, undeformed shape upon heating above its "transformation temperature." Superelasticity is the ability for the metal to undergo large deformations and immediately return to its undeformed shape upon removal of the external load. Nitinol can deform 10 to 30 times as much as ordinary metals and return to its original shape. Whether nitinol behaves with shape memory effect or superelasticity depends on whether it is above its transformation temperature during the action. Action below the transformation temperature exhibits the shape memory effect and above the transformation temperature it behaves superelastically.
 ==History==
-The word Nitinol is derived from its composition and its place of discovery: (''Ni''ckel ''Ti''tanium-''N''aval ''O''rdnance ''L''aboratory). [[William J. Buehler]]<ref>{{ cite journal |author1=Buehler, W. J. |author2=Gilfrich, J. W. |author3=Wiley, R. C. | title = Effects of Low-Temperature Phase Changes on the Mechanical Properties of Alloys Near Composition TiNi | journal = Journal of Applied Physics | volume = 34 | issue = 5 | year = 1963 | pages = 1475–1477 | doi = 10.1063/1.1729603 |bibcode=1963JAP....34.1475B }}</ref> along with [[Frederick Wang]],<ref>{{ cite journal |author1=Wang, F. E. |author2=Buehler, W. J. |author3=Pickart, S. J. | title = Crystal Structure and a Unique Martensitic Transition of TiNi | journal = Journal of Applied Physics | year = 1965 | volume = 36 | issue = 10 | pages = 3232–3239 | doi = 10.1063/1.1702955 |bibcode=1965JAP....36.3232W }}</ref> discovered its properties during research at the [[Naval Ordnance Laboratory]] in 1959.<ref>{{Citation | title = The Alloy That Remembers | magazine = Time | date = 1968-09-13 | url = http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,838687,00.html | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20081123012012/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,838687,00.html | url-status = dead | archive-date = November 23, 2008 }}</ref><ref>{{ cite journal |author1=Kauffman, G. B. |author2=Mayo, I. | title = The Story of Nitinol: The Serendipitous Discovery of the Memory Metal and Its Applications | journal = The Chemical Educator | volume = 2 | issue = 2 | pages = 1–21 | year = 1997 | doi = 10.1007/s00897970111a |s2cid=98306580 }}</ref> Buehler was attempting to make a better missile nose cone, which could resist [[fatigue (material)|fatigue]], [[heat]] and the force of [[Impact (mechanics)|impact]]. Having found that a 1:1 [[alloy]] of nickel and titanium could do the job, in 1961 he presented a sample at a laboratory management meeting. The sample, folded up like an [[accordion]], was passed around and flexed by the participants. One of them applied heat from his pipe lighter to the sample and, to everyone's surprise, the accordion-shaped strip contracted and took its previous shape.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Withers|first1=Neil|title=Nitinol|url=https://www.chemistryworld.com/podcasts/nitinol/6710.article|website=Chemistry World|publisher=Royal Society of Chemistry|access-date=29 January 2018}}</ref>
+The word "nitinol" is derived from its composition and its place of discovery: (''Ni''ckel ''Ti''tanium-''N''aval ''O''rdnance ''L''aboratory). [[William J. Buehler]]<ref>{{ cite journal |author1=Buehler, W. J. |author2=Gilfrich, J. W. |author3=Wiley, R. C. | title = Effects of Low-Temperature Phase Changes on the Mechanical Properties of Alloys Near Composition TiNi | journal = Journal of Applied Physics | volume = 34 | issue = 5 | year = 1963 | pages = 1475–1477 | doi = 10.1063/1.1729603 |bibcode=1963JAP....34.1475B }}</ref> along with [[Frederick E. Wang]],<ref>{{ cite journal |author1=Wang, F. E. |author2=Buehler, W. J. |author3=Pickart, S. J. | title = Crystal Structure and a Unique Martensitic Transition of TiNi | journal = Journal of Applied Physics | year = 1965 | volume = 36 | issue = 10 | pages = 3232–3239 | doi = 10.1063/1.1702955 |bibcode=1965JAP....36.3232W }}</ref> discovered its properties during research at the [[Naval Ordnance Laboratory]] in 1959.<ref>{{Citation | title = The Alloy That Remembers | magazine = Time | date = 1968-09-13 | url = http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,838687,00.html | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20081123012012/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,838687,00.html | url-status = dead | archive-date = November 23, 2008 }}</ref><ref>{{ cite journal |author1=Kauffman, G. B. |author2=Mayo, I. | title = The Story of Nitinol: The Serendipitous Discovery of the Memory Metal and Its Applications | journal = The Chemical Educator | volume = 2 | issue = 2 | pages = 1–21 | year = 1997 | doi = 10.1007/s00897970111a |s2cid=98306580 }}</ref> Buehler was attempting to make a better missile nose cone, which could resist [[fatigue (material)|fatigue]], [[heat]] and the force of [[Impact (mechanics)|impact]]. Having found that a 1:1 [[alloy]] of nickel and titanium could do the job, in 1961 he presented a sample at a laboratory management meeting. The sample, folded up like an [[accordion]], was passed around and flexed by the participants. One of them applied heat from his pipe lighter to the sample and, to everyone's surprise, the accordion-shaped strip contracted and took its previous shape.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Withers|first1=Neil|title=Nitinol|url=https://www.chemistryworld.com/podcasts/nitinol/6710.article|website=Chemistry World|publisher=Royal Society of Chemistry|access-date=29 January 2018}}</ref>
-While the potential applications for nitinol were realized immediately, practical efforts to commercialize the alloy did not take place until a decade later. This delay was largely because of the extraordinary difficulty of melting, processing and machining the alloy. Even these efforts encountered financial challenges that were not readily overcome until the 1980s, when these practical difficulties finally began to be resolved.
+While potential applications for nitinol were realized immediately, practical efforts to commercialize the alloy did not take place until a decade later in the 1980s, largely due to the extraordinary difficulty of melting, processing and machining the alloy.
 The discovery of the shape-memory effect in general dates back to 1932, when Swedish chemist [[Arne Ölander]]<ref>{{ cite journal | author = Ölander, A. | title = An Electrochemical Investigation of Solid Cadmium-Gold Alloys | journal = Journal of the American Chemical Society | year = 1932 | volume = 54 | issue = 10 | pages = 3819–3833 | doi = 10.1021/ja01349a004 }}</ref> first observed the property in gold–cadmium alloys. The same effect was observed in Cu-Zn ([[brass]]) in the early 1950s.<ref>{{ cite journal |author1=Hornbogen, E. |author2=Wassermann, G. | title = Über den Einfluβ von Spannungen und das Auftreten von Umwandlungsplastizität bei β1-β-Umwandlung des Messings | journal = Zeitschrift für Metallkunde | year = 1956 | volume = 47 | pages = 427–433 }}</ref>
@@ Line 66: / Line 66: @@
 [[File:Nitinol Austenite and martensite.jpg|thumb|3D view of austenite and martensite structures of the NiTi compound.]]
-Nitinol's unusual properties are derived from a reversible solid-state phase transformation known as a [[martensitic transformation]], between two different martensite crystal phases, requiring {{convert|10000|-|20000|psi|MPa|abbr=on}} of mechanical stress.
+Nitinol's unusual properties are derived from a reversible solid-state phase transformation known as a [[martensitic transformation]], between two different martensite crystal phases, requiring {{convert|10000|-|20000|psi|MPa|abbr=on|order=flip}} of mechanical stress.
-At high temperatures, nitinol assumes an interpenetrating simple cubic structure referred to as [[austenite]] (also known as the parent phase).  At low temperatures, nitinol spontaneously transforms to a more complicated [[monoclinic crystal structure]] known as [[martensite]] (daughter phase).<ref>{{ cite journal |author1=Otsuka, K. |author2=Ren, X. | title = Physical Metallurgy of Ti-Ni-based Shape Memory Alloys | journal = Progress in Materials Science | volume = 50 | issue = 5 | year = 2005 | pages = 511–678 | doi = 10.1016/j.pmatsci.2004.10.001 |citeseerx=10.1.1.455.1300 }}</ref>  There are four transition temperatures associated to the austenite-to-martensite and martensite-to-austenite transformations. Starting from full austenite, martensite begins to form as the alloy is cooled to the so-called ''martensite start temperature'', or M<sub>s</sub>, and the temperature at which the transformation is complete is called the ''martensite finish temperature'', or M<sub>f</sub>. When the alloy is fully martensite and is subjected to heating, austenite starts to form at the ''austenite start temperature'', A<sub>s</sub>, and finishes at the ''austenite finish temperature'', A<sub>f</sub>.<ref>{{cite web |title=Nitinol facts |url=http://www.nitinol.com/nitinol-university/nitinol-facts/ |year=2013 |publisher=Nitinol.com}}</ref>
+At high temperatures, nitinol assumes an interpenetrating simple cubic structure referred to as [[austenite]] (also known as the parent phase). At low temperatures, nitinol spontaneously transforms to a more complicated [[monoclinic crystal structure]] known as [[martensite]] (daughter phase).<ref>{{ cite journal |author1=Otsuka, K. |author2=Ren, X. | title = Physical Metallurgy of Ti-Ni-based Shape Memory Alloys | journal = Progress in Materials Science | volume = 50 | issue = 5 | year = 2005 | pages = 511–678 | doi = 10.1016/j.pmatsci.2004.10.001 |citeseerx=10.1.1.455.1300 }}</ref>  There are four transition temperatures associated to the austenite-to-martensite and martensite-to-austenite transformations. Starting from full austenite, martensite begins to form as the alloy is cooled to the so-called ''martensite start temperature'', or M<sub>s</sub>, and the temperature at which the transformation is complete is called the ''martensite finish temperature'', or M<sub>f</sub>. When the alloy is fully martensite and is subjected to heating, austenite starts to form at the ''austenite start temperature'', A<sub>s</sub>, and finishes at the ''austenite finish temperature'', A<sub>f</sub>.<ref>{{cite web |title=Nitinol facts |url=http://www.nitinol.com/nitinol-university/nitinol-facts/ |year=2013 |publisher=Nitinol.com |access-date=2010-12-04 |archive-date=2013-08-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130818144209/http://www.nitinol.com/nitinol-university/nitinol-facts |url-status=dead }}</ref>
-[[Image:Nitinol transformation hysterisis.svg|left|thumb|Thermal hysteresis of nitinol's phase transformation]]The cooling/heating cycle shows thermal [[hysteresis]]. The hysteresis width depends on the precise nitinol composition and processing. Its typical value is a temperature range spanning about 20–50 K (20–50&nbsp;°C; 36–90&nbsp;°F) but it can be reduced or amplified by alloying<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Chluba|first1=Christoph|last2=Ge|first2=Wenwei|last3=Miranda|first3=Rodrigo Lima de|last4=Strobel|first4=Julian|last5=Kienle|first5=Lorenz|last6=Quandt|first6=Eckhard|last7=Wuttig|first7=Manfred|date=2015-05-29|title=Ultralow-fatigue shape memory alloy films|journal=Science|language=en|volume=348|issue=6238|pages=1004–1007|doi=10.1126/science.1261164|issn=0036-8075|pmid=26023135|bibcode=2015Sci...348.1004C|s2cid=2563331}}</ref> and processing.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Spini|first1=Tatiana Sobottka|last2=Valarelli|first2=Fabrício Pinelli|last3=Cançado|first3=Rodrigo Hermont|last4=Freitas|first4=Karina Maria Salvatore de|last5=Villarinho|first5=Denis Jardim|last6=Spini|first6=Tatiana Sobottka|last7=Valarelli|first7=Fabrício Pinelli|last8=Cançado|first8=Rodrigo Hermont|last9=Freitas|first9=Karina Maria Salvatore de|date=2014-04-01|title=Transition temperature range of thermally activated nickel-titanium archwires|journal=Journal of Applied Oral Science|volume=22|issue=2|pages=109–117|doi=10.1590/1678-775720130133|issn=1678-7757|pmc=3956402|pmid=24676581}}</ref>
+[[Image:Nitinol transformation hysterisis.svg|left|thumb|Thermal hysteresis of nitinol's phase transformation]]The cooling/heating cycle shows thermal [[hysteresis]]. The hysteresis width depends on the precise nitinol composition and processing. Its typical value is a temperature range spanning about {{convert|20|–|50|C-change|F-change}} but it can be reduced or amplified by alloying<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Chluba|first1=Christoph|last2=Ge|first2=Wenwei|last3=Miranda|first3=Rodrigo Lima de|last4=Strobel|first4=Julian|last5=Kienle|first5=Lorenz|last6=Quandt|first6=Eckhard|last7=Wuttig|first7=Manfred|date=2015-05-29|title=Ultralow-fatigue shape memory alloy films|journal=Science|language=en|volume=348|issue=6238|pages=1004–1007|doi=10.1126/science.1261164|issn=0036-8075|pmid=26023135|bibcode=2015Sci...348.1004C|s2cid=2563331}}</ref> and processing.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Spini|first1=Tatiana Sobottka|last2=Valarelli|first2=Fabrício Pinelli|last3=Cançado|first3=Rodrigo Hermont|last4=Freitas|first4=Karina Maria Salvatore de|last5=Villarinho|first5=Denis Jardim|last6=Spini|first6=Tatiana Sobottka|last7=Valarelli|first7=Fabrício Pinelli|last8=Cançado|first8=Rodrigo Hermont|last9=Freitas|first9=Karina Maria Salvatore de|date=2014-04-01|title=Transition temperature range of thermally activated nickel-titanium archwires|journal=Journal of Applied Oral Science|volume=22|issue=2|pages=109–117|doi=10.1590/1678-775720130133|issn=1678-7757|pmc=3956402|pmid=24676581}}</ref>
-Crucial to nitinol properties are two key aspects of this phase transformation.  First is that the transformation is "reversible", meaning that heating above the transformation temperature will revert the crystal structure to the simpler austenite phase. The second key point is that the transformation in both directions is instantaneous.
+Crucial to nitinol properties are two key aspects of this phase transformation. First is that the transformation is "reversible", meaning that heating above the transformation temperature will revert the crystal structure to the simpler austenite phase. The second key point is that the transformation in both directions is instantaneous.
-Martensite's crystal structure (known as a monoclinic, or B19' structure) has the unique ability to undergo limited deformation in some ways without breaking atomic bonds. This type of deformation is known as [[Crystal twinning|twinning]], which consists of the rearrangement of atomic planes without causing slip, or permanent deformation. It is able to undergo about 6–8% strain in this manner.  When martensite is reverted to austenite by heating, the original austenitic structure is restored, regardless of whether the martensite phase was deformed.  Thus the name "shape memory" refers to the fact that the shape of the high temperature austenite phase is "remembered," even though the alloy is severely deformed at a lower temperature.<ref>{{citation | last = Funakubo | first = Hiroyasu | title = Shape memory alloys | publisher= University of Tokyo | year = 1984 | pages = 7, 176}}.</ref> [[File:NiTi structure transformation.jpg|thumb|2D view of nitinol's crystalline structure during cooling/heating cycle]]
+Martensite's crystal structure (known as a monoclinic, or B19' structure) has the unique ability to undergo limited deformation in some ways without breaking atomic bonds. This type of deformation is known as [[Crystal twinning|twinning]], which consists of the rearrangement of atomic planes without causing slip, or permanent deformation. It is able to undergo about 6–8% strain in this manner. When martensite is reverted to austenite by heating, the original austenitic structure is restored, regardless of whether the martensite phase was deformed. Thus the shape of the high temperature austenite phase is "remembered," even though the alloy is severely deformed at a lower temperature.<ref>{{citation | last = Funakubo | first = Hiroyasu | title = Shape memory alloys | publisher= University of Tokyo | year = 1984 | pages = 7, 176}}.</ref> [[File:NiTi structure transformation.jpg|thumb|2D view of nitinol's crystalline structure during cooling/heating cycle]]
-A great deal of pressure can be produced by preventing the reversion of deformed martensite to austenite—from {{convert|35000|psi|MPa|abbr=on}} to, in many cases, more than {{convert|100000|psi|MPa|abbr=on}}. One of the reasons that nitinol works so hard to return to its original shape is that it is not just an ordinary metal alloy, but what is known as an [[intermetallic compound]]. In an ordinary alloy, the constituents are randomly positioned in the crystal lattice; in an ordered intermetallic compound, the atoms (in this case, nickel and titanium) have very specific locations in the lattice.<ref name="nitinol.com">{{cite web |title=Nitinol SM495 Wire |format=properties, PDF |url=http://www.nitinol.com/media/files/material-properties-pdfs/sm495_wire_data%20%5BConverted%5D_v2.pdf |year=2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110714184605/http://www.nitinol.com/media/files/material-properties-pdfs/sm495_wire_data%20%5BConverted%5D_v2.pdf |archive-date=2011-07-14 }}</ref>  The fact that nitinol is an intermetallic is largely responsible for the complexity in fabricating devices made from the alloy.{{why|date=January 2017}}
+A great deal of pressure can be produced by preventing the reversion of deformed martensite to austenite—from {{convert|35000|psi|MPa|abbr=on|order=flip}} to, in many cases, more than {{convert|100000|psi|MPa|abbr=on|order=flip}}. One of the reasons that nitinol works so hard to return to its original shape is that it is not just an ordinary metal alloy, but what is known as an [[intermetallic compound]]. In an ordinary alloy, the constituents are randomly positioned in the crystal lattice; in an ordered intermetallic compound, the atoms (in this case, nickel and titanium) have very specific locations in the lattice.<ref name="nitinol.com">{{cite web |title=Nitinol SM495 Wire |format=properties, PDF |url=http://www.nitinol.com/media/files/material-properties-pdfs/sm495_wire_data%20%5BConverted%5D_v2.pdf |year=2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110714184605/http://www.nitinol.com/media/files/material-properties-pdfs/sm495_wire_data%20%5BConverted%5D_v2.pdf |archive-date=2011-07-14 }}</ref>  The fact that nitinol is an intermetallic is largely responsible for the complexity in fabricating devices made from the alloy.{{why|date=January 2017}}
 [[File:Nitinol Ms vs Ni content.jpg|thumb|left|The effect of nitinol composition on the M<sub>s</sub> temperature.]]
-The scenario described above (cooling austenite to form martensite, deforming the martensite, then heating to revert to austenite, thus returning the original, undeformed shape) is known as the thermal shape memory effect. To fix the original "parent shape," the alloy must be held in position and heated to about {{convert|abbr=on|500|°C|F}}. This process is usually called ''shape setting''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://memry.com/nitinol-iq/nitinol-fundamentals/fabrication-heat-treatment|title=Fabrication & Heat Treatment of Nitinol|date=2011-01-26|website=memry.com|language=en|access-date=2017-03-28}}</ref> A second effect, called superelasticity or pseudoelasticity, is also observed in nitinol.  This effect is the direct result of the fact that martensite can be formed by applying a stress as well as by cooling.  Thus in a certain temperature range, one can apply a stress to austenite, causing martensite to form while at the same time changing shape.  In this case, as soon as the stress is removed, the nitinol will spontaneously return to its original shape.  In this mode of use, nitinol behaves like a super spring, possessing an elastic range 10–30 times greater than that of a normal spring material.  There are, however, constraints: the effect is only observed about 273–313 K (0–40&nbsp;°C; 32–104&nbsp;°F) above the A<sub>f</sub> temperature. This upper limit is referred to as M<sub>d</sub>,<ref>{{cite journal|last1=R Meling|first1=Torstein|last2=Ødegaard|first2=Jan|title=The effect of temperature on the elastic responses to longitudinal torsion of rectangular nickel titanium archwires|journal=The Angle Orthodontist|date=August 1998|volume=68|issue=4|pages=357–368|pmid=9709837|url=http://www.angle.org/doi/10.1043/0003-3219(1998)068%3C0357:TEOTOT%3E2.3.CO;2|doi=10.1043/0003-3219(1998)068<0357:TEOTOT>2.3.CO;2|doi-broken-date=31 July 2022}}</ref> which corresponds to the highest temperature in which it is still possible to stress-induce the formation of martensite. Below M<sub>d</sub>, martensite formation under load allows superelasticity due to twinning. Above M<sub>d</sub>, since martensite is no longer formed, the only response to stress is slip of the austenitic microstructure, and thus permanent deformation.
+To fix the original "parent shape," the alloy must be held in position and heated to about {{convert|abbr=on|500|°C|F|sigfig=2}}. This process is usually called ''shape setting''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://memry.com/nitinol-iq/nitinol-fundamentals/fabrication-heat-treatment|title=Fabrication & Heat Treatment of Nitinol|date=2011-01-26|website=memry.com|language=en|access-date=2017-03-28}}</ref> A second effect, called superelasticity or pseudoelasticity, is also observed in nitinol. This effect is the direct result of the fact that martensite can be formed by applying a stress as well as by cooling. Thus in a certain temperature range, one can apply a stress to austenite, causing martensite to form while at the same time changing shape. In this case, as soon as the stress is removed, the nitinol will spontaneously return to its original shape. In this mode of use, nitinol behaves like a super spring, possessing an elastic range 10 to 30 times greater than that of a normal spring material. There are, however, constraints: the effect is only observed up to about {{convert|40|°C-change|°F-change|abbr=on}} above the A<sub>f</sub> temperature. This upper limit is referred to as M<sub>d</sub>,<ref>{{cite journal|last1=R Meling|first1=Torstein|last2=Ødegaard|first2=Jan|title=The effect of temperature on the elastic responses to longitudinal torsion of rectangular nickel titanium archwires|journal=The Angle Orthodontist|date=August 1998|volume=68|issue=4|pages=357–368|pmid=9709837|url=http://www.angle.org/doi/10.1043/0003-3219(1998)068%3C0357:TEOTOT%3E2.3.CO;2}}</ref> which corresponds to the highest temperature in which it is still possible to stress-induce the formation of martensite. Below M<sub>d</sub>, martensite formation under load allows superelasticity due to twinning. Above M<sub>d</sub>, since martensite is no longer formed, the only response to stress is slip of the austenitic microstructure, and thus permanent deformation.
 Nitinol is typically composed of approximately 50 to 51% nickel by atomic percent (55 to 56% weight percent).<ref name="nitinol.com"/><ref>{{cite web  |title=Nitinol SE508 Wire  |format=properties, PDF  |url=http://www.nitinol.com/media/files/material-properties-pdfs/se508_wire_data%20%5BConverted%5D_v2.pdf  |year=2013  |url-status=dead  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110714184648/http://www.nitinol.com/media/files/material-properties-pdfs/se508_wire_data%20%5BConverted%5D_v2.pdf  |archive-date=2011-07-14  }}
-</ref> Making small changes in the composition can change the transition temperature of the alloy significantly. Transformation temperatures in nitinol can be controlled to some extent, where A<sub>f</sub> temperature ranges from about −20&nbsp;°C to +110&nbsp;°C. Thus, it is common practice to refer to a nitinol formulation as "superelastic" or "austenitic" if A<sub>f</sub> is lower than a reference temperature, while as "shape memory" or "martensitic" if higher. The reference temperature is usually defined as the [[room temperature]] or the human body temperature (37&nbsp;°C; 98&nbsp;°F).
+</ref> Making small changes in the composition can change the transition temperature of the alloy significantly. Transformation temperatures in nitinol can be controlled to some extent, where A<sub>f</sub> temperature ranges from about {{cvt|−20|to|+110|C|F}}. Thus, it is common practice to refer to a nitinol formulation as "superelastic" or "austenitic" if A<sub>f</sub> is lower than a reference temperature, while as "shape memory" or "martensitic" if higher. The reference temperature is usually defined as the [[room temperature]] or the human body temperature ({{cvt|37|C|F|disp=or}}).
-One often-encountered effect regarding nitinol is the so-called [[R-Phase|R-phase]].  The R-phase is another martensitic phase that competes with the martensite phase mentioned above. Because it does not offer the large memory effects of the martensite phase, it is usually of non practical use.
+One often-encountered effect regarding nitinol is the so-called [[R-Phase|R-phase]]. The R-phase is another martensitic phase that competes with the martensite phase mentioned above. Because it does not offer the large memory effects of the martensite phase, it is usually of non practical use.
-==Manufacturing process==
+== Manufacturing ==
-Nitinol is exceedingly difficult to make, due to the exceptionally tight compositional control required, and the tremendous reactivity of titanium.  Every atom of titanium that combines with oxygen or carbon is an atom that is robbed from the NiTi lattice, thus shifting the composition and making the transformation temperature that much lower. There are two primary melting methods used today:
+Nitinol is exceedingly difficult to make, due to the exceptionally tight compositional control required, and the tremendous reactivity of titanium. Every atom of titanium that combines with oxygen or carbon is an atom that is robbed from the NiTi lattice, thus shifting the composition and making the transformation temperature lower.
-; [[Vacuum arc remelting]] (VAR):  This is done by striking an electrical arc between the raw material and a water-cooled copper strike plate.  Melting is done in a high vacuum, and the mold itself is water-cooled copper.
-; [[Vacuum induction melting]] (VIM):  This is done by using alternating magnetic fields to heat the raw materials in a crucible (generally carbon). This is also done in a high vacuum.
-While both methods have advantages, it has been demonstrated that an industrial state-of-the-art VIM melted material has smaller inclusions than an industrial state-of-the-art VAR one, leading to a higher fatigue resistance.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last1=Urbano|first1=Marco|last2=Coda|first2=Alberto|last3=Beretta|first3=Stefano|last4=Cadelli|first4=Andrea|last5=Sczerzenie|first5=Frank|date=2013-09-01|title=The Effect of Inclusions on Fatigue Properties for Nitinol|url=https://www.astm.org/DIGITAL_LIBRARY/STP/PAGES/STP155920120189.htm|language=en|doi=10.1520/STP155920120189|journal=Fatigue and Fracture Metallic Medical Materials and Devices|pages=18–34|isbn=978-0-8031-7545-7}}</ref> Other research report that VAR employing extreme high-purity raw materials may lead to a reduced number of inclusions and thus to an improved fatigue behavior.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Robertson|first1=Scott W.|last2=Launey|first2=Maximilien|last3=Shelley|first3=Oren|last4=Ong|first4=Ich|last5=Vien|first5=Lot|last6=Senthilnathan|first6=Karthike|last7=Saffari|first7=Payman|last8=Schlegel|first8=Scott|last9=Pelton|first9=Alan R.|date=2015-11-01|title=A statistical approach to understand the role of inclusions on the fatigue resistance of superelastic Nitinol wire and tubing|journal=Journal of the Mechanical Behavior of Biomedical Materials|volume=51|pages=119–131|doi=10.1016/j.jmbbm.2015.07.003|issn=1878-0180|pmid=26241890}}</ref> Other methods are also used on a boutique scale, including plasma arc melting, induction skull melting, and e-beam melting. [[Physical vapour deposition]] is also used on a laboratory scale.
+There are two primary melting methods used today. [[Vacuum arc remelting]] (VAR) is done by striking an electrical arc between the raw material and a water-cooled copper strike plate. Melting is done in a high vacuum, and the mold itself is water-cooled copper. [[Vacuum induction melting]] (VIM) is done by using alternating magnetic fields to heat the raw materials in a crucible (generally carbon). This is also done in a high vacuum. While both methods have advantages, it has been demonstrated that an industrial state-of-the-art VIM melted material has smaller inclusions than an industrial state-of-the-art VAR one, leading to a higher fatigue resistance.<ref name="Urbano-2013">{{Cite book|last1=Urbano|first1=Marco|last2=Coda|first2=Alberto|last3=Beretta|first3=Stefano|last4=Cadelli|first4=Andrea|last5=Sczerzenie|first5=Frank|date=2013-09-01|title=The Effect of Inclusions on Fatigue Properties for Nitinol|url=https://www.astm.org/DIGITAL_LIBRARY/STP/PAGES/STP155920120189.htm|language=en|doi=10.1520/STP155920120189|journal=Fatigue and Fracture Metallic Medical Materials and Devices|pages=18–34|isbn=978-0-8031-7545-7}}</ref> Other research report that VAR employing extreme high-purity raw materials may lead to a reduced number of inclusions and thus to an improved fatigue behavior.<ref name="Robertson-2015">{{Cite journal|last1=Robertson|first1=Scott W.|last2=Launey|first2=Maximilien|last3=Shelley|first3=Oren|last4=Ong|first4=Ich|last5=Vien|first5=Lot|last6=Senthilnathan|first6=Karthike|last7=Saffari|first7=Payman|last8=Schlegel|first8=Scott|last9=Pelton|first9=Alan R.|date=2015-11-01|title=A statistical approach to understand the role of inclusions on the fatigue resistance of superelastic Nitinol wire and tubing|journal=Journal of the Mechanical Behavior of Biomedical Materials|volume=51|pages=119–131|doi=10.1016/j.jmbbm.2015.07.003|issn=1878-0180|pmid=26241890}}</ref> Other methods are also used on a boutique scale, including plasma arc melting, induction skull melting, and e-beam melting. [[Physical vapour deposition]] is also used on a laboratory scale.
 Heat treating nitinol is delicate and critical. It is a knowledge intensive process to fine-tune the transformation temperatures. Aging time and temperature controls the precipitation of various Ni-rich phases, and thus controls how much nickel resides in the NiTi lattice; by depleting the matrix of nickel, aging increases the transformation temperature. The combination of heat treatment and cold working is essential in controlling the properties of nitinol products.<ref name=Pelton>{{ cite journal |author1=Pelton, A. |author2=Russell, S. |author3=DiCello, J. | title = The Physical Metallurgy of Nitinol for Medical Applications | journal = JOM | volume = 55 | issue = 5 | year = 2003 | pages = 33–37 | doi = 10.1007/s11837-003-0243-3 |bibcode=2003JOM....55e..33P |s2cid=135621269 }}</ref>
 == Challenges ==
-Fatigue failures of nitinol devices are a constant subject of discussion.  Because it is the material of choice for applications requiring enormous flexibility and motion (e.g., peripheral stents, heart valves, smart thermomechanical actuators and electromechanical microactuators), it is necessarily exposed to much greater fatigue strains compared to other metals. While the strain-controlled fatigue performance of nitinol is superior to all other known metals, fatigue failures have been observed in the most demanding applications. There is a great deal of effort underway trying to better understand and define the durability limits of nitinol.
+Fatigue failures of nitinol devices are a constant subject of discussion. Because it is the material of choice for applications requiring enormous flexibility and motion (e.g., peripheral [[stent]]s, heart valves, smart thermomechanical [[actuator]]s and electromechanical microactuators), it is necessarily exposed to much greater fatigue strains compared to other metals. While the strain-controlled fatigue performance of nitinol is superior to all other known metals, fatigue failures have been observed in the most demanding applications; with a great deal of effort underway to better understand and define the durability limits of nitinol.
-Nitinol is half nickel, and thus there has been a great deal of concern in the medical industry regarding the release of nickel, a known allergen and possible carcinogen.<ref name=Pelton/> (Nickel is also present in substantial amounts in [[stainless steel]] and cobalt-chrome alloys.)  When properly treated (via [[electropolishing]] and/or [[Passivation (chemistry)|passivation]]), nitinol forms a very stable protective TiO<sub>2</sub> layer that acts as a very effective and self-healing barrier against ion exchange. It has been repeatedly shown that nitinol releases nickel at a slower pace than stainless steel, for example.  With that said, very early medical devices were made without electropolishing, and corrosion was observed.{{Citation needed|date=February 2022}}  Today's nitinol vascular [[self-expandable metallic stent]]s, for example, show no evidence of corrosion or nickel release, and the outcomes in patients with and without nickel allergies are indistinguishable.{{Citation needed|date=February 2022}}
+Nitinol is half nickel, and thus there has been a great deal of concern in the medical industry regarding the release of nickel, a known allergen and possible carcinogen.<ref name=Pelton/> (Nickel is also present in substantial amounts in [[stainless steel]] and cobalt-chrome alloys also used in the medical industry.)  When treated (via [[electropolishing]] or [[Passivation (chemistry)|passivation]]), nitinol forms a very stable protective TiO<sub>2</sub> layer that acts as an effective and self-healing barrier against ion exchange; repeatedly showing that nitinol releases nickel at a slower pace than stainless steel, for example. Early Nitinol medical devices were made without electropolishing, and corrosion was observed.{{Citation needed|date=February 2022}} Today's nitinol vascular [[self-expandable metallic stent]]s show no evidence of corrosion or nickel release, and outcomes in patients with and without nickel allergies are indistinguishable.{{Citation needed|date=February 2022}}
-There are constant and long-running discussions{{By whom|date=February 2022}} regarding inclusions in nitinol, both TiC and Ti<sub>2</sub>NiO<sub>x</sub>.  As in all other metals and alloys, inclusions can be found in Nitinol. The size, distribution and type of inclusions can be controlled to some extent. Theoretically, smaller, rounder and few inclusions should lead to increased fatigue durability.  In literature, some early works report to have failed to show measurable differences,<ref>{{cite book | author1 = Morgan, N. | author2 = Wick, A. | author3 = DiCello, J. | author4 = Graham, R. | chapter = Carbon and Oxygen Levels in Nitinol Alloys and the Implications for Medical Device Manufacture and Durability | title = SMST-2006 Proceedings of the International Conference on Shape Memory and Superelastic Technologies | year = 2006 | publisher = ASM International | pages = 821–828 | doi = 10.1361/cp2006smst821 | isbn = 978-0-87170-862-5 | lccn = 2009499204 | chapter-url = http://www.nitinol.com/media/reference-library/151_Morgan_Wick_DiCello_Graham_2008.pdf | doi-broken-date = 31 July 2022 | access-date = 26 August 2010 | archive-date = 14 July 2011 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110714184710/http://www.nitinol.com/media/reference-library/151_Morgan_Wick_DiCello_Graham_2008.pdf | url-status = dead }}</ref><ref>{{ cite book |author1=Miyazaki, S. |author2=Sugaya, Y. |author3=Otsuka, K. | chapter = Mechanism of Fatigue Crack Nucleation in Ti-Ni Alloys | title = Shape memory materials : May 31-June 3, 1988, Sunshine City, Ikebukuro, Tokyo, Japan | series = Proceedings of the MRS International Meeting on Advanced Materials | volume = 9 | publisher = Materials Research Society | year = 1989 | pages = 257–262 | isbn = 978-1-55899-038-8 | lccn = 90174266 }}</ref> while novel studies demonstrate a dependence of fatigue resistance on the typical inclusion size in an alloy.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.asminternational.org/conferences/resources/conference-proceedings?p_p_auth=JbQd1FjJ&p_p_id=101&p_p_lifecycle=0&p_p_state=maximized&_101_struts_action=/asset_publisher/view_content&_101_assetEntryId=5918779&_101_type=content&_101_groupId=10192&_101_urlTitle=the-influence-of-microcleanliness-on-the-fatigue-performance-of-nitinol|title=The Influence of Microcleanliness on the Fatigue Performance of Nitinol - Conference Proceedings - ASM International|website=www.asminternational.org|language=en-US|access-date=2017-04-05}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/225396994|title=Academic paper (PDF): Smartflex NiTi Wires for Shape Memory Actuators|journal=Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance|volume=18|issue=5–6|pages=691–695|language=en|access-date=2017-04-05|doi=10.1007/s11665-009-9407-9|year=2009|last1=Fumagalli|first1=L.|last2=Butera|first2=F.|last3=Coda|first3=A.|s2cid=137357771}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Rahim|first1=M.|last2=Frenzel|first2=J.|last3=Frotscher|first3=M.|last4=Pfetzing-Micklich|first4=J.|last5=Steegmüller|first5=R.|last6=Wohlschlögel|first6=M.|last7=Mughrabi|first7=H.|last8=Eggeler|first8=G.|date=2013-06-01|title=Impurity levels and fatigue lives of pseudoelastic NiTi shape memory alloys|journal=Acta Materialia|volume=61|issue=10|pages=3667–3686|doi=10.1016/j.actamat.2013.02.054|bibcode=2013AcMat..61.3667R}}</ref>
+There are constant and long-running discussions{{By whom|date=February 2022}} regarding inclusions in nitinol, both TiC and Ti<sub>2</sub>NiO<sub>x</sub>. As in all other metals and alloys, inclusions can be found in nitinol. The size, distribution and type of inclusions can be controlled to some extent. Theoretically, smaller, rounder and few inclusions should lead to increased fatigue durability. In literature, some early works report to have failed to show measurable differences,<ref>{{cite book | author1 = Morgan, N. | author2 = Wick, A. | author3 = DiCello, J. | author4 = Graham, R. | chapter = Carbon and Oxygen Levels in Nitinol Alloys and the Implications for Medical Device Manufacture and Durability | title = SMST-2006 Proceedings of the International Conference on Shape Memory and Superelastic Technologies | year = 2006 | publisher = ASM International | pages = 821–828 | doi = 10.1361/cp2006smst821 | isbn = 978-0-87170-862-5 | lccn = 2009499204 | chapter-url = http://www.nitinol.com/media/reference-library/151_Morgan_Wick_DiCello_Graham_2008.pdf | doi-broken-date = 31 January 2024 | access-date = 26 August 2010 | archive-date = 14 July 2011 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110714184710/http://www.nitinol.com/media/reference-library/151_Morgan_Wick_DiCello_Graham_2008.pdf | url-status = dead }}</ref><ref>{{ cite book |author1=Miyazaki, S. |author2=Sugaya, Y. |author3=Otsuka, K. | chapter = Mechanism of Fatigue Crack Nucleation in Ti-Ni Alloys | title = Shape memory materials : May 31-June 3, 1988, Sunshine City, Ikebukuro, Tokyo, Japan | series = Proceedings of the MRS International Meeting on Advanced Materials | volume = 9 | publisher = Materials Research Society | year = 1989 | pages = 257–262 | isbn = 978-1-55899-038-8 | lccn = 90174266 }}</ref> while novel studies demonstrate a dependence of fatigue resistance on the typical inclusion size in an alloy.<ref name="Urbano-2013" /><ref name="Robertson-2015" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.asminternational.org/conferences/resources/conference-proceedings?p_p_auth=JbQd1FjJ&p_p_id=101&p_p_lifecycle=0&p_p_state=maximized&_101_struts_action=/asset_publisher/view_content&_101_assetEntryId=5918779&_101_type=content&_101_groupId=10192&_101_urlTitle=the-influence-of-microcleanliness-on-the-fatigue-performance-of-nitinol|title=The Influence of Microcleanliness on the Fatigue Performance of Nitinol - Conference Proceedings - ASM International|website=www.asminternational.org|language=en-US|access-date=2017-04-05}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/225396994|title=Academic paper (PDF): Smartflex NiTi Wires for Shape Memory Actuators|journal=Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance|volume=18|issue=5–6|pages=691–695|language=en|access-date=2017-04-05|doi=10.1007/s11665-009-9407-9|year=2009|last1=Fumagalli|first1=L.|last2=Butera|first2=F.|last3=Coda|first3=A.|s2cid=137357771}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Rahim|first1=M.|last2=Frenzel|first2=J.|last3=Frotscher|first3=M.|last4=Pfetzing-Micklich|first4=J.|last5=Steegmüller|first5=R.|last6=Wohlschlögel|first6=M.|last7=Mughrabi|first7=H.|last8=Eggeler|first8=G.|date=2013-06-01|title=Impurity levels and fatigue lives of pseudoelastic NiTi shape memory alloys|journal=Acta Materialia|volume=61|issue=10|pages=3667–3686|doi=10.1016/j.actamat.2013.02.054|bibcode=2013AcMat..61.3667R}}</ref>
-Nitinol is difficult to weld, both to itself and other materials. Laser welding nitinol to itself is a relatively routine process. More recently, strong joints between NiTi wires and stainless steel wires have been made using nickel filler.<ref>{{ cite patent | inventor = Hall, P. C. | title = Method of Welding Titanium and Titanium Based Alloys to Ferrous Metals | country = US | status = patent | number = 6875949 }}</ref> Laser<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Hahnlen|first1=Ryan|last2=Fox|first2=Gordon|title=Fusion welding of nickel–titanium and 304 stainless steel tubes: Part I: laser welding|journal=Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and Structures|date=October 29, 2012|volume=24|issue=8|url=http://jim.sagepub.com/content/24/8/945.refs}}</ref> and tungsten inert gas (TIG)<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Fox|first1=Gordon|last2=Hahnlen|first2=Ryan|title=Fusion welding of nickel–titanium and 304 stainless steel tubes: Part II: tungsten inert gas welding|journal=Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and Structures|date=October 29, 2012|volume=24|issue=8|url=http://jim.sagepub.com/content/24/8/962}}</ref> welds have been made between NiTi tubes and stainless steel tubes . More research is ongoing into other processes and other metals to which nitinol can be welded.
+Nitinol is difficult to weld, both to itself and other materials. Laser welding nitinol to itself is a relatively routine process. Strong joints between NiTi wires and stainless steel wires have been made using nickel filler.<ref>{{ cite patent | inventor = Hall, P. C. | title = Method of Welding Titanium and Titanium Based Alloys to Ferrous Metals | country = US | status = patent | number = 6875949 }}</ref> [[Laser beam welding|Laser]] and [[Gas tungsten arc welding|tungsten inert gas (TIG) welds]] have been made between NiTi tubes and stainless steel tubes.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Hahnlen|first1=Ryan|last2=Fox|first2=Gordon|title=Fusion welding of nickel–titanium and 304 stainless steel tubes: Part I: laser welding|journal=Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and Structures|date=October 29, 2012|volume=24|issue=8|url=http://jim.sagepub.com/content/24/8/945.refs}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Fox|first1=Gordon|last2=Hahnlen|first2=Ryan|title=Fusion welding of nickel–titanium and 304 stainless steel tubes: Part II: tungsten inert gas welding|journal=Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and Structures|date=October 29, 2012|volume=24|issue=8|url=http://jim.sagepub.com/content/24/8/962}}</ref> More research is ongoing into other processes and other metals to which nitinol can be welded.
-Actuation frequency of nitinol is dependent on heat management, especially during the cooling phase. Numerous methods are used to increase the cooling performance, such as forced air,<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Tadesse Y, Thayer N, Priya S |title=Tailoring the response time of shape memory alloy wires through active cooling and pre-stress|journal=Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and Structures|year=2010|volume=21|issue=1|pages=19–40|doi=10.1177/1045389x09352814|s2cid=31183365}}</ref> flowing liquids,<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Wellman PS, Peine WJ, Favalora G, Howe RD |title=Mechanical Design and Control of a High-Bandwidth Shape Memory Alloy Tactile Display|year=1997|journal=International Symposium on Experimental Robotics}}</ref> thermoelectric modules (i.e. Peltier or semiconductor heat pumps),<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Romano R, Tannuri EA |title=Modeling, control and experimental validation of a novel actuator based on shape memory alloys|journal=Mechatronics|year=2009|volume=19|issue=7|pages=1169–1177|doi=10.1016/j.mechatronics.2009.03.007}}</ref> heat sinks,<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Russell RA, Gorbet RB |title=Improving the response of SMA actuators|journal=Robotics and Automation|year=1995|pages=2299–304|volume=3}}</ref> conductive materials<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Chee Siong L, Yokoi H, Arai T |title=Improving heat sinking in ambient environment for the shape memory alloy (SMA)|journal=Intelligent Robots and Systems|year=2005|pages=3560–3565}}</ref> and higher surface-to-volume ratio<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=An L, Huang WM, Fu YQ, Guo NQ |title=A note on size effect in actuating NiTi shape memory alloys by electrical current|journal=Materials & Design|year=2008|volume=29|issue=7|pages=1432–1437|doi=10.1016/j.matdes.2007.09.001}}</ref> (improvements up to 3.3&nbsp;Hz with very thin wires<ref>{{cite web|title=SmartFlex Datasheets | publisher=SAES Group | type = PDF | url=https://www.saesgetters.com/sites/default/files/SMARTFLEX%20Products%20DATASHEETS_Layout%201.pdf | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170406023450/https://www.saesgetters.com/sites/default/files/SMARTFLEX%20Products%20DATASHEETS_Layout%201.pdf|archive-date=2017-04-06 | url-status=dead}}</ref> and up to 100&nbsp;Hz with thinfilm nitinol<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Winzek B |author2=Schmitz S |author3=Rumpf H |author4=Sterzl T |author5=Ralf Hassdorf |author6=Thienhaus S |title=Recent developments in shape memory thin film technology|journal=Materials Science and Engineering: A|year=2004|volume=378|issue=1–2 |pages=40–46 |doi=10.1016/j.msea.2003.09.105}}</ref>). The fastest nitinol actuation recorded was carried by a high voltage capacitor discharge which heated an SMA wire in a manner of microseconds, and resulted in a complete phase transformation (and high velocities) in a few milliseconds.<ref>Vollach, Shahaf, and D. Shilo. "The mechanical response of shape memory alloys under a rapid heating pulse." Experimental Mechanics 50.6 (2010): 803-811.</ref>
+Actuation frequency of nitinol is dependent on heat management, especially during the cooling phase. Numerous methods are used to increase the cooling performance, such as forced air,<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Tadesse Y, Thayer N, Priya S |title=Tailoring the response time of shape memory alloy wires through active cooling and pre-stress|journal=Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and Structures|year=2010|volume=21|issue=1|pages=19–40|doi=10.1177/1045389x09352814|s2cid=31183365}}</ref> flowing liquids,<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Wellman PS, Peine WJ, Favalora G, Howe RD |title=Mechanical Design and Control of a High-Bandwidth Shape Memory Alloy Tactile Display|year=1997|journal=International Symposium on Experimental Robotics}}</ref> thermoelectric modules (i.e. Peltier or semiconductor heat pumps),<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Romano R, Tannuri EA |title=Modeling, control and experimental validation of a novel actuator based on shape memory alloys|journal=Mechatronics|year=2009|volume=19|issue=7|pages=1169–1177|doi=10.1016/j.mechatronics.2009.03.007|s2cid=109783521 }}</ref> heat sinks,<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Russell RA, Gorbet RB |title=Improving the response of SMA actuators|journal=Robotics and Automation|year=1995|pages=2299–304|volume=3}}</ref> conductive materials<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Chee Siong L, Yokoi H, Arai T |title=Improving heat sinking in ambient environment for the shape memory alloy (SMA)|journal=Intelligent Robots and Systems|year=2005|pages=3560–3565}}</ref> and higher surface-to-volume ratio<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=An L, Huang WM, Fu YQ, Guo NQ |title=A note on size effect in actuating NiTi shape memory alloys by electrical current|journal=Materials & Design|year=2008|volume=29|issue=7|pages=1432–1437|doi=10.1016/j.matdes.2007.09.001}}</ref> (improvements up to 3.3&nbsp;Hz with very thin wires<ref>{{cite web|title=SmartFlex Datasheets | publisher=SAES Group | type = PDF | url=https://www.saesgetters.com/sites/default/files/SMARTFLEX%20Products%20DATASHEETS_Layout%201.pdf | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170406023450/https://www.saesgetters.com/sites/default/files/SMARTFLEX%20Products%20DATASHEETS_Layout%201.pdf|archive-date=2017-04-06 | url-status=dead}}</ref> and up to 100&nbsp;Hz with thin films of nitinol<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Winzek B |author2=Schmitz S |author3=Rumpf H |author4=Sterzl T |author5=Ralf Hassdorf |author6=Thienhaus S |title=Recent developments in shape memory thin film technology|journal=Materials Science and Engineering: A|year=2004|volume=378|issue=1–2 |pages=40–46 |doi=10.1016/j.msea.2003.09.105}}</ref>). The fastest nitinol actuation recorded was carried by a high voltage capacitor discharge which heated an SMA wire in a manner of microseconds, and resulted in a complete phase transformation (and high velocities) in a few milliseconds.<ref>Vollach, Shahaf, and D. Shilo. "The mechanical response of shape memory alloys under a rapid heating pulse." Experimental Mechanics 50.6 (2010): 803-811.</ref>
 Recent advances have shown that processing of nitinol can expand thermomechanical capabilities, allowing for multiple shape memories to be embedded within a monolithic structure.<ref>{{Citation
@@ Line 120: / Line 119: @@
 | number = 4
 | pages = 045018
-| doi = 10.1088/0964-1726/21/4/045018|bibcode=2012SMaS...21d5018D|s2cid=55660651 |url=https://semanticscholar.org/paper/66616f798d4f032142c4b105701144e71c80f92e }}</ref> Research on multi-memory technology is on-going and promises to deliver enhanced shape memory devices in the near future<ref>{{Citation
+| doi = 10.1088/0964-1726/21/4/045018|bibcode=2012SMaS...21d5018D|s2cid=55660651 }}</ref> Research on multi-memory technology is on-going and may deliver enhanced shape memory devices in the near future,<ref>{{Citation
 |author1=Daly, M. |author2=Pequegnat, A. |author3=Zhou, Y. N. |author4=Khan, M. I. | title = Fabrication of a novel laser-processed NiTi shape memory microgripper with enhanced thermomechanical functionality
 | journal = Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and Structures
@@ Line 127: / Line 126: @@
 | number = 8
 | pages = 984–990
-| doi = 10.1177/1045389X12444492|s2cid=55054532 }}</ref>
+| doi = 10.1177/1045389X12444492|s2cid=55054532 }}</ref><ref>{{Citation
-,<ref>{{Citation
 |author1=Pequegnat, A. |author2=Daly, M. |author3=Wang, J. |author4=Zhou, Y. |author5=Khan, M. I. | title = Dynamic actuation of a novel laser-processed NiTi linear actuator
 | journal = Smart Materials and Structures
@@ Line 135: / Line 133: @@
 | number = 9
 | pages = 094004
-| doi = 10.1088/0964-1726/21/9/094004|bibcode=2012SMaS...21i4004P}}</ref> and the application of new materials and material structures, such hybrid shape memory materials (SMMs) and shape memory composites (SMCs).<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Tao T, Liang YC, Taya M |title=Bio-inspired actuating system for swimming using shape memory alloy composites|journal=Int J Automat Comput|year=2006|volume=3page=366-373}}</ref>
+| doi = 10.1088/0964-1726/21/9/094004|bibcode=2012SMaS...21i4004P|s2cid=54204995 }}</ref> and the application of new materials and material structures, such hybrid shape memory materials (SMMs) and shape memory composites (SMCs).<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Tao T, Liang YC, Taya M |title=Bio-inspired actuating system for swimming using shape memory alloy composites|journal=Int J Automat Comput|year=2006|volume=3page=366-373}}</ref>
 ==Applications==
@@ Line 142: / Line 140: @@
 There are four commonly used types of applications for nitinol:
 ; Free recovery
-: Nitinol is deformed at a low temperature, and heated to recover its original shape through the Shape Memory effect.
+: Nitinol is deformed at a low temperature, remains deformed, and then is heated to recover its original shape through the shape memory effect.
 ; Constrained recovery
-:  As for free recovery, except that recovery is rigidly prevented and thus a stress is generated.
+: Similar to free recovery, except that recovery is rigidly prevented and thus a stress is generated.
 ; Work production
-: Here the alloy is allowed to recover, but to do so it must act against a force (thus doing work).
+: The alloy is allowed to recover, but to do so it must act against a force (thus doing work).
 ; Superelasticity
-: Nitinol acts as a super spring through the Superelastic effect.
+: Nitinol acts as a super spring through the superelastic effect.
-: Superelastic materials undergo stress-induced transformation and are commonly recognized for their "shape-memory" property. Due to its superelasticity, NiTi wires exhibit "elastocaloric" effect, which is stress-triggered heating/cooling. NiTi wires are currently under research as the most promising material for the technology. The process begins with tensile loading on the wire, which causes fluid (within the wire) to flow to  HHEX (Hot Heat Exchanger). Simultaneously, heat will be expelled, which can be used to heat the surrounding. In the reverse process, tensile unloading of the wire leads to fluid flowing to CHEX (Cold Heat Exchanger), causing the NiTi wire to absorpt heat from the surrounding. Therefore, the temperature of the surrounding can be decreased (cooled).
+Superelastic materials undergo stress-induced transformation and are commonly recognized for their "shape-memory" property. Due to its superelasticity, NiTi wires exhibit "elastocaloric" effect, which is stress-triggered heating/cooling. NiTi wires are currently under research as the most promising material for the technology. The process begins with tensile loading on the wire, which causes fluid (within the wire) to flow to HHEX (hot heat exchanger). Simultaneously, heat will be expelled, which can be used to heat the surrounding. In the reverse process, tensile unloading of the wire leads to fluid flowing to CHEX (cold heat exchanger), causing the NiTi wire to absorb heat from the surrounding. Therefore, the temperature of the surrounding can be decreased (cooled).
-: Elastocaloric devices are often compared with magnetocaloric devices as new methods of efficient heating/cooling. Elastocaloric device made with NiTi wires has an advantage over magnetocaloric device made with Gadolinium due to its specific cooling power (at 2 Hz), which is 70X better (7 kWh/kg vs. 0.1 kWh/kg). However, elastocaloric device made with NiTi wires also have limitations, such as its short fatigue life and dependency on large tensile forces (energy consuming).
+Elastocaloric devices are often compared with magnetocaloric devices as new methods of efficient heating/cooling. Elastocaloric device made with NiTi wires has an advantage over magnetocaloric device made with [[gadolinium]] due to its specific cooling power (at 2 Hz), which is 70X better (7 kWh/kg vs. 0.1 kWh/kg). However, elastocaloric device made with NiTi wires also have limitations, such as its short fatigue life and dependency on large tensile forces (energy consuming).
-: In 1989 a survey was conducted in the United States and Canada that involved seven organizations. The survey focused on predicting the future technology, market, and applications of SMAs. The companies predicted the following uses of nitinol in a decreasing order of importance: (1) Couplings, (2) Biomedical and medical, (3) Toys, demonstration, novelty items, (4) Actuators, (5) Heat Engines, (6) Sensors, (7) Cryogenically activated die and bubble memory sockets, and finally (8) lifting devices.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Miller, R. K. |author2=Walker, T. | title = Survey on Shape Memory Alloys | year = 1989 | page = 17 | isbn = 9781558651005 | oclc = 38076438 | series = Survey Reports | volume = 89 | publisher = Future Technology Surveys }}</ref>
+In 1989 a survey was conducted in the United States and Canada that involved seven organizations. The survey focused on predicting the future technology, market, and applications of SMAs. The companies predicted the following uses of nitinol in a decreasing order of importance: (1) Couplings, (2) Biomedical and medical, (3) Toys, demonstration, novelty items, (4) Actuators, (5) Heat Engines, (6) Sensors, (7) Cryogenically activated die and bubble memory sockets, and finally (8) lifting devices.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Miller, R. K. |author2=Walker, T. | title = Survey on Shape Memory Alloys | year = 1989 | page = 17 | isbn = 9781558651005 | oclc = 38076438 | series = Survey Reports | volume = 89 | publisher = Future Technology Surveys }}</ref>
-Today, nitinol finds application in the listed industrial applications:
 ===Thermal and electrical actuators===
-*Nitinol can be used to replace conventional [[actuator]]s ([[solenoid]]s, [[servo motor]]s, etc.), such as in the [[Stiquito]], a simple [[hexapod (robotics)|hexapod]] [[robot]].
+*Nitinol can be used to replace conventional [[actuator]]s ([[solenoid]]s, [[servo motor]]s, etc.), such as in the [[Stiquito]], a simple [[hexapod robot]].
 *Nitinol springs are used in thermal valves for [[fluidics]], where the material both acts as a temperature sensor and an actuator.
 *It is used as [[autofocus]] actuator in action cameras and as an [[Image stabilization|optical image stabilizer]] in mobile phones.<ref>{{Citation|last=Actuator Solutions|title=SMA AF / OIS Mechanism|date=2015-12-18|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=orlrmErs9cU |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211213/orlrmErs9cU |archive-date=2021-12-13 |url-status=live|access-date=2017-04-05}}{{cbignore}}</ref>
@@ Line 167: / Line 164: @@
 {{Main|Nitinol biocompatibility}}
-* Nitinol is highly [[Biocompatibility|biocompatible]] and has properties suitable for use in orthopedic implants. Due to Nitinol's unique properties it has seen a large demand for use in less invasive medical devices. Nitinol tubing is commonly used in catheters, stents, and superelastic needles.
+* Nitinol is highly [[biocompatible]] and has properties suitable for use in orthopedic implants. Due to nitinol's unique properties it has seen a large demand for use in less invasive medical devices. Nitinol tubing is commonly used in catheters, stents, and superelastic needles.
-* In colorectal surgery,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nitisurgical.com/patient_education.htm |title=NiTi Surgical Solutions |website=www.nitisurgical.com |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071208125558/http://www.nitisurgical.com/patient_education.htm |archive-date=2007-12-08}} </ref> the material is used in devices for reconnecting the intestine after removing the pathogens.
+* In colorectal surgery,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nitisurgical.com/patient_education.htm |title=NiTi Surgical Solutions |website=www.nitisurgical.com |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071208125558/http://www.nitisurgical.com/patient_education.htm |archive-date=2007-12-08}}</ref> the material is used in devices for reconnecting the intestine after removing the pathogens.
 * Nitinol is used for devices developed by [[Franz Freudenthal]] to treat [[patent ductus arteriosus]], blocking a blood vessel that bypasses the lungs and has failed to close after birth in an infant.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/mundo/noticias/2014/10/141002_medico_boliviano_corazon_am |date=2014-10-02  |author=Alejandra Martins |title=The inventions of the Bolivian doctor who saved thousands of children |publisher=[[BBC Mundo]] |access-date=2015-03-30}}</ref>
-* In dentistry, the material is used in [[orthodontics]] for brackets and wires connecting the teeth. Once the SMA wire is placed in the mouth its temperature rises to ambient body temperature. This causes the nitinol to contract back to its original shape, applying a constant force to move the teeth. These SMA wires do not need to be retightened as often as other wires because they can contract as the teeth move unlike conventional stainless steel wires. Additionally, nitinol can be used in [[endodontics]], where nitinol files are used to clean and shape the root canals during the [[root canal]] procedure.  Because of the high fatigue tolerance and flexibility of nitinol, it greatly decreases the possibility of an endodontic file breaking inside the tooth during root canal treatment, thus improving safety for the patient.{{citation needed|date=January 2022}}
+* In dentistry, the material is used in [[orthodontics]] for brackets and wires connecting the teeth. Once the SMA wire is placed in the mouth its temperature rises to ambient body temperature. This causes the nitinol to contract back to its original shape, applying a constant force to move the teeth. These SMA wires do not need to be retightened as often as other wires because they can contract as the teeth move unlike conventional stainless steel wires. Additionally, nitinol can be used in [[endodontics]], where nitinol files are used to clean and shape the root canals during the [[root canal]] procedure. Because of the high fatigue tolerance and flexibility of nitinol, it greatly decreases the possibility of an endodontic file breaking inside the tooth during root canal treatment, thus improving safety for the patient.{{citation needed|date=January 2022}}
 * Another significant application of nitinol in medicine is in [[stent]]s: a collapsed stent can be inserted into an artery or vein, where body temperature warms the stent and the stent returns to its original expanded shape following removal of a constraining sheath; the stent then helps support the artery or vein to improve blood flow. It is also used as a replacement for [[Surgical suture|sutures]]{{citation needed|date=October 2019}}—nitinol wire can be woven through two structures then allowed to transform into its preformed shape, which should hold the structures in place.{{citation needed|date=October 2019}}
-* Similarly, collapsible structures composed of braided, microscopically-thin nitinol filaments can be used in neurovascular interventions such as stroke thrombolysis, embolization, and intracranial angioplasty.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Smith |first1=Keith |title=Nitinol Micro-Braids for Neurovascular Interventions |url=http://www.usbiodesign.com/biomedical-textile-specialties/neurovascular |publisher=US BioDesign}}</ref>
+* Similarly, collapsible structures composed of braided, microscopically-thin nitinol filaments can be used in neurovascular interventions such as stroke thrombolysis, embolization, and intracranial angioplasty.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Smith |first1=Keith |title=Nitinol Micro-Braids for Neurovascular Interventions |url=http://www.usbiodesign.com/biomedical-textile-specialties/neurovascular |publisher=US BioDesign |access-date=2017-02-22 |archive-date=2017-02-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170223125843/http://www.usbiodesign.com/biomedical-textile-specialties/neurovascular |url-status=dead }}</ref>
 * A more recent{{when|date=December 2020}} application of nitinol wire is in female contraception, specifically in [[intrauterine device]]s.
 === Damping systems in structural engineering ===
-* Superelastic Nitinol finds a variety of applications in civil structures such as bridges and buildings. One such application is Intelligent Reinforced Concrete (IRC), which incorporates Ni-Ti wires embedded within the concrete. These wires can sense cracks and contract to heal macro-sized cracks.<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://www-2.unipv.it/compmech/publications/2014_3b.pdf|title=Shape Memory Alloy Engineering|year=2014|isbn=9781322158457|pages=369–401}}</ref>
+* Superelastic nitinol finds a variety of applications in civil structures such as bridges and buildings. One such application is Intelligent Reinforced Concrete (IRC), which incorporates NiTi wires embedded within the concrete. These wires can sense cracks and contract to heal macro-sized cracks.<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://www-2.unipv.it/compmech/publications/2014_3b.pdf|title=Shape Memory Alloy Engineering|year=2014|isbn=9781322158457|pages=369–401}}</ref>
-* Another application is active tuning of structural natural frequency using Nitinol wires to damp vibrations.
+* Another application is active tuning of structural natural frequency using nitinol wires to damp vibrations.
 === Other applications and prototypes ===
-*Demonstration model [[heat engine]]s have been built which use nitinol wire to produce mechanical energy from hot and cold heat sources.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.imagesco.com/nitinol/heat-engine.html|title=Nitinol Heat Engine Kit|year=2007|publisher=Images Scientific Instruments|access-date=14 July 2011}}</ref> A prototype commercial engine developed in the 1970s by engineer Ridgway Banks at [[Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory]], was named the Banks Engine.<ref>{{cite journal|year=1975|title=The Banks Engine|journal=Die Naturwissenschaften|volume=62|issue=7|pages=305–308|doi=10.1007/BF00608890|author=Banks, R.|bibcode=1975NW.....62..305B|s2cid=28849141}}</ref><ref>[http://vimeo.com/45924783 Vimeo posting of "The Individualist", documentary on Ridgway Banks]</ref><ref>[http://www.google.com/patents/US4450686 "Single wire nitinol engine", Ridgway M. Banks, US Patent]</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=dQEAAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA78&lpg=PA78&dq=%22ridgway+banks%22+nitinol&source=bl&ots=kTX_CurnBA&sig=CooorVjJhXSK9IEs7RlMl91vLWE&hl=en&sa=X&ei=0kiTUKq2FcTTiwKq24C4DA&ved=0CDcQ6AEwBA#v=onepage&q=%22ridgway%20banks%22%20nitinol&f=false "Metals that Remember", ''Popular Science'', January 1988]</ref><ref>[https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1499&dat=19731205&id=KU41AAAAIBAJ&sjid=hn4EAAAAIBAJ&pg=6746,4624661 "Engine Uses No Fuel", ''Milwaukee Journal'', December 5, 1973]</ref>
+*Demonstration model [[heat engine]]s have been built which use nitinol wire to produce mechanical energy from hot and cold heat sources.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.imagesco.com/nitinol/heat-engine.html|title=Nitinol Heat Engine Kit|year=2007|publisher=Images Scientific Instruments|access-date=14 July 2011}}</ref> A prototype commercial engine developed in the 1970s by engineer Ridgway Banks at [[Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory]], was named the Banks Engine.<ref>{{cite journal|year=1975|title=The Banks Engine|journal=Die Naturwissenschaften|volume=62|issue=7|pages=305–308|doi=10.1007/BF00608890|author=Banks, R.|bibcode=1975NW.....62..305B|s2cid=28849141}}</ref><ref>[http://vimeo.com/45924783 Vimeo posting of "The Individualist", documentary on Ridgway Banks]</ref><ref>[https://patents.google.com/patent/US4450686 "Single wire nitinol engine", Ridgway M. Banks, US Patent]</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=dQEAAAAAMBAJ&dq=%22ridgway+banks%22+nitinol&pg=PA78 "Metals that Remember", ''Popular Science'', January 1988]</ref><ref>[https://archive.today/20130125193453/http://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1499&dat=19731205&id=KU41AAAAIBAJ&sjid=hn4EAAAAIBAJ&pg=6746,4624661 "Engine Uses No Fuel", ''Milwaukee Journal'', December 5, 1973]</ref>
-*Nitinol is also popular in extremely resilient glasses frames.<ref>{{Citation|last=Hero Khan|title=Nitinol Glasses|date=2013-11-01|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XPrg8EZlD1E |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211213/XPrg8EZlD1E |archive-date=2021-12-13 |url-status=live|access-date=2017-04-05}}{{cbignore}}</ref> It is also used in some mechanical watch springs.
+*Nitinol is also popular in extremely resilient glasses frames.<ref>{{Citation|last=Hero Khan|title=Nitinol Glasses|date=2013-11-01|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XPrg8EZlD1E |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211213/XPrg8EZlD1E |archive-date=2021-12-13 |url-status=live|access-date=2017-04-05}}{{cbignore}}</ref>
 *Boeing engineers successfully flight-tested SMA-actuated morphing chevrons on the Boeing 777-300ER [[EcoDemonstrator|Quiet Technology Demonstrator 2]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.boeing.com/news/frontiers/archive/2006/march/i_tt.html|title=Boeing Frontiers Online|website=www.boeing.com|access-date=2017-04-05}}</ref>
-*The [[Ford Motor Company]] has registered a US patent for what it calls a ‘bicycle derailleur apparatus for controlling bicycle speed’. Filed on 22 April 2019, the patent depicts a front derailleur for a bicycle, devoid of cables, instead using two Nitinol wires to provide the movement needed to shift gears.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cyclingweekly.com/products/are-ford-about-to-reinvent-the-bicycle-derailleur|title = Is Ford about to reinvent the bicycle derailleur?|date = 6 October 2021}}</ref>
+*The [[Ford Motor Company]] has registered a US patent for what it calls a "bicycle derailleur apparatus for controlling bicycle speed". Filed on 22 April 2019, the patent depicts a front derailleur for a bicycle, devoid of cables, instead using two nitinol wires to provide the movement needed to shift gears.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cyclingweekly.com/products/are-ford-about-to-reinvent-the-bicycle-derailleur|title = Is Ford about to reinvent the bicycle derailleur?|date = 6 October 2021}}</ref>
-*It can be used as a temperature control system; as it changes shape, it can activate a switch or a [[variable resistor]] to control the temperature.
-*It has been used in cell-phone technology as a retractable antenna, or microphone boom, due to its highly flexible and mechanical memory nature.
 *It is used to make certain surgical implants, such as the [[SmartToe]].
 *It is used in some novelty products, such as [[Spoon bending|self-bending spoons]] which can be used by amateur and stage magicians to demonstrate "psychic" powers or as a [[practical joke]], as the spoon will bend itself when used to stir tea, coffee, or any other warm liquid.
+*Due to the high damping capacity of superelastic nitinol, it is also used as a [[golf club]] insert.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://spinoff.nasa.gov/spinoff1997/ch8.html|title=Memory Golf Clubs|website=spinoff.nasa.gov|language=en|access-date=2017-04-05}}</ref>
-*It can also be used as wires which are used to locate and mark breast tumours so that the following surgery can be more exact.
-*Due to the high damping capacity of Superelastic nitinol, it is also used as a [[Golf club (equipment)|golf club]] insert.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://spinoff.nasa.gov/spinoff1997/ch8.html|title=Memory Golf Clubs|website=spinoff.nasa.gov|language=en|access-date=2017-04-05}}</ref>
 *Nickel titanium can be used to make the underwires for [[underwire bra]]s.<ref name="Brady">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vIhvSQLhhMEC&q=%22nickel+underwire%22&pg=PA633|title=Materials Handbook|publisher=[[McGraw-Hill Professional]]|year=2002|isbn=978-0-07-136076-0|edition=15th|page=633|author1=Brady, G. S.|author2=Clauser, H. R.|author3=Vaccari, J. A.|access-date=2009-05-09}}</ref><ref name="Sang">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_iLwLRjoxQIC&q=%22nickel+underwire%22&pg=PA80|title=Scientifica|publisher=Nelson Thornes|year=2005|isbn=978-0-7487-7996-3|page=80|author1=Sang, D.|author2=Ellis, P.|author3=Ryan, L.|author4=Taylor, J.|author5=McMonagle, D.|author6=Petheram, L.|author7=Godding, P.|access-date=2009-05-09}}</ref><ref name="GailJones">{{cite book|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pVWw-ZcEaDIC&q=%22nickel+underwire%22&pg=PT92|title=Nanoscale Science|publisher=NSTA Press|year=2007|isbn=978-1-933531-05-2|page=109|chapter=Nanomaterials: Memory Wire|author1=Jones, G.|author2=Falvo, M. R.|author3=Taylor, A. R.|author4=Broadwell, B. P.|access-date=2009-05-09}}</ref>
-*It is used in some actuation-bending devices, such as those developed by Finnish technology company [[Modti inc.|Modti Inc]].
-*It is used in the neckbands of several headphones due to its superelasticity and durability.
-*It is being increasingly used for wire stemmed fishing floats due to its superelasticity.
 ==References==
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 [[Category:Dental materials]]
 [[Category:Biomaterials]]
-[[Category:United States Navy]]
-[[Category:Materials science]]
-[[Category:Solid-state chemistry]]
-[[Category:Smart materials]]
-[[Category:Nickel–titanium alloys| ]]
 [[Category:Intermetallics]]
+[[Category:Nickel–titanium alloys| ]]
+[[Category:Smart materials]]
 [[tr:Şekil Hafızalı Alaşımlar]]