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There are two distinct subtypes of semi-presidentialism: premier-presidentialism and president-parliamentarism.
There are two distinct subtypes of semi-presidentialism: premier-presidentialism and president-parliamentarism.


Under the '''premier-presidential''' system, the prime minister and cabinet are exclusively accountable to parliament. The president may choose the prime minister and cabinet, but only the parliament may approve them and remove them from office with a ''vote of no confidence''. This system is much closer to pure parliamentarism. This subtype is used in: [[Burkina Faso]], [[Cape Verde]],<ref name="Neto2010">{{cite journal |last1=Neto |first1=Octávio Amorim |last2=Lobo |first2= Marina Costa |year=2010 |title=Between Constitutional Diffusion and Local Politics: Semi-Presidentialism in Portuguese-Speaking Countries |url=https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/Delivery.cfm/SSRN_ID1666842_code1512429.pdf |journal=APSA 2010 Annual Meeting Paper |ssrn=1644026 |access-date=18 August 2017 }}</ref> [[East Timor]],<ref name="Neto2010" /><ref name="Beuman2016">{{cite book |last=Beuman |first=Lydia M. |year=2016 |title=Political Institutions in East Timor: Semi-Presidentialism and Democratisation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8GCFCwAAQBAJ |location=Abingdon, Oxon |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-1317362128 |lccn=2015036590 |oclc=983148216 |access-date=18 August 2017 |via=Google Books }}</ref> [[France]], [[Lithuania]], [[Madagascar]], [[Mali]], [[Mongolia]], [[Niger]], [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] (2013–2018), [[Poland]] (''de facto'', however, according to the [[Constitution of Poland|Constitution]], Poland is a [[parliamentary republic]]),<ref name="McMenamin">{{cite web |last=McMenamin |first=Iain |title=Semi-Presidentialism and Democratisation in Poland |url= http://webpages.dcu.ie/~mcmenami/Poland_semi-presidentialism_2.pdf |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120212225305/http://webpages.dcu.ie/~mcmenami/Poland_semi-presidentialism_2.pdf |archive-date=12 February 2012 |publisher=School of Law and Government, [[Dublin City University]] |access-date=11 December 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Poland 1997 (rev. 2009) Constitution |url=https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Poland_2009?lang=en |website=Constitute |access-date=9 October 2021}}</ref><ref name="CIA-2021">{{cite web |title=Poland |work=The World Factbook |publisher=CIA |date=22 September 2021 |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/poland/#government |access-date=8 October 2021}}</ref> [[Portugal]], [[Romania]], [[São Tomé and Príncipe]],<ref name="Neto2010" /> [[Sri Lanka]], [[Turkey]] (''de facto'' between 2014–2018, until the [[2017 Turkish constitutional referendum|constitutional amendment]] to switch the government to [[Presidential system|presidential]] from [[Parliamentary system|parliamentary]]), and [[Ukraine]] (since 2014; previously, between 2006 and 2010).<ref name="Shugart2005-Draft">{{cite journal |last=Shugart |first=Matthew Søberg |author-link=Matthew Søberg Shugart |date=September 2005 |title=Semi-Presidential Systems: Dual Executive and Mixed Authority Patterns |url=http://dss.ucsd.edu/~mshugart/semi-presidentialism.pdf |url-status=dead |department=[[Graduate School of International Relations and Pacific Studies]] |location=United States |publisher=[[University of California, San Diego]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080819200307/http://dss.ucsd.edu/~mshugart/semi-presidentialism.pdf |archive-date=19 August 2008 |access-date=12 October 2017 }}</ref><ref name="Shugart2005">{{cite journal |last=Shugart |first=Matthew Søberg |author-link=Matthew Søberg Shugart |date=December 2005 |title=Semi-Presidential Systems: Dual Executive And Mixed Authority Patterns |url=https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1057%2Fpalgrave.fp.8200087.pdf |department=[[Graduate School of International Relations and Pacific Studies]], [[University of California, San Diego]] |journal=French Politics |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=323–351 |issn=1476-3427 |oclc=6895745903 |doi=10.1057/palgrave.fp.8200087 |doi-access=free |access-date=12 October 2017 }}</ref>
Under the '''premier-presidential''' system, the prime minister and cabinet are exclusively accountable to parliament. The president may choose the prime minister and cabinet, but only the parliament may approve them and remove them from office with a ''vote of no confidence''. This system is much closer to pure parliamentarism. This subtype is used in: [[Burkina Faso]], [[Cape Verde]],<ref name="Neto2010">{{cite journal |last1=Neto |first1=Octávio Amorim |last2=Lobo |first2= Marina Costa |year=2010 |title=Between Constitutional Diffusion and Local Politics: Semi-Presidentialism in Portuguese-Speaking Countries |url=https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/Delivery.cfm/SSRN_ID1666842_code1512429.pdf |journal=APSA 2010 Annual Meeting Paper |ssrn=1644026 |access-date=18 August 2017 }}</ref> [[East Timor]],<ref name="Neto2010" /><ref name="Beuman2016">{{cite book |last=Beuman |first=Lydia M. |year=2016 |title=Political Institutions in East Timor: Semi-Presidentialism and Democratisation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8GCFCwAAQBAJ |location=Abingdon, Oxon |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-1317362128 |lccn=2015036590 |oclc=983148216 |access-date=18 August 2017 |via=Google Books }}</ref> [[France]], [[Lithuania]], [[Madagascar]], [[Mali]], [[Mongolia]], [[Niger]], [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] (2013–2018), [[Poland]] (''de facto'', however, according to the [[Constitution of Poland|Constitution]], Poland is a [[parliamentary republic]]),<ref name="McMenamin">{{cite web |last=McMenamin |first=Iain |title=Semi-Presidentialism and Democratisation in Poland |url= http://webpages.dcu.ie/~mcmenami/Poland_semi-presidentialism_2.pdf |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120212225305/http://webpages.dcu.ie/~mcmenami/Poland_semi-presidentialism_2.pdf |archive-date=12 February 2012 |publisher=School of Law and Government, [[Dublin City University]] |access-date=11 December 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Poland 1997 (rev. 2009) Constitution |url=https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Poland_2009?lang=en |website=Constitute |access-date=9 October 2021}}</ref><ref name="CIA-2021">{{cite web |title=Poland |work=The World Factbook |publisher=CIA |date=22 September 2021 |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/poland/#government |access-date=8 October 2021}}</ref> [[Portugal]], [[Romania]], [[São Tomé and Príncipe]],<ref name="Neto2010" /> [[Sri Lanka]], [[Turkey]] (''de facto'' between 2014–2018, until the [[2017 Turkish constitutional referendum|constitutional amendment]] to switch the government to [[Presidential system|presidential]] from [[Parliamentary system|parliamentary]]), and [[Ukraine]] (since 2014; previously, between 2006 and 2010).<ref name="Shugart2005-Draft">{{cite journal |last=Shugart |first=Matthew Søberg |author-link=Matthew Søberg Shugart |date=September 2005 |title=Semi-Presidential Systems: Dual Executive and Mixed Authority Patterns |url=http://dss.ucsd.edu/~mshugart/semi-presidentialism.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=[[Graduate School of International Relations and Pacific Studies]] |location=United States |publisher=[[University of California, San Diego]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080819200307/http://dss.ucsd.edu/~mshugart/semi-presidentialism.pdf |archive-date=19 August 2008 |access-date=12 October 2017 }}</ref><ref name="Shugart2005">{{cite journal |last=Shugart |first=Matthew Søberg |author-link=Matthew Søberg Shugart |date=December 2005 |title=Semi-Presidential Systems: Dual Executive And Mixed Authority Patterns |url=https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1057%2Fpalgrave.fp.8200087.pdf |department=[[Graduate School of International Relations and Pacific Studies]], [[University of California, San Diego]] |journal=French Politics |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=323–351 |issn=1476-3427 |oclc=6895745903 |doi=10.1057/palgrave.fp.8200087 |doi-access=free |access-date=12 October 2017 }}</ref>


Under the '''president-parliamentary''' system, the prime minister and cabinet are dually accountable to the president and to the parliament. The president chooses the prime minister and the cabinet, but must have the support of a parliamentary majority for his choice. In order to remove a prime minister, or the whole cabinet, from power, the president can either dismiss them, or the parliament can remove them through a ''vote of no confidence''. This form of semi-presidentialism is much closer to pure presidentialism. It is used in: [[Guinea-Bissau]],<ref name="Neto2010" /> [[Mozambique]], [[Russia]], and [[Taiwan]]. It was also used in Ukraine (first between 1996 and 2005; then from 2010 to 2014), Georgia (from 2004 to 2013), South Korea under the [[Fourth Republic of Korea|Fourth]] and [[Fifth Republic of Korea|Fifth]] republics, and in [[Germany]] during the [[Weimar Republic]].<ref name="Shugart2005-Draft" /><ref name="Shugart2005" />
Under the '''president-parliamentary''' system, the prime minister and cabinet are dually accountable to the president and to the parliament. The president chooses the prime minister and the cabinet, but must have the support of a parliamentary majority for his choice. In order to remove a prime minister, or the whole cabinet, from power, the president can either dismiss them, or the parliament can remove them through a ''vote of no confidence''. This form of semi-presidentialism is much closer to pure presidentialism. It is used in: [[Guinea-Bissau]],<ref name="Neto2010" /> [[Mozambique]], [[Russia]], and [[Taiwan]]. It was also used in Ukraine (first between 1996 and 2005; then from 2010 to 2014), Georgia (from 2004 to 2013), South Korea under the [[Fourth Republic of Korea|Fourth]] and [[Fifth Republic of Korea|Fifth]] republics, and in [[Germany]] during the [[Weimar Republic]].<ref name="Shugart2005-Draft" /><ref name="Shugart2005" />
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== Republics with a semi-presidential system of government ==
== Republics with a semi-presidential system of government ==
{{main|List of countries by system of government#Semi-presidential systems}}
{{Excerpt|List of countries by system of government|Semi-presidential republics|subsections=yes}}
''Italics'' indicate states with limited recognition.

=== Premier-presidential systems ===
The president has the authority to choose the prime minister and the cabinet, but only the parliament may remove them from office through a ''vote of no confidence''. However, even though the president does not have the power to directly dismiss the prime minister or the cabinet, they can dissolve parliament.
{{colbegin|colwidth=290px}}
* {{flag|Burkina Faso}} ([[de jure]]; currently suspended following [[January 2022 Burkina Faso coup d'état|2022 coup]])
* {{flag|Cape Verde}}
* {{flag|Democratic Republic of the Congo}}
* {{flag|East Timor}}
* {{flag|France}}{{efn|In France, the president chooses the prime minister (if they do not have a majority in the National Assembly, they have to choose the leader of the opposition) but can only dismiss them if they have a majority in the National Assembly. The National Assembly can remove the prime minister from office with a ''vote of no confidence''. The president can also dissolve the National Assembly once a year.}}
* {{flag|Haiti}}
* {{flag|Lithuania}}
* {{flag|Madagascar}}
* {{flag|Mongolia}}
* {{flag|Niger}} ([[de jure]]; currently suspended following [[2023 Nigerien coup d'état|2023 coup]])

* {{flag|Poland}} ([[de facto]]; [[de jure]] a [[parliamentary republic]]){{efn|Poland has been identified as a ''de facto'' semi-presidential republic as the [[President of Poland|President]] does exercise some form of governance and appoints the [[Prime Minister of Poland|Prime Minister]] as the head of government. The decision is then subject to a parliamentary vote of confidence.<ref name="Veser1997b">{{cite web |last=Veser |first=Ernst |author-link=:de:Ernst Veser |date=23 September 1997 |title=Semi-Presidentialism-Duverger's Concept — A New Political System Model |url=http://www.rchss.sinica.edu.tw/publication/ebook/journal/11-01-1999/11_1_2.pdf |access-date=21 August 2017 |publisher=Department of Education, School of Education, [[University of Cologne]] |language=en, zh |pages=39–60 |quote=Duhamel has developed the approach further: He stresses that the French construction does not correspond to either parliamentary or the presidential form of government, and then develops the distinction of 'système politique' and 'régime constitutionnel'. While the former comprises the exercise of power that results from the dominant institutional practice, the latter is the totality of the rules for the dominant institutional practice of the power. In this way, France appears as 'presidentialist system' endowed with a 'semi-presidential regime' (1983: 587). By this standard he recognizes Duverger's ''pléiade'' as semi-presidential regimes, as well as Poland, Romania, Bulgaria and Lithuania (1993: 87). }}</ref><ref name="Shugart2005-Draft"/><ref name="Shugart2005b">{{cite journal |last=Shugart |first=Matthew Søberg |author-link=Matthew Søberg Shugart |date=December 2005 |title=Semi-Presidential Systems: Dual Executive And Mixed Authority Patterns |url=https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1057%2Fpalgrave.fp.8200087.pdf |journal=French Politics |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=323–351 |doi=10.1057/palgrave.fp.8200087 |doi-access=free |access-date=21 August 2017 |quote=Even if the president has no discretion in the forming of cabinets or the right to dissolve parliament, his or her constitutional authority can be regarded as 'quite considerable' in Duverger's sense if cabinet legislation approved in parliament can be blocked by the people's elected agent. Such powers are especially relevant if an extraordinary majority is required to override a veto, as in Mongolia, Poland, and Senegal. In these cases, while the government is fully accountable to parliament, it cannot legislate without taking the potentially different policy preferences of the president into account. }}</ref><ref name="McMenamin"/>}}
* {{flag|Portugal}}
* {{flag|Romania}}
* {{flag|São Tomé and Príncipe}}
* {{flag|Serbia}} ([[de facto]]; [[de jure]] a [[parliamentary republic]]){{efn|Current Prime Minister [[Ana Brnabić]] has been cited by political scientist Krzysztof Zuba as an example of a head of government with extensive political dependence on a leader of the governing party.<ref name=Zuba>{{cite journal|last1=Zuba|first1=Krzysztof|title=Leaders without Leadership: Surrogate Governments in Poland |journal=Europe-Asia Studies |date=2019|volume=72|pages=33–54|doi=10.1080/09668136.2019.1673321|s2cid=211437470}}</ref> Opposition leaders and some observers describe Brnabić as a mere [[Puppet ruler|puppet]] of President [[Aleksandar Vučić]], whose presidency, according to the [[Constitution of Serbia|Constitution]] is largely ceremonial with no significant executive power.<ref name=Surk>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/06/28/world/europe/serbia-ana-brnabic-prime-minister.html|title=Serbia Gets Its First Female, and First Openly Gay, Premier|last=Surk|first=Barbara|date=28 June 2017|work=The New York Times|access-date=30 June 2017|issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref name=Zuba /><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.dn.pt/mundo/servia-escolhe-primeira-mulher-para-liderar-governo-e-agradar-a-ue-8621224.html | title=Serbia chooses first woman to lead government and please EU | work=[[Diário de Notícias]] | date=7 July 2017 | access-date=16 October 2019 | author=Gouveia, José Fialho | language=es}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.slobodnaevropa.org/a/most-pavicevic-popovic/29167687.html | title=Ana Brnabić: Premijerka ili Vučićeva marioneta | publisher=[[Radio Free Europe]] | date=15 April 2018 | access-date=16 October 2019 | author=Karabeg, Omer | newspaper=Radio Slobodna Evropa | language=sh}}</ref> Brnabić never denied this, and even said that Vučić should act as a "mentor" of the prime minister.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.danas.rs/politika/brnabic-vucic-da-ima-ulogu-mentora-nad-premijerom/ | title=Brnabić: Vučić da ima ulogu mentora nad premijerom | publisher=Danas | date=6 June 2017 | access-date=16 October 2019 | language=sr}}</ref>}}
* {{flag|Sri Lanka}}
* {{flag|Ukraine}}

{{colend}}

=== President-parliamentary systems ===
The president chooses the prime minister without a [[confidence vote]] from the parliament. In order to remove a prime minister, or the whole cabinet, from power, the president can either dismiss them, or the parliament can remove them through a ''vote of no confidence.'' The president also has the authority to dissolve the parliament.
{{colbegin|colwidth=290px}}
* {{flag|Austria}} ([[de jure]]; [[de facto]] a [[parliamentary republic]]){{efn|The Republic of Austria is de jure semi-presidential according to the country's Constitution, however behaves more like a parliamentary republic in practice by constitutional convention, with the Chancellor being the country's leading political figure despite nominally being ranked third according to the Constitution.}}
* {{flag|Azerbaijan}}
* {{flag|Republic of the Congo}}
* {{flag|East Timor}}
* {{flag|Guinea-Bissau}}
* {{flag|Kazakhstan}}
* {{flag|Mauritania}}
* {{flag|Mozambique}}
* {{flag|Namibia}}
* {{flag|Palestine}}
* {{flag|Peru}}
* {{flag|Russia}}
* {{flag|Taiwan}} ([[Constitution of the Republic of China|Nominally]] a [[parliamentary republic]]; the semi-presidential system is based on [[Additional Articles of the Constitution of the Republic of China|temporary additional articles]]){{efn|The [[Constitution of the Republic of China]] specified that the [[National Assembly (Republic of China)|National Assembly]] indirectly elected the [[President of the Republic of China|President of the Republic]], which is the ceremonial figurehead of the state. Executive power rested with the [[Premier of the Republic of China|President of the Executive Yuan]], who is nominated and appointed by the president, with the consent of the [[Legislative Yuan]]. The [[Additional Articles of the Constitution of the Republic of China|additional articles]] made the President directly elected by the citizens of the [[Free area of the Republic of China|free area]] and replaced Legislative Yuan confirmation for Premieral appointments with a conventional [[vote of no confidence]], superseding the ordinary constitutional provisions. A [[sunset clause]] in the additional articles will terminate them in the event of a hypothetical resumption of ROC rule in Mainland China.}}
*{{flag|Tunisia}}
{{colend}}


===Former semi-presidential republics===
===Former semi-presidential republics===
{{colbegin|colwidth=290px}}
{{colbegin|colwidth=290px}}
*{{flag|Armenia|1990}} (2008–2018)<ref>[[One-party state|One-party]] [[Parliamentary system|parliamentary republic]] as a [[Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic|Soviet member-state]] in 1990–1991, and after independence it was a [[presidential republic]] in 1991–2008, a semi-presidential republic in 2008–2018 and has been a [[parliamentary republic]] since 2018.</ref>
*{{flag|Armenia|1990}} (2008–2018){{efn|[[One-party state|One-party]] [[Parliamentary system|parliamentary republic]] as a [[Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic|Soviet member-state]] in 1990–1991, and after independence it was a [[presidential republic]] in 1991–2008, a semi-presidential republic in 2008–2018 and has been a [[parliamentary republic]] since 2018.}}
*{{flag|Croatia}} (1990–2000)
*{{flag|Croatia}} (1990–2000)
*{{flag|Cuba}} (1940–1976)
*{{flag|Cuba}} (1940–1976)
*{{flag|Finland}} (1919–2000)
*{{flag|Finland}} (1919–2000)
*{{flag|Georgia}} (1991–1995, 2004–2005, 2011–2019){{efn|as the [[Georgian SSR]] and after independence, [[parliamentary]] in 1990–1991, [[semi-presidential]] in 1991–1995, [[President (government title)|presidential]] in 1995–2004, [[semi-presidential]] in 2004–2005 and [[President (government title)|presidential]] 2005–2011. [[Semi-presidential]] in 2011–2019 and [[parliamentary]] since 2019.}}
*{{flag|Georgia}} (1991–1995, 2004–2005, 2011–2019){{efn|As the [[Georgian SSR]] and after independence, [[parliamentary]] in 1990–1991, [[semi-presidential]] in 1991–1995, [[President (government title)|presidential]] in 1995–2004, [[semi-presidential]] in 2004–2005 and [[President (government title)|presidential]] 2005–2011. [[Semi-presidential]] in 2011–2019 and [[parliamentary]] since 2019.}}
*{{flag|Germany|1919}} (1919–1933)<ref>Known as the [[Weimar Republic]].</ref>
*{{flag|Germany|1919}} (1919–1933){{efn|For more information, see [[Weimar Republic]].}}
*{{flag|Greece|1970}} (1973–1974)<ref>The [[Greek Constitution of 1973]], enacted in the waning days of the [[Greek Junta]], provided for a powerful directly-elected president and for a government dependent on Parliamentary confidence. Neither of these provisions were implemented, as the regime collapsed eight month's after the Constitution's promulgation.</ref>
*{{flag|Greece|1970}} (1973–1974){{efn|The [[Greek Constitution of 1973]], enacted in the waning days of the [[Greek Junta]], provided for a powerful directly-elected president and for a government dependent on Parliamentary confidence. Neither of these provisions were implemented, as the regime collapsed eight month's after the Constitution's promulgation.}}
⚫
*{{flag|Kyrgyzstan}} (1993–2021){{efn|[[One-party state|One-party]] [[parliamentary republic]] as a [[Kirghiz Soviet Socialist Republic|Soviet member-state]] in 1936–1990, a [[presidential republic]] in 1990–1993, a semi-presidential republic in 1993–2010 and a [[de facto]] semi-presidential republic; [[de jure]] a [[parliamentary republic]] in 2010–2021.}}
*{{flag|Kenya}} (2007–2013){{efn|Parliamentary Republic with an executive presidency and a separate Prime Minister (i.e. Votes of no confidence entailed the removal of the President).}}
⚫
*{{flag|Kyrgyzstan}} (1993–2021)<ref>[[One-party state|One-party]] [[parliamentary republic]] as a [[Kirghiz Soviet Socialist Republic|Soviet member-state]] in 1936–1990, a [[presidential republic]] in 1990–1993, a semi-presidential republic in 1993–2010 and a [[de facto]] semi-presidential republic; [[de jure]] a [[parliamentary republic]] in 2010–2021.</ref>
*{{flag|Mali}} (1991–2023)
*{{flag|Mali}} (1991–2023)
*{{flag|Moldova}} (1990–2001)
*{{flag|Moldova}} (1990–2001)
*{{flag|North Macedonia}} (1991–2001)<ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RsMaBgAAQBAJ&dq=boris+trajkovski+ceremonial+president&pg=PT112 | title=The Foreign Policies of Post-Yugoslav States: From Yugoslavia to Europe | isbn=9781137384133 | last1=Keil | first1=S. | last2=Stahl | first2=B. | date=17 December 2014 }}</ref><ref name="Draft">{{cite journal |last=Shugart |first=Matthew Søberg |author-link=Matthew Søberg Shugart |date=December 2005 |title=Semi-Presidential Systems: Dual Executive And Mixed Authority Patterns |journal=French Politics |volume=3 |issue=3 |page=11 |issn=1476-3427 |oclc=6895745903 |doi=10.1057/palgrave.fp.8200087 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
*{{flag|Pakistan}} (1985–1997, 2003–2010)
*{{flag|Pakistan}} (1985–1997, 2003–2010)
*{{flag|Philippines|1936}} (1978–1986)<ref>Known as the [[Fourth Philippine Republic]].</ref>
*{{flag|Philippines|1936}} (1978–1986){{efn|For more information, see [[Fourth Philippine Republic]].}}
*{{flag|Russian SFSR}} (1991)<ref>[[One-party state|One-party]] [[parliamentary republic]] as a [[Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic|Soviet member-state]] in 1918–1991 and semi-presidential republic in 1991</ref>
*{{flag|Russian SFSR}} (1991){{efn|[[One-party state|One-party]] [[parliamentary republic]] as a [[Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic|Soviet member-state]] in 1918–1991 and semi-presidential republic in 1991}}
*{{flag|Soviet Union}} (1990–1991)<ref>A [[parliamentary system]] in which the [[General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union|leader]] of the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union|state-sponsored party]] was [[Article 6 of the Soviet Constitution|supreme]] in 1918–1990 and a semi-presidential republic in 1990–1991.</ref>
*{{flag|Soviet Union}} (1990–1991){{efn|A [[parliamentary system]] in which the [[General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union|leader]] of the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union|state-sponsored party]] was [[Article 6 of the Soviet Constitution|supreme]] in 1918–1990 and a semi-presidential republic in 1990–1991.}}
*{{flag|South Korea|1984}} (1972–1988)<ref>All South Korean constitutions since 1963 provided for a strong executive Presidency; in addition, the formally-authoritarian [[Yushin Constitution]] of the [[Fourth Republic of Korea|Fourth
*{{flag|South Korea|1984}} (1972–1988){{efn|All South Korean constitutions since 1963 provided for a strong executive presidency; in addition, the formally-authoritarian [[Yushin Constitution]] of the [[Fourth Republic of Korea|Fourth
Republic]] established a presidential power to dissolve the [[National Assembly of South Korea|National Assembly]], nominally counterbalanced by a binding vote of no confidence. Both of these provisions were retained during the [[Fifth Republic of Korea|Fifth Republic]] but repealed upon the transition to democracy and the establishment of the [[Sixth Republic of Korea|Sixth Republic]]</ref>
Republic]] established a presidential power to dissolve the [[National Assembly of South Korea|National Assembly]], nominally counterbalanced by a binding vote of no confidence. Both of these provisions were retained during the [[Fifth Republic of Korea|Fifth Republic]] but repealed upon the transition to democracy and the establishment of the presidential [[Sixth Republic of Korea|Sixth Republic]].}}
*{{flag|Ukraine|1992}} (1991–1995)<ref>An interim constitution passed in 1995 removed the President's ability to dissolve the [[Verkhovna Rada]] and the Rada's ability to dismiss the government by a vote of no confidence. Both of these provisions were restored upon the passage of a permanent constitution in 1996.</ref>
{{colend}}
{{colend}}


Revision as of 15:48, 3 July 2024

Not to be confused with Semi-parliamentary system or Presidential system.
World's states coloured by systems of government:
Parliamentary systems: Head of government is elected or nominated by and accountable to the legislature
  Constitutional monarchy with a ceremonial monarch
  Parliamentary republic with a ceremonial president
  Parliamentary republic with an executive president
Presidential system: Head of government (president) is popularly elected and independent of the legislature
  Presidential republic
Hybrid systems:
  Semi-presidential republic: Executive president is independent of the legislature; head of government is appointed by the president and is accountable to the legislature
  Assembly-independent republic: Head of government (president or directory) is elected by the legislature, but is not accountable to it
  Semi-constitutional monarchy: Monarch holds significant executive or legislative power
  Absolute monarchy: Monarch has unlimited power
  One-party state: Power is constitutionally linked to a single political party
  Military junta: Committee of military leaders controls the government; constitutional provisions are suspended
  Provisional government: No constitutionally defined basis to current regime
  Dependent territories and places without governments
Note: this chart represent de jure systems of government, not the de facto degree of democracy.
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A semi-presidential republic, or dual executive republic, is a republic in which a president exists alongside a prime minister and a cabinet, with the latter two being responsible to the legislature of the state. It differs from a parliamentary republic in that it has an executive president independent of the legislature; and from the presidential system in that the cabinet, although named by the president, is responsible to the legislature, which may force the cabinet to resign through a motion of no confidence.[1][2][3][4]

While the Weimar Republic (1919–1933) and Finland (from 1919 to 2000) exemplified early semi-presidential systems, the term "semi-presidential" was first introduced in 1959 in an article by journalist Hubert Beuve-Méry,[5] and popularized by a 1978 work written by political scientist Maurice Duverger,[6] both of whom intended to describe the French Fifth Republic (established in 1958).[1][2][3][4]

Definition

Maurice Duverger's original definition of semi-presidentialism stated that the president had to be elected, possess significant power, and serve for a fixed term.[7] Modern definitions merely declare that the head of state has to be elected, and that a separate prime minister that is dependent on parliamentary confidence has to lead the legislative.[7]

Subtypes

There are two distinct subtypes of semi-presidentialism: premier-presidentialism and president-parliamentarism.

Under the premier-presidential system, the prime minister and cabinet are exclusively accountable to parliament. The president may choose the prime minister and cabinet, but only the parliament may approve them and remove them from office with a vote of no confidence. This system is much closer to pure parliamentarism. This subtype is used in: Burkina Faso, Cape Verde,[8] East Timor,[8][9] France, Lithuania, Madagascar, Mali, Mongolia, Niger, Georgia (2013–2018), Poland (de facto, however, according to the Constitution, Poland is a parliamentary republic),[10][11][12] Portugal, Romania, São Tomé and Príncipe,[8] Sri Lanka, Turkey (de facto between 2014–2018, until the constitutional amendment to switch the government to presidential from parliamentary), and Ukraine (since 2014; previously, between 2006 and 2010).[13][14]

Under the president-parliamentary system, the prime minister and cabinet are dually accountable to the president and to the parliament. The president chooses the prime minister and the cabinet, but must have the support of a parliamentary majority for his choice. In order to remove a prime minister, or the whole cabinet, from power, the president can either dismiss them, or the parliament can remove them through a vote of no confidence. This form of semi-presidentialism is much closer to pure presidentialism. It is used in: Guinea-Bissau,[8] Mozambique, Russia, and Taiwan. It was also used in Ukraine (first between 1996 and 2005; then from 2010 to 2014), Georgia (from 2004 to 2013), South Korea under the Fourth and Fifth republics, and in Germany during the Weimar Republic.[13][14]

Cohabitation

Further information: Cohabitation (government)

In a semi-presidential system, the president and the prime minister may sometimes be from different political parties. This is called "cohabitation", a term which originated in France after the situation first arose in the 1980s. Cohabitation can create either an effective system of checks and balances, or a period of bitter and tense stonewalling, depending on the attitudes of the two leaders, the ideologies of themselves/their parties, and the demands of their supporters.[15]

Division of powers

The distribution of power between the president and the prime minister can vary greatly between countries.

In France, for example, in the case of cohabitation, the president oversees foreign policy and defense policy (these are generally called les prérogatives présidentielles, presidential prerogatives) and the prime minister is in charge of domestic policy and economic policy.[16] In this case, the division of responsibilities between the prime minister and the president is not explicitly stated in the constitution, but has evolved as a political convention based on the constitutional principle that the prime minister is appointed (with the subsequent approval of a parliament majority) and dismissed by the president.[17] On the other hand, whenever the president and the prime minister represent the same political party, which leads the cabinet, they tend to exercise de facto control over all fields of policy via the prime minister. However, it is up to the president to decide how much autonomy is left to said prime minister.

In most cases, cohabitation results from a system in which the two executives are not elected at the same time or for the same term. For example, in 1981, France elected both a Socialist president and legislature, which yielded a Socialist premier. But while the president's term of office was for seven years, the National Assembly only served for five. When, in the 1986 legislative election, the French people elected a right-of-centre assembly, Socialist president François Mitterrand was forced into cohabitation with right-wing premier Jacques Chirac.[15]

However, in 2000, amendments to the French constitution reduced the length of the French president's term to five years. This has significantly lowered the chances of cohabitation occurring, as parliamentary and presidential elections may now be conducted within a shorter span of each other.

Advantages and disadvantages

The incorporation of elements from both presidential and parliamentary republics can bring certain advantageous elements; however, it also creates disadvantages, often related to the confusion produced by mixed authority patterns.[18][19]

Advantages

  • Parliament has the ability to remove an unpopular prime minister, therefore maintaining stability throughout the president's fixed term.
  • In most semi-presidential systems, important segments of bureaucracy are taken away from the president, creating additional checks and balances where the running of the day-to-day government and its issues are separate from the head of state, and as such, its issues tend to be looked at on their own merits, with their ebbs and flows and not necessarily tied to who the head of state is.
  • Having a separate head of government who needs to command the confidence of the parliament is seen as being more in tune to the political and economic development of the country. Because the head of government is elected from the parliament, there is little potential for political gridlock to occur, since the parliament has the power to remove the head of government if needed.

Disadvantages

  • The system provides cover for the president, as unpopular policies could be blamed on the prime minister, who runs the day-to-day operations of the government.
  • It creates a sense of confusion towards accountability, as there is no relatively clear sense of who is responsible for policy successes and failures.
  • It creates both confusion and inefficiency in the legislative process, since the capacity of votes of confidence makes the prime minister respond to the parliament.

Republics with a semi-presidential system of government

This section is an excerpt from List of countries by system of government § Semi-presidential republics.[edit]

Premier-presidential systems

In a premier-presidential system the prime minister and cabinet are exclusively accountable to the legislature.[20]

Nations with limited recognition are in italics.

President-parliamentary systems

In a president-parliamentary system the prime minister and cabinet are dually accountable to the president and the legislature.[20]

Nations with limited recognition are in italics.

Former semi-presidential republics

See also

Notes

  1. ^ The Republic of Austria is de jure semi-presidential according to the country's Constitution, however behaves more like a parliamentary republic in practice by constitutional convention, with the Chancellor being the country's leading political figure despite nominally being ranked third according to the Constitution.
  2. ^ Nominally a parliamentary republic; the semi-presidential system is based on temporary additional articles. According to the Constitution of the Republic of China, the National Assembly indirectly elects the President of the Republic, which is the ceremonial figurehead of the state. Executive power rested with the President of the Executive Yuan, who is nominated and appointed by the president, with the consent of the Legislative Yuan. The additional articles made the President directly elected by the citizens of the free area and replaced Legislative Yuan confirmation for Premieral appointments with a conventional vote of no confidence, superseding the ordinary constitutional provisions. A sunset clause in the additional articles will terminate them in the event of a hypothetical resumption of ROC rule in Mainland China.
  3. ^ One-party parliamentary republic as a Soviet member-state in 1990–1991, and after independence it was a presidential republic in 1991–2008, a semi-presidential republic in 2008–2018 and has been a parliamentary republic since 2018.
  4. ^ As the Georgian SSR and after independence, parliamentary in 1990–1991, semi-presidential in 1991–1995, presidential in 1995–2004, semi-presidential in 2004–2005 and presidential 2005–2011. Semi-presidential in 2011–2019 and parliamentary since 2019.
  5. ^ For more information, see Weimar Republic.
  6. ^ The Greek Constitution of 1973, enacted in the waning days of the Greek Junta, provided for a powerful directly-elected president and for a government dependent on Parliamentary confidence. Neither of these provisions were implemented, as the regime collapsed eight month's after the Constitution's promulgation.
  7. ^ One-party parliamentary republic as a Soviet member-state in 1936–1990, a presidential republic in 1990–1993, a semi-presidential republic in 1993–2010 and a de facto semi-presidential republic; de jure a parliamentary republic in 2010–2021.
  8. ^ For more information, see Fourth Philippine Republic.
  9. ^ One-party parliamentary republic as a Soviet member-state in 1918–1991 and semi-presidential republic in 1991
  10. ^ A parliamentary system in which the leader of the state-sponsored party was supreme in 1918–1990 and a semi-presidential republic in 1990–1991.
  11. ^ All South Korean constitutions since 1963 provided for a strong executive presidency; in addition, the formally-authoritarian Yushin Constitution of the Fourth Republic established a presidential power to dissolve the National Assembly, nominally counterbalanced by a binding vote of no confidence. Both of these provisions were retained during the Fifth Republic but repealed upon the transition to democracy and the establishment of the presidential Sixth Republic.

References

Citations

  1. ^ a b Duverger (1980). "A New Political System Model: Semi-Presidential Government". European Journal of Political Research (quarterly). 8 (2): 165–187. doi:10.1111/j.1475-6765.1980.tb00569.x. The concept of a semi-presidential form of government, as used here, is defined only by the content of the constitution. A political regime is considered as semi-presidential if the constitution which established it, combines three elements: (1) the president of the republic is elected by universal suffrage, (2) he possesses quite considerable powers; (3) he has opposite him, however, a prime minister and ministers who possess executive and governmental power and can stay in office only if the parliament does not show its opposition to them.
  2. ^ a b Veser, Ernst [in German] (1997). "Semi-Presidentialism-Duverger's concept: A New Political System Model" (PDF). Journal for Humanities and Social Sciences. 11 (1): 39–60. Retrieved 21 August 2016.
  3. ^ a b Duverger, Maurice (September 1996). "Les monarchies républicaines" [The Republican Monarchies] (PDF). Pouvoirs, revue française d'études constitutionnelles et politiques (in French). No. 78. Paris: Éditions du Seuil. pp. 107–120. ISBN 2-02-030123-7. ISSN 0152-0768. OCLC 909782158. Retrieved 10 September 2016.
  4. ^ a b Bahro, Horst; Bayerlein, Bernhard H.; Veser, Ernst [in German] (October 1998). "Duverger's concept: Semi-presidential government revisited". European Journal of Political Research (quarterly). 34 (2): 201–224. doi:10.1111/1475-6765.00405. S2CID 153349701. The conventional analysis of government in democratic countries by political science and constitutional law starts from the traditional types of presidentialism and parliamentarism. There is, however, a general consensus that governments in the various countries work quite differently. This is why some authors have inserted distinctive features into their analytical approaches, at the same time maintaining the general dichotomy. Maurice Duverger, trying to explain the French Fifth Republic, found that this dichotomy was not adequate for this purpose. He therefore resorted to the concept of 'semi-presidential government': The characteristics of the concept are (Duverger 1974: 122, 1978: 28, 1980: 166):
    1. the president of the republic is elected by universal suffrage,
    2. he possesses quite considerable powers and
    3. he has opposite him a prime minister who possesses executive and governmental powers and can stay in office only if parliament does not express its opposition to him.
  5. ^ Le Monde, 8 January 1959.
  6. ^ Duverger, Maurice (1978). Échec au roi. Paris: A. Michel. ISBN 9782226005809.
  7. ^ a b Elgie, Robert (2 January 2013). "Presidentialism, Parliamentarism and Semi-Presidentialism: Bringing Parties Back In" (PDF). Government and Opposition. 46 (3): 392–409. doi:10.1111/j.1477-7053.2011.01345.x. S2CID 145748468.
  8. ^ a b c d Neto, Octávio Amorim; Lobo, Marina Costa (2010). "Between Constitutional Diffusion and Local Politics: Semi-Presidentialism in Portuguese-Speaking Countries" (PDF). APSA 2010 Annual Meeting Paper. SSRN 1644026. Retrieved 18 August 2017.
  9. ^ Beuman, Lydia M. (2016). Political Institutions in East Timor: Semi-Presidentialism and Democratisation. Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge. ISBN 978-1317362128. LCCN 2015036590. OCLC 983148216. Retrieved 18 August 2017 – via Google Books.
  10. ^ McMenamin, Iain. "Semi-Presidentialism and Democratisation in Poland" (PDF). School of Law and Government, Dublin City University. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 February 2012. Retrieved 11 December 2017.
  11. ^ "Poland 1997 (rev. 2009) Constitution". Constitute. Retrieved 9 October 2021.
  12. ^ "Poland". The World Factbook. CIA. 22 September 2021. Retrieved 8 October 2021.
  13. ^ a b Shugart, Matthew Søberg (September 2005). "Semi-Presidential Systems: Dual Executive and Mixed Authority Patterns" (PDF). Graduate School of International Relations and Pacific Studies. United States: University of California, San Diego. Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 August 2008. Retrieved 12 October 2017.
  14. ^ a b Shugart, Matthew Søberg (December 2005). "Semi-Presidential Systems: Dual Executive And Mixed Authority Patterns" (PDF). Graduate School of International Relations and Pacific Studies, University of California, San Diego. French Politics. 3 (3): 323–351. doi:10.1057/palgrave.fp.8200087. ISSN 1476-3427. OCLC 6895745903. Retrieved 12 October 2017.
  15. ^ a b Poulard JV (Summer 1990). "The French Double Executive and the Experience of Cohabitation" (PDF). Political Science Quarterly (quarterly). 105 (2): 243–267. doi:10.2307/2151025. ISSN 0032-3195. JSTOR 2151025. OCLC 4951242513. Retrieved 7 October 2017.
  16. ^ See article 5, title II, of the French Constitution of 1958. Jean Massot, Quelle place la Constitution de 1958 accorde-t-elle au Président de la République?, Constitutional Council of France website (in French).
  17. ^ Le Petit Larousse 2013 p. 880
  18. ^ Barrington, Lowell (1 January 2012). Comparative Politics: Structures and Choices. Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-1111341930 – via Google Books.
  19. ^ Barrington, Lowell; Bosia, Michael J.; Bruhn, Kathleen; Giaimo, Susan; McHenry, Jr., Dean E. (2012) [2009]. Comparative Politics: Structures and Choices (2nd ed.). Boston, MA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning. pp. 169–170. ISBN 9781111341930. LCCN 2011942386. Retrieved 9 September 2017 – via Google Books.
  20. ^ a b Shugart, Matthew Søberg (December 2005). "Semi-Presidential Systems: Dual Executive And Mixed Authority Patterns". French Politics. 3 (3): 323–351. doi:10.1057/palgrave.fp.8200087.
  21. ^ Kudelia, Serhiy (4 May 2018). "Presidential activism and government termination in dual-executive Ukraine". Post-Soviet Affairs. 34 (4): 246–261. doi:10.1080/1060586X.2018.1465251. S2CID 158492144.
  22. ^ a b Zaznaev, Oleg (2005). "Атипичные президентские и полупрезидентские системы" [Atypical presidential and semi-presidential systems]. Uchenyye Zapiski Kazanskogo Gosudarstvennogo Universiteta (in Russian). 147 (1): 62–64. Retrieved 3 April 2021.
  23. ^ Leubnoudji Tan Nathan (4 October 2023). "Chad's Proposed New Constitution: Between Hopes for Refoundation and an Uncertain Future". ConstitutionNet. International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance. Retrieved 12 June 2024.
  24. ^ https://www.venice.coe.int/webforms/documents/default.aspx?pdffile=CDL-AD(2017)010-e
  25. ^ Keil, S.; Stahl, B. (17 December 2014). The Foreign Policies of Post-Yugoslav States: From Yugoslavia to Europe. ISBN 9781137384133.
  26. ^ Shugart, Matthew Søberg (December 2005). "Semi-Presidential Systems: Dual Executive And Mixed Authority Patterns". French Politics. 3 (3): 11. doi:10.1057/palgrave.fp.8200087. ISSN 1476-3427. OCLC 6895745903.

Sources

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