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{{short description|Gold lid placed on the Ark of the Covenant}}
{{short description|Gold lid placed on the Ark of the Covenant}}
{{other uses}}
{{other uses}}
[[File:Davenport The Ark and the Mercy Seat.jpg|thumb|"[[Ark of the Covenant|The Ark]] and the Mercy Seat", 1894 illustration by Henry Davenport Northrop]]
[[File:Ark of the Covenant (39116340194).jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Replica of the ark of the covenant, with the "mercy seat" (''kaporet'') acting as lid.]]
According to the [[Hebrew Bible]] the '''''kaporet''''' ({{Lang-he|הַכַּפֹּֽרֶת}} ''ha-kappōreṯ'') or '''mercy seat''' was the gold lid placed on the [[Ark of the Covenant]], with two [[cherubim]] beaten out of the ends to cover and create the space into which [[Yahweh]] was said to appear. This was connected with the rituals of the [[Day of Atonement]]. The term also appears in later Jewish sources, and twice in the [[New Testament]], from where it has significance in [[Christian theology]].
According to the [[Hebrew Bible]], the '''''kaporet''''' ({{Lang-he|כַּפֹּרֶת}} ''kapōreṯ'') or '''mercy seat''' was the gold lid placed on the [[Ark of the Covenant]], with two [[cherubim]] at the ends to cover and create the space in which [[Yahweh]] appeared and dwelled. This was connected with the rituals of the [[Day of Atonement]]. The term also appears in later Jewish sources, and twice in the [[New Testament]], from where it has significance in [[Christian theology]].


==Etymology==
==Etymology==
The etymology of ''kaporet'' ({{Lang-he|הַכַּפֹּֽרֶת}}) is unclear. ''The Oxford Dictionary of the Jewish Religion'' states that "some translate simply 'cover.'"<ref>{{cite book |author1=Baruch J. Schwartz |editor1-last=Berlin |editor1-first=Adele |title=The Oxford Dictionary of the Jewish Religion |date=2011 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780199730049 |page=67 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hKAaJXvUaUoC&pg=PA67&dq=Kapporet+etymology#q=Kapporet%20etymology |accessdate=25 March 2019 |language=en |chapter=Ark of the Covenant}}</ref>
The etymology of ''kaporet'' ({{Lang-he|הַכַּפֹּֽרֶת}}) is unclear. ''The Oxford Dictionary of the Jewish Religion'' states that "some translate simply 'cover'",<ref>{{cite book |author1=Schwartz, Baruch J. |year=2011 |section='''''Kapporet''''' (etymology) |editor1=Berlin, Adele |title=The Oxford Dictionary of the Jewish Religion |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780199730049 |page=67 § Ark of the Covenant |section-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hKAaJXvUaUoC&q=Kapporet+etymology&pg=PA67 |accessdate=25 March 2019 |lang=en}} </ref> whilst others posit a different Hebrew<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Kapporet |url=https://www.degruyter.com/database/EBR/entry/key_335e62eb-44ae-4e87-8e09-25409f47202f/html |access-date=2024-01-20 |website=De Gruyter |language=en |doi=10.1515/ebr.kapporet |last1=Eberhart |first1=Christian A. }}</ref> or foreign origin.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Isaacs |first1=Roger D. |last2=Hemmings |first2=Adam R. |date=2023 |title=The "Mercy Seat" and the Ark of the Testimony: An Age-Old Misnomer? |url=https://zenodo.org/records/8311390/files/SBIV1I1A2.pdf |journal=Studies of Biblical Interest |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=11–20 |via=Zenodo}}</ref>


==In Judaism==
==In Judaism==

===In the Hebrew Bible===
===In the Hebrew Bible===
[[File:Davenport The Ark and the Mercy Seat.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|"The Ark and the Mercy Seat", 1894 illustration by Henry Davenport Northrop]]
According to the biblical account ({{bibleverse|Exodus|25:19|HE}}; {{bibleverse-nb|Exodus|37:6|HE}}), the cover was made from pure [[gold]] and was the same width and breadth as the ark beneath it, 2.5 [[cubits]] long and 1.5 cubits wide. Two golden [[cherubim]] were placed at each end of the cover facing one another and the mercy seat, with their wings spread to enclose the mercy seat ({{bibleverse|Exodus|25:18-21|HE}}). The cherubim formed a seat for Yahweh ({{bibleverse|1 Samuel|4:4|HE}}). The ark and mercy seat were kept inside the [[Holy of Holies]], [[Temple in Jerusalem|the temple's]] innermost [[sanctuary]] which was separated from the other parts of the temple by a thick curtain (''[[parochet]]'').
According to the biblical account ({{bibleverse|Exodus|25:19|HE}}; {{bibleverse-nb|Exodus|37:6|HE}}), the cover was made from pure [[gold]] and was the same width and breadth as the ark beneath it, 2.5 [[cubits]] long and 1.5 cubits wide. Two golden [[cherubim]] were placed at each end of the cover facing one another and the mercy seat, with their wings spread to enclose the mercy seat ({{bibleverse|Exodus|25:18-21|HE}}). The cherubim formed a seat for Yahweh ({{bibleverse|1 Samuel|4:4|HE}}). The ark and mercy seat were kept inside the [[Holy of Holies]], [[Temple in Jerusalem|the temple's]] innermost [[sanctuary]] which was separated from the other parts of the temple by a thick curtain (''[[parochet]]'').


The Holy of Holies could be entered only by the [[High Priest of Israel|high priest]] on the [[Day of Atonement]]. The high priest sprinkled the blood of a [[korban|sacrificial bull]] onto the mercy seat as an [[Atonement in Judaism|atonement]] for the sins of the people of [[Israel]].
The Holy of Holies could be entered only by the [[High Priest of Israel|high priest]] on the [[Day of Atonement]]. The high priest sprinkled the blood of a [[korban|sacrificial bull]] onto the mercy seat as an [[Atonement in Judaism|atonement]] for the sins of the people of [[Israel]].


===In rabbinic tradition===
===In rabbinic tradition===
After the destruction of the [[Second Temple]], just as the [[Sefer Torah|Torah scroll]] was contained in a [[Torah ark]] (''Aron HaKodesh'', "Holy ark") in synagogues so also the term ''kaporet'' was applied to the [[Window valance|valance]] of the ''parochet'' (Hebrew: {{Script/Hebrew|פרוכת}} "curtain") on this ark.<ref>''Fabric of Jewish life: textiles from the Jewish Museum collection'' Volume 1 - Jewish Museum (New York, N.Y.), [[Barbara Kirshenblatt-Gimblett]], Cissy Grossman - 1977 Page 31 :Jewish Textiles in Light of Biblical and Post-Biblical Literature Rabbi [[Jules Harlow]] " ... above the parokhet. In Exodus 25:17, the kaporet refers to the slab of pure gold that covered the Ark in ..."</ref><ref>[[Nathan Ausubel]] ''The Book of Jewish Knowledge'' Page 19 1964 "The materials out of which the Ark curtain and its valance (kaporet) were made in former times is unknown."</ref><ref>Iris Fishof ''Jewish art masterpieces from the Israel Museum, Jerusalem'' - Muzeʼon Yiśraʼel (Jerusalem) - 1994 Page 40 "The art of the Torah Ark curtain (parochet) reached a peak during the first decades of the eighteenth century in Bavaria. ... All the Bavarian curtains of this type seem to have had an upper valance (kaporet), "</ref>
After the destruction of the [[Second Temple]], just as the [[Sefer Torah|Torah scroll]] was contained in a [[Torah ark]] (''Aron HaKodesh'', "Holy ark") in synagogues, so also the term ''kaporet'' was applied to the [[Window valance|valance]] of the ''parochet'' (Hebrew: {{Script/Hebrew|פרוכת}} "curtain") on this ark.{{efn|
...&nbsp;above the ''parokhet'' {{grey|[curtain]}}. In [[Book of Exodus|Exodus]] 25:17, the ''kaporet'' refers to the slab of pure gold that covered the Ark&nbsp;...<ref>{{cite book |title=Fabric of Jewish Life: Textiles from the Jewish Museum collection |volume=1 |publisher=[[Jewish Museum]] |place=New York, NY |editor1-link=Barbara Kirshenblatt-Gimblett |editor1=Kirshenblatt-Gimblett, Barbara |editor2=Grossman, Cissy |year=1977 |page=31 |section=Jewish textiles in light of biblical and post-biblical literature |author-link=Jules Harlow |first=Jules, Rabbi |last=Harlow}}</ref>
}}<ref>{{cite book |first=Nathan |last=Ausubel |author-link=Nathan Ausubel |title=The Book of Jewish Knowledge |page=19 |year=1964 |quote=The materials out of which the Ark curtain and its valance (''kaporet'') were made in former times is unknown.}}</ref>{{efn|
The art of the Torah Ark curtain (''parochet'') reached a peak during the first decades of the eighteenth century in Bavaria. ... All the Bavarian curtains of this type seem to have had an upper valance (''kaporet''),&nbsp;...<ref>{{cite book |first=Iris |last=Fishof |title=Jewish art masterpieces from the Israel Museum, Jerusalem |publisher=[[Israel Museum|Muzeʼon Yiśraʼel]] |place=Jerusalem, IL |year=1994 |page=40}}</ref>
}}


===Second Temple era sources===
===Second Temple era sources===
In the [[Hellenistic Jewish]] [[Septuagint]] the term was rendered {{transl|grc|hilasterion}} ("thing that atones"), following the secondary meaning of the Hebrew [[Semitic root|root]] verb "cover" ({{Script/Hebrew|כָּפַר}} {{transl|he|kaphar}}) in {{transl|he|[[pi'el]]}} and {{transl|he|[[pu'al]]}} as "to cover sins," "to atone" found also in {{transl|he|[[Yom Kippur|kippurim]]}}. Hilasterion is relatively rare in classical Greek and appears largely in late writings to reference a sacrifice to appease the wrath of a deity. The term in the Septuagint was translated in the Latin Vulgate Bible with the word propitiatorium from which we get our English word propitiation.
In the [[Hellenistic Jewish]] [[Septuagint]] the term was rendered {{transl|grc|hilastērion}} (ἱλαστήριον, "thing that atones"), following the secondary meaning of the Hebrew [[Semitic root|root]] verb "cover" ({{Script/Hebrew|כָּפַר}} {{transl|he|kaphar}}) in {{transl|he|[[pi'el]]}} and {{transl|he|[[pu'al]]}} as "to cover sins," "to atone" found also in {{transl|he|[[Yom Kippur|kippurim]]}}. ''Hilastērion'' is relatively rare in classical Greek and appears largely in late writings to reference a sacrifice to appease the wrath of a deity. The term in the Septuagint was translated in the Latin [[Vulgate]] Bible with the word propitiatorium from which we get our English word propitiation.


==In Christian tradition ==
==In Christian tradition ==
[[File:Holman The Mercy Seat.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|The mercy seat in the 1890 Holman Bible]]


===In the New Testament===
===In the New Testament===
⚫
''Hilastērion'' is found twice in the New Testament: [[Letter to the Romans|Romans]] 3:25 and [[Letter to the Hebrews|Hebrews]] 9:5. In the passage in Romans the term is typically translated "propitiation" or "sacrifice of atonement," whereas in the passage in Hebrews the term is typically translated "mercy seat," the traditional term for the gold lid on the [[Ark of the Covenant]]. The difference in translation is explained by the different contexts. In Romans the context is the sacrificial death of Christ, whereas in the Hebrew passage the context is a description of the Holy of Holies and its contents. The Epistle to the Hebrews portrays the role of the mercy seat during Yom Kippur [[Day of Atonement]] as a prefiguration of the [[Passion (Christianity)|Passion of Christ]], which was a greater [[Atonement in Christianity|atonement]], and the formation of a [[New Covenant]] (Hebrews 9:3–15). The Yom Kippur ritual was a ''shadow of things to come'' (Hebrews 10:1). The continual sacrifice for sin under the Mosaic covenant became [[Supersessionism|obsolete]] following the once-for-all sacrificial death of Christ.

⚫
Hilasterion is found twice in the New Testament: Romans 3:25 and Hebrews 9:5. In the passage in Romans the term is typically translated propitiation or sacrifice of atonement, whereas in the passage in Hebrews the term is typically translated mercy seat, the traditional term for the gold lid on the [[Ark of the Covenant]]. The difference in translation is explained by the different contexts. In Romans the context is the sacrificial death of Christ, whereas in the Hebrew passage the context is a description of the Holy of Holies and its contents. The Epistle to the Hebrews portrays the role of the mercy seat during Yom Kippur [[Day of Atonement]] as a prefiguration of the [[Passion (Christianity)|Passion of Christ]], which was a greater [[Atonement in Christianity|atonement]], and the formation of a [[New Covenant]] (Hebrews 9:3-15). The Yom Kippur ritual was a ''shadow of things to come'' (Hebrews 10:1). The continual sacrifice for sin under the Mosaic covenant became [[Supersessionism|obsolete]] following the once-for-all sacrificial death of Christ.


=== In English Bibles ===
=== In English Bibles ===
The first English Bible, translated from Latin 1382, renders the term a ''{{not a typo|propiciatory}}'' following the [[Vulgate]] {{lang|la|propitiatorium}}, and in the first occurrence, Exodus 25:17, also inserts an unbracketed gloss "that is a table hiling the ark" - ''hiling'' is [[Middle English]] for "covering":<ref>The Middle English "Mirror": an edition based on Bodleian Library, ... - Page 533 Robert de Gretham, Kathleen Marie Blumreich, Bodleian Library - 2002 " '''hilen''', v., to cover, bury, conceal; 3 sg. hileb. hilinge, ger., concealment.</ref>
The first English Bible, translated from Latin 1382, renders the term a ''{{not a typo|propiciatory}}'' following the [[Vulgate]] {{lang|la|propitiatorium}}, and in the first occurrence, Exodus 25:17, also inserts an unbracketed gloss "that is a table hiling the ark" – ''hiling'' is [[Middle English]] for "covering".{{efn|
'''''Hilen''''',
⚫
{{quotation|Exodus 25:17 {{lang|enm|italic=no|And thou schalt make a propiciatorie of clenneste gold; that is a table hilinge the arke; the lengthe therof schal holde twei cubitis and an half, the broodnesse schal holde a cubit and half.}} [[John Wycliffe|Wycliffe]] 1382<ref>{{cite web|url=http://wesley.nnu.edu/fileadmin/imported_site/biblical_studies/wycliffe/Exo.txt|title=Wycliffe 1382 - Exodus 25|publisher=}}</ref>}}
: [[verb|v]]., to cover, bury, conceal; [[third person singular|3&nbsp;sg]]. ''hileb''. ''hilinge'', [[German language|ger]]., "concealment".<ref>{{cite book |title=The Middle English "Mirror" |edition=based on Bodleian Library,&nbsp;... |page=533 |first1=Robert |last1=de&nbsp;Gretham |first2=Kathleen Marie |last2=Blumreich |publisher=[[Bodleian Library]], [[Oxford University]] |place=Oxford, UK |year=2002}}</ref>
⚫
The term ''propitiatory'' was also used by [[J.M. Powis Smith]], a Protestant, in ''The Complete Bible: An American Translation'', published in 1939. The originally Protestant translation "mercy seat" was not followed by [[Ronald Knox]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cormacburke.or.ke/node/889|title=The Book of Exodus|website=www.cormacburke.or.ke}}</ref> but has since been largely adopted also by [[Roman Catholic]] [[Bible versions]], such as the [[New Jerusalem Bible]] (NJB) 1985<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.catholic.org/bible/book.php?id=2|title=Exodus - Chapter 1 - Bible - Catholic Online|first=Catholic|last=Online|website=Catholic Online}}</ref>
}}{{efn|
⚫
{{lang|enm|italic=no|And thou schalt make a propiciatorie of clenneste gold; that is a table hilinge the arke; the lengthe therof schal holde twei cubitis and an half, the broodnesse schal holde a cubit and half.}} — [[Exodus 25]]:17, [[John Wycliffe|Wycliffe]] (1382)<ref>{{cite book |title=[[Wycliffe Bible]] |author=Wycliffe, J. |author-link=John Wycliffe |year=1382 |section=Exodus |at=Chapter&nbsp;25 |publisher=[[Northwest Nazarene University]] |department=Wesley Center |place=Nampa, ID |section-url=http://wesley.nnu.edu/fileadmin/imported_site/biblical_studies/wycliffe/Exo.txt}}</ref>
}}

⚫
The term ''propitiatory'' was also used by [[J.M. Powis Smith]], a Protestant, in ''The Complete Bible: An American Translation'', published in 1939. The originally Protestant translation "mercy seat" was not followed by [[Ronald Knox]],<ref>{{cite web |title=The Book of Exodus |website=www.cormacburke.or.ke |url=http://www.cormacburke.or.ke/node/889}}</ref> but has since been largely adopted also by [[Roman Catholic]] [[Bible versions]], such as the [[New Jerusalem Bible]] (NJB) 1985.<ref>{{cite book |section=Exodus |at=Chapter&nbsp;1 |title=[[New Jerusalem Bible]] |website=Catholic Online |section-url=http://www.catholic.org/bible/book.php?id=2}}</ref>

==Footnotes==
{{notelist}}


==References==
==References==
{{reflist}}
{{reflist|25em}}


==External links==
==External links==
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{{Ark of the Covenant|state=expanded}}
{{Ark of the Covenant|state=expanded}}
{{Ten Commandments}}
{{Ten Commandments}}
{{Book of Exodus navbox}}


[[Category:Tabernacle and Temples in Jerusalem]]
[[Category:Tabernacle and Temples in Jerusalem]]
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[[Category:Hebrew Bible objects]]
[[Category:Hebrew Bible objects]]
[[Category:Book of Exodus]]
[[Category:Book of Exodus]]
[[Category:Gold objects]]
[[Category:Ark of the Covenant]]
[[Category:Cherubim]]

Latest revision as of 20:20, 10 July 2024

For other uses, see Mercy seat (disambiguation).
Replica of the ark of the covenant, with the "mercy seat" (kaporet) acting as lid.

According to the Hebrew Bible, the kaporet (Hebrew: כַּפֹּרֶת kapōreṯ) or mercy seat was the gold lid placed on the Ark of the Covenant, with two cherubim at the ends to cover and create the space in which Yahweh appeared and dwelled. This was connected with the rituals of the Day of Atonement. The term also appears in later Jewish sources, and twice in the New Testament, from where it has significance in Christian theology.

Etymology

[edit]

The etymology of kaporet (Hebrew: הַכַּפֹּֽרֶת) is unclear. The Oxford Dictionary of the Jewish Religion states that "some translate simply 'cover'",[1] whilst others posit a different Hebrew[2] or foreign origin.[3]

In Judaism

[edit]

In the Hebrew Bible

[edit]
"The Ark and the Mercy Seat", 1894 illustration by Henry Davenport Northrop

According to the biblical account (Exodus 25:19; 37:6), the cover was made from pure gold and was the same width and breadth as the ark beneath it, 2.5 cubits long and 1.5 cubits wide. Two golden cherubim were placed at each end of the cover facing one another and the mercy seat, with their wings spread to enclose the mercy seat (Exodus 25:18–21). The cherubim formed a seat for Yahweh (1 Samuel 4:4). The ark and mercy seat were kept inside the Holy of Holies, the temple's innermost sanctuary which was separated from the other parts of the temple by a thick curtain (parochet).

The Holy of Holies could be entered only by the high priest on the Day of Atonement. The high priest sprinkled the blood of a sacrificial bull onto the mercy seat as an atonement for the sins of the people of Israel.

In rabbinic tradition

[edit]

After the destruction of the Second Temple, just as the Torah scroll was contained in a Torah ark (Aron HaKodesh, "Holy ark") in synagogues, so also the term kaporet was applied to the valance of the parochet (Hebrew: פרוכת‎ "curtain") on this ark.[a][5][b]

Second Temple era sources

[edit]

In the Hellenistic Jewish Septuagint the term was rendered hilastērion (ἱλαστήριον, "thing that atones"), following the secondary meaning of the Hebrew root verb "cover" (כָּפַר‎ kaphar) in pi'el and pu'al as "to cover sins," "to atone" found also in kippurim. Hilastērion is relatively rare in classical Greek and appears largely in late writings to reference a sacrifice to appease the wrath of a deity. The term in the Septuagint was translated in the Latin Vulgate Bible with the word propitiatorium from which we get our English word propitiation.

In Christian tradition

[edit]
The mercy seat in the 1890 Holman Bible

In the New Testament

[edit]

Hilastērion is found twice in the New Testament: Romans 3:25 and Hebrews 9:5. In the passage in Romans the term is typically translated "propitiation" or "sacrifice of atonement," whereas in the passage in Hebrews the term is typically translated "mercy seat," the traditional term for the gold lid on the Ark of the Covenant. The difference in translation is explained by the different contexts. In Romans the context is the sacrificial death of Christ, whereas in the Hebrew passage the context is a description of the Holy of Holies and its contents. The Epistle to the Hebrews portrays the role of the mercy seat during Yom Kippur Day of Atonement as a prefiguration of the Passion of Christ, which was a greater atonement, and the formation of a New Covenant (Hebrews 9:3–15). The Yom Kippur ritual was a shadow of things to come (Hebrews 10:1). The continual sacrifice for sin under the Mosaic covenant became obsolete following the once-for-all sacrificial death of Christ.

In English Bibles

[edit]

The first English Bible, translated from Latin 1382, renders the term a propiciatory following the Vulgate propitiatorium, and in the first occurrence, Exodus 25:17, also inserts an unbracketed gloss "that is a table hiling the ark" – hiling is Middle English for "covering".[c][d]

The term propitiatory was also used by J.M. Powis Smith, a Protestant, in The Complete Bible: An American Translation, published in 1939. The originally Protestant translation "mercy seat" was not followed by Ronald Knox,[9] but has since been largely adopted also by Roman Catholic Bible versions, such as the New Jerusalem Bible (NJB) 1985.[10]

Footnotes

[edit]
  1. ^ ... above the parokhet [curtain]. In Exodus 25:17, the kaporet refers to the slab of pure gold that covered the Ark ...[4]
  2. ^ The art of the Torah Ark curtain (parochet) reached a peak during the first decades of the eighteenth century in Bavaria. ... All the Bavarian curtains of this type seem to have had an upper valance (kaporet), ...[6]
  3. ^ Hilen,
    v., to cover, bury, conceal; 3 sg. hileb. hilinge, ger., "concealment".[7]
  4. ^ And thou schalt make a propiciatorie of clenneste gold; that is a table hilinge the arke; the lengthe therof schal holde twei cubitis and an half, the broodnesse schal holde a cubit and half. — Exodus 25:17, Wycliffe (1382)[8]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Schwartz, Baruch J. (2011). "Kapporet (etymology)". In Berlin, Adele (ed.). The Oxford Dictionary of the Jewish Religion. Oxford University Press. p. 67 § Ark of the Covenant. ISBN 9780199730049. Retrieved 25 March 2019.
  2. ^ Eberhart, Christian A. "Kapporet". De Gruyter. doi:10.1515/ebr.kapporet. Retrieved 2024-01-20.
  3. ^ Isaacs, Roger D.; Hemmings, Adam R. (2023). "The "Mercy Seat" and the Ark of the Testimony: An Age-Old Misnomer?" (PDF). Studies of Biblical Interest. 1 (1): 11–20 – via Zenodo.
  4. ^ Harlow, Jules, Rabbi (1977). "Jewish textiles in light of biblical and post-biblical literature". In Kirshenblatt-Gimblett, Barbara; Grossman, Cissy (eds.). Fabric of Jewish Life: Textiles from the Jewish Museum collection. Vol. 1. New York, NY: Jewish Museum. p. 31.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  5. ^ Ausubel, Nathan (1964). The Book of Jewish Knowledge. p. 19. The materials out of which the Ark curtain and its valance (kaporet) were made in former times is unknown.
  6. ^ Fishof, Iris (1994). Jewish art masterpieces from the Israel Museum, Jerusalem. Jerusalem, IL: Muzeʼon Yiśraʼel. p. 40.
  7. ^ de Gretham, Robert; Blumreich, Kathleen Marie (2002). The Middle English "Mirror" (based on Bodleian Library, ... ed.). Oxford, UK: Bodleian Library, Oxford University. p. 533.
  8. ^ Wycliffe, J. (1382). "Exodus". Wycliffe Bible. Wesley Center. Nampa, ID: Northwest Nazarene University. Chapter 25.
  9. ^ "The Book of Exodus". www.cormacburke.or.ke.
  10. ^ "Exodus". New Jerusalem Bible. Chapter 1. {{cite book}}: |website= ignored (help)
[edit]
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