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{{short description|King of Italy from 1878 to 1900}}
{{short description|King of Italy from 1878 to 1900}}
{{Redirect|Umberto I|other uses|Humbert I (disambiguation){{!}}Humbert I}}
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{{Redirect|Humbert I|the Count of Savoy|Humbert I, Count of Savoy|the Dauphin of the Viennois|Humbert I of Viennois}}
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{{Infobox royalty
{{Infobox royalty
| name = Umberto I
| name = Umberto I
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| image = Fratelli Vianelli (Giuseppe e Luigi, flor. 1860-1890 ca) - VE - Umberto I di Savoia 1.jpg
| image = Fratelli Vianelli (Giuseppe e Luigi, flor. 1860-1890 ca) - VE - Umberto I di Savoia 1.jpg
| image_size =
| image_size =
| caption = Portrait of Umberto I in 1887
| caption = Portrait of Umberto I in 1882
| succession = [[King of Italy]]
| succession = [[King of Italy]]
| moretext = ([[#Titles as King of Italy|more...]])
| moretext = ([[#Titles as King of Italy|more...]])
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| successor = [[Victor Emmanuel III of Italy|Victor Emmanuel III]]
| successor = [[Victor Emmanuel III of Italy|Victor Emmanuel III]]
| reg-type = {{nowrap|[[Prime Minister of Italy|Prime ministers]]}}
| reg-type = {{nowrap|[[Prime Minister of Italy|Prime ministers]]}}
| regent = {{List collapsed|title=''See list''|1=[[Agostino Depretis]]<br>[[Benedetto Cairoli]]<br>[[Francesco Crispi]]<br>[[Antonio Starabba, Marchese di Rudinì|Antonio Starabba]]<br>[[Giovanni Giolitti]]<br>[[Luigi Pelloux]]<br>[[Giuseppe Saracco]]}}
| regent = {{Collapsible list|title=''See list''|1=[[Agostino Depretis]]<br>[[Benedetto Cairoli]]<br>[[Francesco Crispi]]<br>[[Antonio Starabba, Marchese di Rudinì|Antonio Starabba]]<br>[[Giovanni Giolitti]]<br>[[Luigi Pelloux]]<br>[[Giuseppe Saracco]]}}
| spouse = [[Margherita of Savoy]]
| spouse = {{marriage|[[Margherita of Savoy]]|1868}}
| issue = [[Victor Emmanuel III of Italy|Victor Emmanuel III]]
| issue = [[Victor Emmanuel III of Italy|Victor Emmanuel III]]
| house = [[House of Savoy|Savoy]]
| house = [[House of Savoy|Savoy]]
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| burial_date =
| burial_date =
| burial_place = [[Pantheon, Rome]]
| burial_place = [[Pantheon, Rome]]
| religion = [[Latin Church|Roman Catholicism]]
| religion = [[Catholic Church in Italy|Catholic Church]]
| signature = Umberto I signature.svg
| signature = Umberto I signature.svg
| signature_alt =
| signature_alt =
}}
}}
{{House of Savoy|state=collapsed}}


'''Umberto I''' ({{lang-it|Umberto Rainerio Carlo Emanuele Giovanni Maria Ferdinando Eugenio di [[House of Savoy|Savoia]]}}; 14 March 1844 – 29 July 1900) was [[King of Italy]] from 9 January 1878 until his assassination in 1900. His reign saw Italy's expansion into the [[Horn of Africa]], as well as the creation of the [[Triple Alliance (1882)|Triple Alliance]] between Italy, [[German Empire|Germany]] and [[Austria-Hungary]].
'''Umberto I''' ({{lang-it|Umberto Ranieri Carlo Emanuele Giovanni Maria Ferdinando Eugenio di [[House of Savoy|Savoia]]}}; 14 March 1844 – 29 July 1900) was [[King of Italy]] from 9 January 1878 until his assassination in 1900. His reign saw Italy's expansion into the [[Horn of Africa]], as well as the creation of the [[Triple Alliance (1882)|Triple Alliance]] among Italy, [[German Empire|Germany]] and [[Austria-Hungary]].


The son of [[Victor Emmanuel II]] and [[Adelaide of Austria]], Umberto took part in the [[Unification of Italy|Italian Wars of Independence]] as a commander of the [[Royal Sardinian Army]]. He assumed the Italian throne in 1878 on the death of his father. A strong militarist, Umberto approved the alliance with Germany and Austria-Hungary, which was formalised in 1882. He also encouraged Italy's colonial efforts and oversaw the incorporation of [[Italian Eritrea|Eritrea]] and [[Italian Somaliland|Somalia]] into the [[Italian Empire]].
The son of [[Victor Emmanuel II]] and [[Adelaide of Austria]], Umberto took part in the [[Unification of Italy|Italian Wars of Independence]] as a commander of the [[Royal Sardinian Army]]. He assumed the Italian throne in 1878 on the death of his father. A strong militarist, Umberto approved the alliance with Germany and Austria-Hungary, which was formalised in 1882. He also encouraged Italy's colonial efforts and oversaw the incorporation of [[Italian Eritrea|Eritrea]] and [[Italian Somaliland|Somalia]] into the [[Italian Empire]].


Domestically, Umberto faced increasing social unrest and serious economic difficulties. Tensions mounted as a result of public opposition to Italy's colonial wars, the spread of [[socialism|socialist]] ideas, and crackdowns on [[civil liberties]]. He was deeply loathed in [[left-wing politics|leftist]] circles for his [[conservatism]] and his support of the [[Bava Beccaris massacre]] in [[Milan]], in which demonstrations over rising food prices were violently suppressed by the military. He was particularly hated by [[Anarchism in Italy|Italian anarchists]], who attempted to assassinate him during the first year of his reign.
Domestically, Umberto faced increasing social unrest and serious economic difficulties. Tensions mounted as a result of public opposition to Italy's colonial wars, the spread of [[socialist]] ideas, and crackdowns on [[civil liberties]]. He was deeply loathed in [[left-wing]] circles for his [[conservatism]] and his support of the [[Bava Beccaris massacre]] in [[Milan]], in which demonstrations over rising food prices were violently suppressed by the military. He was particularly hated by [[Anarchism in Italy|Italian anarchists]], who attempted to assassinate him during the first year of his reign.


In 1900, two years after the Bava Beccaris massacre, Umberto was killed in [[Monza]] by Italian-American anarchist [[Gaetano Bresci]]. He was succeeded by his son, [[Victor Emmanuel III of Italy|Victor Emmanuel III]]. Before his killing, he was also one of the recipients of one of [[Friedrich Nietzsche]]'s ''[[Wahnbriefe]]'' notes. The [[Stile Umbertino|Umbertino]] architecture style was named after him.
In 1900, two years after the Bava Beccaris massacre, Umberto was killed in [[Monza]] by Italian-American anarchist [[Gaetano Bresci]]. He was succeeded by his son, [[Victor Emmanuel III of Italy|Victor Emmanuel III]]. Before his killing, he was also one of the recipients of one of [[Friedrich Nietzsche]]'s ''[[Wahnbriefe]]'' notes. The [[Stile Umbertino|Umbertino]] architecture style was named after him.
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[[Image:Neurdein - Umberto I di Savoia come principe ereditario.jpg|thumb|left|180px|[[Crown prince|Crown Prince]] Umberto]]
[[Image:Neurdein - Umberto I di Savoia come principe ereditario.jpg|thumb|left|180px|[[Crown prince|Crown Prince]] Umberto]]
{{Css Image Crop|Image = Italy 1891-R 100 Lira.jpg|bSize = 361|cWidth = 175|cHeight = 175|oTop = 5|oLeft = 4|Location = left|Description=Umberto I depicted on a 100 lira gold coin (1891)}}
{{Css Image Crop|Image = Italy 1891-R 100 Lira.jpg|bSize = 361|cWidth = 175|cHeight = 175|oTop = 5|oLeft = 4|Location = left|Description=Umberto I depicted on a 100 lira gold coin (1891)}}
The son of [[Victor Emmanuel II of Italy|Victor Emmanuel II]] and [[Adelaide of Austria|Archduchess Adelaide of Austria]], Umberto was born in [[Turin]], which was then capital of the [[Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia]], on 14 March 1844,<ref name=EB1911>{{cite EB1911 |wstitle=Humbert, Ranieri Carlo Emanuele Giovanni Maria Ferdinando Eugenio, King of Italy |volume=13 |pages=872–873 |first=Henry Wickham |last=Steed}}</ref> his father's 24th birthday. His education was entrusted to, among others, [[Massimo d'Azeglio|Massimo Taparelli, Marquess d'Azeglio]], and [[Pasquale Stanislao Mancini]].<ref name=EB1911/> As Crown Prince, Umberto was distrusted by his father, who gave him no training in politics or constitutional government. Umberto was brought up with no affection or love.<ref name="Denis Mack Smith 1989 71">{{cite book| author=Denis Mack Smith| title=Italy and Its Monarchy| date=1989| isbn=0300051328| page=71}}</ref> Instead, Umberto was taught to be obedient and loyal; he had to stand at attention whenever his father entered the room. When speaking to his father, Umberto had to get down on his knees to kiss his father's hand first.<ref name="Denis Mack Smith 1989 71"/> The fact that Umberto had to kiss his father's hand before being allowed to speak to him (both in public and in private) right up to his father's death contributed much to the tension between the two.<ref name="Denis Mack Smith 1989 71"/>
The son of [[Victor Emmanuel II of Italy|Victor Emmanuel II]] and [[Adelaide of Austria|Archduchess Adelaide of Austria]], Umberto was born in [[Turin]], which was then capital of the [[Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia]], on 14 March 1844,<ref name=EB1911>{{cite EB1911 |wstitle=Humbert, Ranieri Carlo Emanuele Giovanni Maria Ferdinando Eugenio, King of Italy |volume=13 |pages=872–873 |first=Henry Wickham |last=Steed}}</ref> his father's 24th birthday. His education was entrusted to, among others, [[Massimo d'Azeglio|Massimo Taparelli, Marquess d'Azeglio]], and [[Pasquale Stanislao Mancini]].<ref name=EB1911/> As Crown Prince, Umberto was distrusted by his father, who gave him no training in politics or constitutional government. Umberto was brought up with no affection or love.<ref name="Denis Mack Smith 1989 71">{{cite book| author=Denis Mack Smith| title=Italy and Its Monarchy| date=1989| isbn=0300051328| page=71| publisher=Yale University Press}}</ref> Instead, Umberto was taught to be obedient and loyal; he had to stand at attention whenever his father entered the room. When speaking to his father, Umberto had to get down on his knees to kiss his father's hand first.<ref name="Denis Mack Smith 1989 71"/> The fact that Umberto had to kiss his father's hand before being allowed to speak to him (both in public and in private) right up to his father's death contributed much to the tension between the two.<ref name="Denis Mack Smith 1989 71"/>


From March 1858, he had a military career in the [[Royal Sardinian Army]], beginning with the rank of [[Captain (OF-2)|captain]].<ref name=EB1911/> Umberto took part in the [[Italian unification|Italian Wars of Independence]]. In the [[Second War of Italian Independence]] (1859), he was present at the [[battle of Solferino]]. In the [[Third War of Italian Independence]] (1866), Umberto commanded the XVI Division at the Villafranca battle that followed the Italian defeat at [[Battle of Custoza (1866)|Custoza]].<ref name=EB1911/>
From March 1858, he had a military career in the [[Royal Sardinian Army]], beginning with the rank of [[Captain (OF-2)|captain]].<ref name=EB1911/> Umberto took part in the [[Italian unification|Italian Wars of Independence]]. In the [[Second War of Italian Independence]] (1859), Umberto, who was only 14, was present at the [[battle of Solferino]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Newton |first=Michael |title=Famous Assassinations in World History [2 volumes]: An Encyclopedia [2 volumes] |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing USA |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-61069-286-1 |location=New York |pages=589 |language=en}}</ref> In the [[Third War of Italian Independence]] (1866), Umberto commanded the XVI Division at the Villafranca battle that followed the Italian defeat at [[Battle of Custoza (1866)|Custoza]].<ref name=EB1911/>


Because of the upheaval the [[House of Savoy]] caused to a number of other royal houses (all the Italian ones, and those related closely to them, such as the [[House of Bourbon|Bourbons]] of Spain and France) in 1859–60, only a minority of royal families in the 1860s were willing to establish relations with the newly founded Italian royal family. It proved difficult to find any royal bride for either of the sons of king Victor Emmanuel II (his younger son Amedeo, Umberto's brother, married ultimately a Piedmontese subject, princess [[Maria Vittoria dal Pozzo, 6th Princess della Cisterna|Vittoria of Cisterna]]). Their conflict with the papacy did not help these matters. Not many eligible Catholic royal brides were easily available for young Umberto.{{cn|date=July 2020}}
Because of the upheaval the [[House of Savoy]] caused to a number of other royal houses (all the Italian ones, and those related closely to them, such as the [[House of Bourbon|Bourbons]] of Spain and France) in 1859–60, only a minority of royal families in the 1860s were willing to establish relations with the newly founded Italian royal family. It proved difficult to find any royal bride for either of the sons of king Victor Emmanuel II (his younger son Amedeo, Umberto's brother, married ultimately a Piedmontese subject, princess [[Maria Vittoria dal Pozzo, 6th Princess della Cisterna|Vittoria of Cisterna]]). Their conflict with the papacy did not help these matters. Not many eligible Catholic royal brides were easily available for young Umberto.{{citation needed|date=July 2020}}


At first, Umberto was to marry [[Archduchess Mathilde of Austria]], a scion of a remote sideline of the Austrian imperial house; however, she died as the result of an accident at the age of 18. On 21 April 1868, Umberto married his first cousin, [[Margherita of Savoy|Margherita Teresa Giovanna, Princess of Savoy]].<ref name=EB1911/> Their only son was [[Victor Emmanuel III of Italy|Victor Emmanuel]], prince of [[Naples]].<ref name=EB1911/> While Umberto was to be described by a modern historian as "a colorless and physically unimpressive man, of limited intellect", Margherita's appearance, cultural interests and strong personality were to enhance the popularity of the monarchy.<ref>
At first, Umberto was to marry [[Archduchess Mathilde of Austria]], a scion of a remote sideline of the Austrian imperial house; however, she died as the result of an accident at the age of 18. On 21 April 1868, Umberto married his first cousin, [[Margherita of Savoy|Margherita Teresa Giovanna, Princess of Savoy]].<ref name=EB1911/> Their only son was [[Victor Emmanuel III of Italy|Victor Emmanuel]], prince of [[Naples]].<ref name=EB1911/> While Umberto was to be described by a modern historian as "a colourless and physically unimpressive man, of limited intellect", Margherita's appearance, cultural interests and strong personality were to enhance the popularity of the monarchy.<ref>
{{cite book
{{cite book
| author = Christopher Duggan
| author = Christopher Duggan
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| isbn = 978-0-713-99709-5
| isbn = 978-0-713-99709-5
| page = 307
| page = 307
| publisher = Allen Lane
}}</ref> Umberto kept many mistresses on the side, and his favorite mistress, Eugenia, the wife of Duke Litta Visconti-Arese, lived with him at his court as his [[common-law wife]]. He forced Queen Margherita to accept Eugenia as a [[lady-in-waiting]].<ref name="Denis Mack Smith 1989 72">{{cite book| author=Denis Mack Smith| title=Italy and Its Monarchy| date=1989| isbn=0300051328| page=72}}</ref>
}}</ref> Umberto kept many mistresses on the side, and his favourite mistress, Eugenia, the wife of Duke Litta Visconti-Arese, lived with him at his court as his [[common-law wife]]. He forced Queen Margherita to accept Eugenia as a [[lady-in-waiting]].<ref name="Denis Mack Smith 1989 72">{{cite book| author=Denis Mack Smith| title=Italy and Its Monarchy| date=1989| isbn=0300051328| page=72| publisher=Yale University Press}}</ref>


In 1876, when the British Foreign Secretary, [[Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury|Lord Salisbury]], visited Rome, he reported to London that King Victor Emmanuel II and Crown Prince Umberto were "at war with each other".<ref>{{cite book| author=Denis Mack Smith| title=Italy and Its Monarchy| date=1989| isbn=0300051328| page=60}}</ref> Upon taking the Crown, Umberto dismissed all of his father's friends from the court, sold off his father's racing horse collection (which numbered 1,000 horses) and cut down on extravagances to pay down the debts Victor Emmanuel II had run up.<ref name="Denis Mack Smith 1989 71"/> The British historian [[Denis Mack Smith]] commented that it was a sign of the great wealth of the House of Savoy that Umberto was able to pay off his father's debts without having to ask parliament for assistance.<ref name="Denis Mack Smith 1989 71"/>
In 1876, when the British Foreign Secretary, [[Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury|Lord Salisbury]], visited Rome, he reported to London that King Victor Emmanuel II and Crown Prince Umberto were "at war with each other".<ref>{{cite book| author=Denis Mack Smith| title=Italy and Its Monarchy| date=1989| isbn=0300051328| page=60| publisher=Yale University Press}}</ref> Upon taking the Crown, Umberto dismissed all of his father's friends from the court, sold off his father's racing horse collection (which numbered 1,000 horses) and cut down on extravagances to pay down the debts Victor Emmanuel II had run up.<ref name="Denis Mack Smith 1989 71"/> The British historian [[Denis Mack Smith]] commented that it was a sign of the great wealth of the House of Savoy that Umberto was able to pay off his father's debts without having to ask parliament for assistance.<ref name="Denis Mack Smith 1989 71"/>


Like his father, Umberto was a poorly educated man without intellectual or artistic interests, never read any books, and preferred to dictate rather than write letters. He found writing to be too mentally taxing.<ref name="Denis Mack Smith 1989 71"/> After meeting him, [[Queen Victoria]] described Umberto as having his father's "gruff, abrupt manner of speaking", but without his "rough speech and manners".<ref name="Denis Mack Smith 1989 71"/> In contrast, Queen Margherita was widely read in all the classics of [[European literature]], and kept up a [[Salon (gathering)|salon]] of intellectuals. Despite the fact that French was her first language, Margherita was often praised for her beautiful Italian in her letters and when speaking.<ref name="Denis Mack Smith 1989 72"/>
Like his father, Umberto was a poorly educated man without intellectual or artistic interests, never read any books, and preferred to dictate rather than write letters. He found writing to be too mentally taxing.<ref name="Denis Mack Smith 1989 71"/> He was said to have been raised with no real plan and was even uncomfortable when writing his signature in front of onlookers.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Müller |first=Frank Lorenz |title=Royal Heirs: Succession and the Future of Monarchy in Nineteenth-Century Europe |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2023 |isbn=978-1-316-51291-3 |location=Cambridge, UK |pages=123 |language=en}}</ref> After meeting him, [[Queen Victoria]] described Umberto as having his father's "gruff, abrupt manner of speaking", but without his "rough speech and manners".<ref name="Denis Mack Smith 1989 71"/> In contrast, Queen Margherita was widely read in all the classics of [[European literature]], and kept up a [[Salon (gathering)|salon]] of intellectuals. Although French was her first language, Margherita was often praised for her beautiful Italian in her letters and when speaking.<ref name="Denis Mack Smith 1989 72"/>


==Reign==
==Reign==


===Accession to the throne and first assassination attempt===
===Accession to the throne and first assassination attempt===
Ascending the throne on the death of his father (9 January 1878), Umberto adopted the title "Umberto I of Italy" rather than "Umberto IV"<ref name=EB1911/> (of Savoy), and consented that the remains of his father should be interred at Rome in the [[Pantheon, Rome|Pantheon]], rather than the royal [[mausoleum]] of the [[Basilica of Superga]].<ref name=EB1911/> While on a tour of the kingdom, accompanied by Queen Margherita and the Prime Minister [[Benedetto Cairoli]], he was attacked with a dagger by an anarchist, [[Giovanni Passannante]], during a parade in Naples on 17 November 1878. The King warded off the blow with his sabre, but Cairoli, in attempting to defend him, was severely wounded in the thigh.<ref name=EB1911/> The would-be assassin was [[death penalty|condemned to death]],<ref name=EB1911/> even though the law only allowed the death penalty if the King was killed. The King commuted the sentence to one of [[penal servitude]] for life,<ref name=EB1911/> which was served in a cell only {{convert|1.4|meter}} high, without sanitation and with {{convert|18|kilogram}} of chains. Passanante would die three decades later in a psychiatric institution.<ref>Salvatore Merlino, «L'Italia così com'è», 1891 in "Al caffè", by Errico Malatesta, 1922</ref>
Ascending the throne on the death of his father (9 January 1878), Umberto adopted the title "Umberto I of Italy" rather than "Umberto IV"<ref name=EB1911/> (of Savoy), ignoring his three ancestral namesakes, [[Humbert I, Count of Savoy|Umberto I]], [[Humbert II, Count of Savoy|Umberto II]], and [[Humbert III, Count of Savoy|Umberto III]].<ref name=":0" /> He consented that the remains of his father should be interred at Rome in the [[Pantheon, Rome|Pantheon]], rather than the royal [[mausoleum]] of the [[Basilica of Superga]].<ref name=EB1911/> While on a tour of the kingdom, accompanied by Queen Margherita and the Prime Minister [[Benedetto Cairoli]], he was attacked with a dagger by an anarchist, [[Giovanni Passannante]], during a parade in Naples on 17 November 1878. The King warded off the blow with his sabre, but Cairoli, in attempting to defend him, was severely wounded in the thigh.<ref name=EB1911/> The would-be assassin was [[death penalty|condemned to death]],<ref name=EB1911/> even though the law only allowed the death penalty if the King was killed. The King commuted the sentence to one of [[penal servitude]] for life,<ref name=EB1911/> which was served in a cell only {{convert|1.4|meter}} high, without sanitation and with {{convert|18|kilogram}} of chains. Passanante would die three decades later in a psychiatric institution.<ref>Salvatore Merlino, «L'Italia così com'è», 1891 in "Al caffè", by Errico Malatesta, 1922</ref>


===Foreign policy===
===Foreign policy===
[[File:The Royal family of King Umberto I of Savoy.jpg|thumb|left|upright|The Royal family of King Umberto I]]
[[File:The Royal family of King Umberto I of Savoy.jpg|thumb|left|upright|The royal family of King Umberto I]]
[[File:König Umberto I von Italien im Ornat des Hosenbandordens.png|thumb|left|upright|Wearing the robes of the [[Order of the Garter]]]]
[[File:König Umberto I von Italien im Ornat des Hosenbandordens.png|thumb|left|upright|Wearing the robes of the [[Order of the Garter]]]]
In foreign policy Umberto I approved the [[Triple Alliance (1882)|Triple Alliance]] with [[Austria-Hungary]] and the [[German Empire]], repeatedly visiting [[Vienna]] and [[Berlin]]. Many in Italy, however, viewed with hostility an alliance with their former Austrian enemies, who were still occupying areas claimed by Italy. A strong [[militarist]], Umberto loved Prussian-German militarism. On his visits to Germany, his favorite activity was to review the [[Prussian Army]] and he was greatly honored to be allowed to lead a Prussian hussar regiment on field maneuvers outside of [[Frankfurt]].<ref name="Denis Mack Smith 1989 109">{{cite book| author=Denis Mack Smith| title=Italy and Its Monarchy| date=1989| isbn=0300051328| page=109}}</ref> [[Wilhelm II, German Emperor|Emperor Wilhelm II of Germany]] told him during one visit that he should strengthen the ''Regio Esercito'' to the point that he could abolish parliament and rule Italy as a dictator.<ref name="Denis Mack Smith 1989 109"/>
In foreign policy, Umberto I approved the [[Triple Alliance (1882)|Triple Alliance]] with [[Austria-Hungary]] and the [[German Empire]], repeatedly visiting [[Vienna]] and [[Berlin]]. Many in Italy, however, viewed with hostility an alliance with their former Austrian enemies, who were still occupying areas claimed by Italy.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Ungari |first=Andrea |title=The Libyan War 1911-1912 |publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-4438-4837-4 |location=Newcastle upon Tyne |pages=23–24 |language=en}}</ref> The Alliance was later renewed with the addition of commercial treaties.<ref name=":1" /> A strong [[militarist]], Umberto loved Prussian-German militarism.<ref name=":1" /> On his visits to Germany, his favourite activity was to review the [[Prussian Army]] and he was greatly honoured to be allowed to lead a Prussian hussar regiment on field manoeuvres outside of [[Frankfurt]].<ref name="Denis Mack Smith 1989 109">{{cite book| author=Denis Mack Smith| title=Italy and Its Monarchy| date=1989| isbn=0300051328| page=109| publisher=Yale University Press}}</ref> [[Wilhelm II, German Emperor|Emperor Wilhelm II of Germany]] told him during one visit that he should strengthen the ''Regio Esercito'' to the point that he could abolish parliament and rule Italy as a dictator.<ref name="Denis Mack Smith 1989 109"/>


A major criticism of the policies carried out by the Prime Ministers appointed by Umberto was the continued power of [[organized crime]] in the ''Mezzogiorno'' ([[southern Italy]]), with the [[Sicilian Mafia|Mafia]] dominating [[Sicily]] and the [[Camorra]] dominating [[Campania]].<ref>{{cite book| author=Denis Mack Smith| title=Italy and Its Monarchy| date=1989| isbn=0300051328| page=164}}</ref> Both the Mafia and the Camorra functioned as "parallel states" whose existence and power was tolerated by successive governments in Rome as both the Mafia and the Camorra engaged in [[electoral fraud]] and [[voter intimidation]] so effective that it was Mafia and Camorra bosses who decided who won elections.<ref name="Denis Mack Smith 1989 164–165">{{cite book| author=Denis Mack Smith| title=Italy and Its Monarchy| date=1989| isbn=0300051328| pages=164–165}}</ref> As it was impossible to win elections in the ''Mezzogiorno'' without the support of organized crime, politicians cut deals with the bosses of the Camorra and Mafia to exchange toleration of their criminal activities for votes.<ref name="Denis Mack Smith 1989 164–165"/> The ''Mezzogiorno'' was the most backward region of Italy with high levels of poverty, emigration and an illiteracy rate estimated as high as 70%.<ref name="Denis Mack Smith 1989 165">{{cite book| author=Denis Mack Smith| title=Italy and Its Monarchy| date=1989| isbn=0300051328| page=165}}</ref> The deputies from the ''Mezzogiorno'' always voted against more schools for the ''Mezzogiorno'', thus perpetuating southern backwardness and poverty as both the Mafia and the Camorra were opposed to any sort of social reform that might threaten their power.<ref name="Denis Mack Smith 1989 165"/> However, the king preferred heavy military spending rather than engaging in social reforms and every year, the Italian state spent 10 times more money on the military than on education.<ref>{{cite book| author=Denis Mack Smith| title=Italy and Its Monarchy| date=1989| isbn=0300051328| page=101}}</ref> Umberto, an aggressive proponent of militarism, once said that to accept cuts in the military budget would be "an abject scandal and we might as well give up politics altogether".<ref name="Denis Mack Smith 1989 99">{{cite book| author=Denis Mack Smith| title=Italy and Its Monarchy| date=1989| isbn=0300051328| page=99}}</ref> At least part of the reason why Umberto was so opposed to cutting the military budget was because he personally promised Emperor Wilhelm II that Italy would send 5 army corps to Germany in the event of a war with France, a promise that the king did not see fit to share with his prime ministers.<ref name="Denis Mack Smith 1989 99"/>
A major criticism of the policies carried out by the Prime Ministers appointed by Umberto was the continued power of [[organized crime]] in the ''Mezzogiorno'' ([[southern Italy]]), with the [[Sicilian Mafia|Mafia]] dominating [[Sicily]] and the [[Camorra]] dominating [[Campania]].<ref>{{cite book| author=Denis Mack Smith| title=Italy and Its Monarchy| date=1989| isbn=0300051328| page=164| publisher=Yale University Press}}</ref> Both the Mafia and the Camorra functioned as "parallel states" whose existence and power was tolerated by successive governments in Rome as both the Mafia and the Camorra engaged in [[electoral fraud]] and [[voter intimidation]] so effective that it was Mafia and Camorra bosses who decided who won elections.<ref name="Denis Mack Smith 1989 164–165">{{cite book| author=Denis Mack Smith| title=Italy and Its Monarchy| date=1989| isbn=0300051328| pages=164–165| publisher=Yale University Press}}</ref> As it was impossible to win elections in the ''Mezzogiorno'' without the support of organized crime, politicians cut deals with the bosses of the Camorra and Mafia to exchange toleration of their criminal activities for votes.<ref name="Denis Mack Smith 1989 164–165"/> The ''Mezzogiorno'' was the most backward region of Italy with high levels of poverty, emigration and an illiteracy rate estimated as high as 70%.<ref name="Denis Mack Smith 1989 165">{{cite book| author=Denis Mack Smith| title=Italy and Its Monarchy| date=1989| isbn=0300051328| page=165| publisher=Yale University Press}}</ref> The deputies from the ''Mezzogiorno'' always voted against more schools for the ''Mezzogiorno'', thus perpetuating southern backwardness and poverty as both the Mafia and the Camorra were opposed to any sort of social reform that might threaten their power.<ref name="Denis Mack Smith 1989 165"/> However, the king preferred heavy military spending rather than engaging in social reforms and every year, the Italian state spent 10 times more money on the military than on education.<ref>{{cite book| author=Denis Mack Smith| title=Italy and Its Monarchy| date=1989| isbn=0300051328| page=101| publisher=Yale University Press}}</ref> Umberto, an aggressive proponent of militarism, once said that to accept cuts in the military budget would be "an abject scandal and we might as well give up politics altogether".<ref name="Denis Mack Smith 1989 99">{{cite book| author=Denis Mack Smith| title=Italy and Its Monarchy| date=1989| isbn=0300051328| page=99| publisher=Yale University Press}}</ref> At least part of the reason why Umberto was so opposed to cutting the military budget was because he personally promised Emperor Wilhelm II that Italy would send 5 army corps to Germany in the event of a war with France, a promise that the king did not see fit to share with his prime ministers.<ref name="Denis Mack Smith 1989 99"/>


Umberto was also favorably disposed towards the policy of [[colonialism|colonial]] expansion inaugurated in 1885 by the occupation of [[Massawa]]<ref name=EB1911/> in [[Italian Eritrea|Eritrea]]. Italy expanded into [[Italian Somaliland|Somalia]] in the 1880s as well. Umberto's preferred solution to the problems of Italy was to conquer Ethiopia, regardless of overwhelming public opposition. He supported the ultra-imperialist Prime Minister [[Francesco Crispi]] who in May 1895 spoke of "the absolute impossibility of continuing to govern through Parliament."<ref name="Denis Mack Smith 1989 115">{{cite book| author=Denis Mack Smith| title=Italy and Its Monarchy| date=1989| isbn=0300051328| page=115}}</ref> In December 1893, Umberto appointed Crispi prime minister despite his "shattered reputation" due to his involvement in the [[Banca Romana scandal]] together with numerous other scandals that the king himself called "sordid".<ref name="Denis Mack Smith 1989 106">{{cite book| author=Denis Mack Smith| title=Italy and Its Monarchy| date=1989| isbn=0300051328| page=106}}</ref> As Crispi was heavily in debt, the king secretly agreed to pay off his debts in exchange for Crispi following the king's advice.<ref name="Denis Mack Smith 1989 106"/>
Umberto was also favourably disposed towards the policy of [[colonialism|colonial]] expansion inaugurated in 1885 by the occupation of [[Massawa]]<ref name=EB1911/> in [[Italian Eritrea|Eritrea]]. Italy expanded into [[Italian Somaliland|Somalia]] in the 1880s as well. Umberto's preferred solution to the problems of Italy was to conquer Ethiopia, regardless of overwhelming public opposition. He supported the ultra-imperialist Prime Minister [[Francesco Crispi]] who in May 1895 spoke of "the absolute impossibility of continuing to govern through Parliament."<ref name="Denis Mack Smith 1989 115">{{cite book| author=Denis Mack Smith| title=Italy and Its Monarchy| date=1989| isbn=0300051328| page=115| publisher=Yale University Press}}</ref> In December 1893, Umberto appointed Crispi prime minister despite his "shattered reputation" due to his involvement in the [[Banca Romana scandal]] together with numerous other scandals that the king himself called "sordid".<ref name="Denis Mack Smith 1989 106">{{cite book| author=Denis Mack Smith| title=Italy and Its Monarchy| date=1989| isbn=0300051328| page=106| publisher=Yale University Press}}</ref> As Crispi was heavily in debt, the king secretly agreed to pay off his debts in exchange for Crispi following the king's advice.<ref name="Denis Mack Smith 1989 106"/>


Umberto openly called Parliament a "bad joke" and refused to allow Parliament to meet again lest Crispi faced difficult questions about the Banca Romana scandal. Crispi only avoided indictment because of his parliamentary immunity.<ref name="Denis Mack Smith 1989 115"/> When the king was warned that it was dangerous for the crown to support someone like Crispi, Umberto replied that "Crispi is a pig, but a necessary pig", who despite his corruption, had to stay in power for "the national interest, which is the only thing that matters".<ref name="Denis Mack Smith 1989 115"/> With the support of the king, Crispi governed in an [[authoritarian]] manner, preferring to pass legislation by having the king issue royal decrees as opposed to getting bills passed by Parliament. On 25 June 1895 Crispi refused to allow a parliamentary inquiry into the bank scandal, saying that as a prime minister he was above the law because he had "served Italy for 53 years".<ref>{{cite book| author=Denis Mack Smith| title=Italy and Its Monarchy| date=1989| isbn=0300051328| page=116}}</ref> Umberto I was suspected of aspiring to a vast empire in [[northeast Africa]], a suspicion which tended somewhat to diminish his popularity after the disastrous [[Battle of Adwa]] in [[Ethiopia]] on 1 March 1896.<ref name=EB1911/> After the Battle of Adwa, public frustration with the deeply unpopular war with Ethiopia came to the fore, and demonstrations broke out in Rome with people shouting "death to the king!" and "long live the republic!".<ref>{{cite book| author=Denis Mack Smith| title=Italy and Its Monarchy| date=1989| isbn=0300051328| page=122}}</ref>
Umberto openly called Parliament a "bad joke" and refused to allow Parliament to meet again lest Crispi faced difficult questions about the Banca Romana scandal. Crispi only avoided indictment because of his parliamentary immunity.<ref name="Denis Mack Smith 1989 115"/> When the king was warned that it was dangerous for the crown to support someone like Crispi, Umberto replied that "Crispi is a pig, but a necessary pig", who despite his corruption, had to stay in power for "the national interest, which is the only thing that matters".<ref name="Denis Mack Smith 1989 115"/> With the support of the king, Crispi governed in an [[authoritarian]] manner, preferring to pass legislation by having the king issue royal decrees as opposed to getting bills passed by Parliament. On 25 June 1895 Crispi refused to allow a parliamentary inquiry into the bank scandal, saying that as a prime minister, he was above the law because he had "served Italy for 53 years".<ref>{{cite book| author=Denis Mack Smith| title=Italy and Its Monarchy| date=1989| isbn=0300051328| page=116| publisher=Yale University Press}}</ref> Umberto I was suspected of aspiring to a vast empire in [[northeast Africa]], a suspicion which tended somewhat to diminish his popularity after the disastrous [[Battle of Adwa]] in [[Ethiopia]] on 1 March 1896.<ref name=EB1911/> After the Battle of Adwa, public frustration with the deeply unpopular war with Ethiopia came to the fore, and demonstrations broke out in Rome with people shouting "death to the king!" and "long live the republic!".<ref>{{cite book| author=Denis Mack Smith| title=Italy and Its Monarchy| date=1989| isbn=0300051328| page=122| publisher=Yale University Press}}</ref>
[[File:Adoua 1.jpg|thumb|right|[[Menelik II]]'s victory over Italians at [[Battle of Adwa]]]]
[[File:Adoua 1.jpg|thumb|right|[[Menelik II]]'s victory over the Italians at the [[Battle of Adwa]]]]
[[File:Gartered arms of Umberto I, King of Italy.png|thumb|right|Umberto's coat of arms as a [[Order of the Garter|knight of the garter]]]]
[[File:Gartered arms of Umberto I, King of Italy.png|thumb|right|Umberto's coat of arms as a [[Order of the Garter|knight of the garter]]]]


Despite the defeat at Adwa, Umberto still harbored [[Italian Empire|imperialistic ambitions]] towards Ethiopia, saying: "I am what they call a warmonger and my personal wish would be to strike back at Menelik and avenge our defeat."<ref>{{cite book| author=Denis Mack Smith| title=Italy and Its Monarchy| date=1989| isbn=0300051328| pages=134–135}}</ref> In 1897, the prime minister, [[Antonio Starabba, Marchese di Rudinì]] tried to sell Eritrea to [[Belgian colonial empire|Belgium]] on the grounds that Eritrea was too expensive to hold onto, but was overruled by the king who insisted that Eritrea must stay Italian.<ref name="Denis Mack Smith 1989 129">{{cite book| author=Denis Mack Smith| title=Italy and Its Monarchy| date=1989| isbn=0300051328| page=129}}</ref> Rudinì attempted to reduce military spending, citing a study showing that since 1861 military spending constituted over half the budget every year, but was again blocked by the king.<ref name="Denis Mack Smith 1989 129"/> In 1899, Foreign Minister [[Felice Napoleone Canevaro]] dispatched a ''[[Regia Marina]]'' squadron to [[Qing dynasty|China]] with an ultimatum demanding that the [[Government of the Qing Dynasty|Chinese government]] hand over a coastal city to be ruled as an Italian [[Concessions in China|concession]] in the same manner as other [[Western imperialism in Asia|Western imperial powers in China]].<ref name="Denis Mack Smith 1989 135">{{cite book| author=Denis Mack Smith| title=Italy and Its Monarchy| date=1989| isbn=0300051328| page=135}}</ref> Prime Minister [[Luigi Pelloux]] and his fellow cabinet ministers stated that Canevaro had acted without informing them, and it was widely believed that the king was the one who had given Canevaro the orders to acquire a concession in China.<ref name="Denis Mack Smith 1989 135"/> After the Chinese government refused, Canevaro threatened war, but was forced to back down. He settled for breaking diplomatic relations with China.<ref name="Denis Mack Smith 1989 135"/>
Despite the defeat at Adwa, Umberto still harboured [[Italian Empire|imperialistic ambitions]] towards Ethiopia, saying: "I am what they call a warmonger and my personal wish would be to strike back at Menelik and avenge our defeat."<ref>{{cite book| author=Denis Mack Smith| title=Italy and Its Monarchy| date=1989| isbn=0300051328| pages=134–135| publisher=Yale University Press}}</ref> In 1897, the prime minister, [[Antonio Starabba, Marchese di Rudinì]] tried to sell Eritrea to [[Belgian colonial empire|Belgium]] on the grounds that Eritrea was too expensive to hold onto, but was overruled by the king who insisted that Eritrea must stay Italian.<ref name="Denis Mack Smith 1989 129">{{cite book| author=Denis Mack Smith| title=Italy and Its Monarchy| date=1989| isbn=0300051328| page=129| publisher=Yale University Press}}</ref> Rudinì attempted to reduce military spending, citing a study showing that since 1861 military spending constituted over half the budget every year, but was again blocked by the king.<ref name="Denis Mack Smith 1989 129"/> In 1899, Foreign Minister [[Felice Napoleone Canevaro]] dispatched a ''[[Regia Marina]]'' squadron to [[Qing dynasty|China]] with an ultimatum demanding that the [[Government of the Qing dynasty|Chinese government]] hand over a coastal city to be ruled as an Italian [[Concessions in China|concession]] in the same manner as other [[Western imperialism in Asia|Western imperial powers in China]].<ref name="Denis Mack Smith 1989 135">{{cite book| author=Denis Mack Smith| title=Italy and Its Monarchy| date=1989| isbn=0300051328| page=135| publisher=Yale University Press}}</ref> Prime Minister [[Luigi Pelloux]] and his fellow cabinet ministers stated that Canevaro had acted without informing them, and it was widely believed that the king was the one who had given Canevaro the orders to acquire a concession in China.<ref name="Denis Mack Smith 1989 135"/> After the Chinese government refused, Canevaro threatened war, but was forced to back down. He settled for breaking diplomatic relations with China.<ref name="Denis Mack Smith 1989 135"/>


In the summer of 1900, Italian forces were part of the [[Eight-Nation Alliance]] which participated in suppressing the [[Boxer Rebellion]] in [[Qing dynasty|Imperial China]]. Through the [[Boxer Protocol]], signed after Umberto's death, the Kingdom of Italy gained a [[Italian concession of Tianjin|concession territory]] in [[Tianjin|Tientsin]].
In the summer of 1900, Italian forces were part of the [[Eight-Nation Alliance]] which participated in suppressing the [[Boxer Rebellion]] in [[Qing dynasty|Imperial China]]. Through the [[Boxer Protocol]], signed after Umberto's death, the Kingdom of Italy gained a [[Italian concession of Tianjin|concession territory]] in [[Tianjin|Tientsin]].
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===Turmoil===
===Turmoil===
[[File:Umberto I of Italy.jpg|thumb|150px|right|Umberto I in his later years]]
[[File:Umberto I of Italy.jpg|thumb|150px|right|Umberto I in his later years]]
The reign of Umberto I was a time of social upheaval, though it was later claimed to have been a tranquil ''[[Belle Époque]]''.{{who|date=July 2020}} Social tensions mounted as a consequence of the relatively recent occupation of the [[Kingdom of the Two Sicilies]], the spread of [[socialism|socialist]] ideas, public hostility to the [[colonialist]] plans of the various governments, especially [[Francesco Crispi|Crispi]]'s, and the numerous crackdowns on [[civil liberties]]. The protesters included the young [[Benito Mussolini]], then a member of the [[Italian Socialist Party|socialist party]]. On 22 April 1897, Umberto I was attacked again, by an unemployed ironsmith, [[Pietro Acciarito]], who tried to stab him near Rome.{{cn|date=July 2020}}
The reign of Umberto I was a time of social upheaval, though it was later claimed to have been a tranquil ''[[Belle Époque]]''.{{By whom|date=April 2024}} Social tensions mounted as a consequence of the relatively recent occupation of the [[Kingdom of the Two Sicilies]], the spread of [[socialism|socialist]] ideas, public hostility to the [[colonialist]] plans of the various governments, especially [[Francesco Crispi|Crispi]]'s, and the numerous crackdowns on [[civil liberties]]. The protesters included the young [[Benito Mussolini]], then a member of the [[Italian Socialist Party|socialist party]]. On 22 April 1897, Umberto I was attacked again, by an unemployed ironsmith, [[Pietro Acciarito]], who tried to stab him near Rome.{{citation needed|date=July 2020}}


===Bava Beccaris massacre===
===Bava Beccaris massacre===
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[[Image:Pantheon, Rome, grave of Umberto I, 2013-03-07.jpg|thumb|upright|Tomb of Umberto I at the Pantheon]]
[[Image:Pantheon, Rome, grave of Umberto I, 2013-03-07.jpg|thumb|upright|Tomb of Umberto I at the Pantheon]]


On the evening of 29 July 1900, [[Italian-American]] [[anarchist]] [[Gaetano Bresci]] assassinated Umberto in [[Monza]] by shooting him four times. Bresci claimed he wanted to avenge the people killed in Milan during the suppression of the [[Bava Beccaris massacre|riots of May 1898]].<ref>{{cite book| author=Christopher Duggan| title=The Force of Destiny. A History of Italy Since 1796| date=2007| isbn=978-0-713-99709-5| page=349}}</ref>
On the evening of 29 July 1900, [[Italian-American]] [[anarchist]] [[Gaetano Bresci]] assassinated Umberto in [[Monza]] by shooting him four times. Bresci claimed he wanted to avenge the people killed in Milan during the suppression of the [[Bava Beccaris massacre|riots of May 1898]].<ref>{{cite book| author=Christopher Duggan| title=The Force of Destiny. A History of Italy Since 1796| date=2007| isbn=978-0-713-99709-5| page=349| publisher=Allen Lane}}</ref>


Umberto was buried in the [[Pantheon, Rome|Pantheon]] in Rome, by the side of his father Victor Emmanuel II, on 9 August 1900.<ref name=EB1911/> He was the last Savoy to be buried there, as his son and successor [[Victor Emmanuel III of Italy|Victor Emmanuel III]] died in exile and was buried in [[Egypt]] until his remains were transferred to [[Vicoforte]] near [[Cuneo]] in 2017.
Umberto was buried in the [[Pantheon, Rome|Pantheon]] in Rome, by the side of his father Victor Emmanuel II, on 9 August 1900.<ref name=EB1911/> He was the last Savoy to be buried there, as his son and successor [[Victor Emmanuel III of Italy|Victor Emmanuel III]] died in exile and was buried in [[Egypt]] until his remains were transferred to [[Vicoforte]] near [[Cuneo]] in 2017.
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* {{flagicon|Saxe-Coburg and Gotha}} {{flagicon|Saxe-Altenburg}} {{flagicon|Saxe-Meiningen}} [[Ernestine duchies]]: Grand Cross of the [[Saxe-Ernestine House Order]], ''1869''<ref>''[https://zs.thulb.uni-jena.de/rsc/viewer/jportal_derivate_00244601/Sachsen_Coburg_Gotha_497472023_497472813_1884_8_0073.tif?logicalDiv=jportal_jparticle_00483785 Staatshandbücher für das Herzogtum Sachsen-Coburg und Gotha]'' (1884), "Herzogliche Sachsen-Ernestinischer Hausorden" p. 31</ref>
* {{flagicon|Saxe-Coburg and Gotha}} {{flagicon|Saxe-Altenburg}} {{flagicon|Saxe-Meiningen}} [[Ernestine duchies]]: Grand Cross of the [[Saxe-Ernestine House Order]], ''1869''<ref>''[https://zs.thulb.uni-jena.de/rsc/viewer/jportal_derivate_00244601/Sachsen_Coburg_Gotha_497472023_497472813_1884_8_0073.tif?logicalDiv=jportal_jparticle_00483785 Staatshandbücher für das Herzogtum Sachsen-Coburg und Gotha]'' (1884), "Herzogliche Sachsen-Ernestinischer Hausorden" p. 31</ref>
* {{flagicon image|Flag of France (1794–1815, 1830–1958).svg}} [[Second French Empire|French Empire]]: Grand Cross of the [[Legion of Honour]], ''January 1859''<ref name="augusto.agid.gov.it">[http://augusto.agid.gov.it/gazzette/index/download/id/1900176_PM Gazzette]</ref>
* {{flagicon image|Flag of France (1794–1815, 1830–1958).svg}} [[Second French Empire|French Empire]]: Grand Cross of the [[Legion of Honour]], ''January 1859''<ref name="augusto.agid.gov.it">[http://augusto.agid.gov.it/gazzette/index/download/id/1900176_PM Gazzette]</ref>
* {{flag|Kingdom of Hawaii}}: Grand Cross of the [[Royal Order of Kamehameha I|Order of Kamehameha I]], ''1878''<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.crownofhawaii.com/order-of-kamehameha|title=The Royal Order of Kamehameha|website=crownofhawaii.com|publisher=Official website of the Royal Family of Hawaii|access-date=2 December 2019}}</ref>
* {{flag|Kingdom of Hawaii}}: Grand Cross of the [[Royal Order of Kamehameha I|Order of Kamehameha I]], ''1878''<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.crownofhawaii.com/order-of-kamehameha|title=The Royal Order of Kamehameha|website=crownofhawaii.com|publisher=Official website of the Royal Family of Hawaii|access-date=2 December 2019|archive-date=28 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230228013523/https://www.crownofhawaii.com/order-of-kamehameha|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* {{flag|Empire of Japan}}: Grand Cordon of the [[Order of the Chrysanthemum]], ''7 May 1880''<ref>{{cite book|author=刑部芳則|title=明治時代の勲章外交儀礼|url=http://meijiseitoku.org/pdf/f54-5.pdf|year=2017|publisher=明治聖徳記念学会紀要|language=ja|page=143}}</ref>
* {{flag|Empire of Japan}}: Grand Cordon of the [[Order of the Chrysanthemum]], ''7 May 1880''<ref>{{cite book|author=刑部芳則|title=明治時代の勲章外交儀礼|url=http://meijiseitoku.org/pdf/f54-5.pdf|year=2017|publisher=明治聖徳記念学会紀要|language=ja|page=143}}</ref>
* {{flagicon image|Flag of Mexico (1864-1867).svg}} [[Second Mexican Empire|Mexican Empire]]: [[Mexican Imperial Orders#Imperial Order of the Mexican Eagle|Grand Cross of the Mexican Eagle]], ''October 1866''<ref name="augusto.agid.gov.it"/>
* {{flagicon image|Flag of Mexico (1864-1867).svg}} [[Second Mexican Empire|Mexican Empire]]: [[Mexican Imperial Orders#Imperial Order of the Mexican Eagle|Grand Cross of the Mexican Eagle]], ''October 1866''<ref name="augusto.agid.gov.it"/>
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** [[Order of the Tower and Sword|Grand Cross of the Tower and Sword]], ''September 1862''
** [[Order of the Tower and Sword|Grand Cross of the Tower and Sword]], ''September 1862''
* {{flagicon image|Flag of the Kingdom of Prussia (1803-1892).svg}} [[Kingdom of Prussia]]:<ref name="augusto.agid.gov.it"/>
* {{flagicon image|Flag of the Kingdom of Prussia (1803-1892).svg}} [[Kingdom of Prussia]]:<ref name="augusto.agid.gov.it"/>
** [[Pour le Mérite]] (military), ''29 May 1872''<ref>{{cite book|last1=Lehmann|first1=Gustaf|title=Die Ritter des Ordens pour le mérite 1812–1913|year=1913|trans-title=The Knights of the Order of the Pour le Mérite|lang=de|url=https://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/id/PPN135808618|page=535|volume=2|location=Berlin|publisher=[[E.S. Mittler & Sohn|Ernst Siegfried Mittler & Sohn]]}}</ref>
** [[Pour le Mérite]] (military), ''29 May 1872''<ref>{{cite book|last1=Lehmann|first1=Gustaf|title=Die Ritter des Ordens pour le mérite 1812–1913|year=1913|trans-title=The Knights of the Order of the Pour le Mérite|language=de|url=https://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/id/PPN135808618|page=535|volume=2|location=Berlin|publisher=[[E.S. Mittler & Sohn|Ernst Siegfried Mittler & Sohn]]}}</ref>
** [[Order of the Black Eagle|Knight of the Black Eagle]], with Collar, ''29 March 1897''
** [[Order of the Black Eagle|Knight of the Black Eagle]], with Collar, ''29 March 1897''
** [[Order of the Red Eagle|Grand Cross of the Red Eagle]], ''29 March 1897''
** [[Order of the Red Eagle|Grand Cross of the Red Eagle]], ''29 March 1897''
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** [[Order of St. Andrew|Knight of St. Andrew]]<ref name="p47"/>
** [[Order of St. Andrew|Knight of St. Andrew]]<ref name="p47"/>
** [[Order of St. Alexander Nevsky|Knight of St. Alexander Nevsky]]
** [[Order of St. Alexander Nevsky|Knight of St. Alexander Nevsky]]
* {{flag|Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach}}: [[Order of the White Falcon|Grand Cross of the White Falcon]], ''1885''<ref>''[https://zs.thulb.uni-jena.de/rsc/viewer/jportal_derivate_00185861/Staatshandbuch_Film_Nr_16_0245.tif Staatshandbuch für das Großherzogtum Sachsen / Sachsen-Weimar-Eisenach]'' (1900), "Großherzogliche Hausorden" p. 16</ref>
* {{flag|Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach}}: [[Order of the White Falcon|Grand Cross of the White Falcon]], ''1885''<ref>''[https://zs.thulb.uni-jena.de/rsc/viewer/jportal_derivate_00185861/Staatshandbuch_Film_Nr_16_0245.tif Staatshandbuch für das Großherzogtum Sachsen / Sachsen-Weimar-Eisenach] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200906150133/https://zs.thulb.uni-jena.de/rsc/viewer/jportal_derivate_00185861/Staatshandbuch_Film_Nr_16_0245.tif |date=6 September 2020 }}'' (1900), "Großherzogliche Hausorden" p. 16</ref>
* {{flag|Kingdom of Saxony}}: [[Order of the Rue Crown|Knight of the Rue Crown]], ''1872''<ref>{{cite book|title=Staatshandbuch für den Freistaat Sachsen: 1873|year=1873|publisher=Heinrich|page=[http://opacplus.bsb-muenchen.de/title/9530888/ft/bsb11041169?page=26 4]}}</ref>
* {{flag|Kingdom of Saxony}}: [[Order of the Rue Crown|Knight of the Rue Crown]], ''1872''<ref>{{cite book|title=Staatshandbuch für den Freistaat Sachsen: 1873|year=1873|publisher=Heinrich|page=[http://opacplus.bsb-muenchen.de/title/9530888/ft/bsb11041169?page=26 4]}}</ref>
* {{Flagicon|Thailand|1855}} [[Siam]]: Knight of the [[Order of the Royal House of Chakri]], ''15 July 1891''
* {{Flagicon|Thailand|1855}} [[Siam]]: Knight of the [[Order of the Royal House of Chakri]], ''15 July 1891''
Line 152: Line 153:
** Grand Cross of the [[Order of Charles III]], ''22 August 1871''<ref>{{cite book|url=http://hemerotecadigital.bne.es/issue.vm?id=0000941464&search=&lang=es|chapter=Real y distinguida orden de Carlos III|title=Guía Oficial de España|date=1887|access-date=21 March 2019|page=156}}</ref>
** Grand Cross of the [[Order of Charles III]], ''22 August 1871''<ref>{{cite book|url=http://hemerotecadigital.bne.es/issue.vm?id=0000941464&search=&lang=es|chapter=Real y distinguida orden de Carlos III|title=Guía Oficial de España|date=1887|access-date=21 March 2019|page=156}}</ref>
** [[Laureate Cross of Saint Ferdinand|Grand Cross of the Military Order of St. Ferdinand]]<ref>{{cite book|url=http://hemerotecadigital.bne.es/issue.vm?id=0000941464&search=&lang=es|chapter=Caballeros Grandes Cruces Real y Militar Orden de San Fernando|title=Guía Oficial de España|date=1887|access-date=21 March 2019|page=387}}</ref>
** [[Laureate Cross of Saint Ferdinand|Grand Cross of the Military Order of St. Ferdinand]]<ref>{{cite book|url=http://hemerotecadigital.bne.es/issue.vm?id=0000941464&search=&lang=es|chapter=Caballeros Grandes Cruces Real y Militar Orden de San Fernando|title=Guía Oficial de España|date=1887|access-date=21 March 2019|page=387}}</ref>
* {{flagicon|Sweden|1844}} {{flagicon|Norway|1844}} [[Sweden-Norway]]: [[Order of the Seraphim|Knight of the Seraphim]], with Collar, ''14 March 1862''<ref>{{citation|title=Sveriges statskalender|year=1877|page=368|url=http://runeberg.org/statskal/1877/0392.html|via=runeberg.org|access-date=6 January 2018|language=sv}}</ref>
* {{flagicon|Sweden|1844}} {{flagicon|Norway|1844}} [[Sweden-Norway]]: [[Order of the Seraphim|Knight of the Seraphim]], with Collar, ''14 March 1862''<ref>{{citation|title=Sveriges statskalender|year=1877|page=368|url=https://runeberg.org/statskal/1877/0392.html|via=runeberg.org|access-date=6 January 2018|language=sv}}</ref>
* {{flagcountry|United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland}}: [[Order of the Garter|Stranger Knight of the Garter]], ''16 March 1878''<ref name=p65>Shaw, Wm. A. (1906) ''The Knights of England'', '''I''', London, [https://archive.org/stream/cu31924092537418#page/n153/mode/2up p. 65]</ref>
* {{flagcountry|United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland}}: [[Order of the Garter|Stranger Knight Companion of the Garter]], ''16 March 1878''<ref name=p65>Shaw, Wm. A. (1906) ''The Knights of England'', '''I''', London, [https://archive.org/stream/cu31924092537418#page/n153/mode/2up p. 65]</ref>
* {{flag|Württemberg}}: [[Order of the Crown (Württemberg)|Grand Cross of the Württemberg Crown]], ''1878''<ref>''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_Pc5CAAAAYAAJ/page/n63 Hof- und Staats-Handbuch des Königreich Württemberg]'' (1907), "Königliche Orden" p. 28</ref>
* {{flag|Württemberg}}: [[Order of the Crown (Württemberg)|Grand Cross of the Württemberg Crown]], ''1878''<ref>''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_Pc5CAAAAYAAJ/page/n63 Hof- und Staats-Handbuch des Königreich Württemberg]'' (1907), "Königliche Orden" p. 28</ref>
}}
}}


== Ancestry ==
== Ancestry ==
{{unref|section|date=July 2020}}
{{unreferenced section|date=July 2020}}
{{ahnentafel
{{ahnentafel
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|collapsed=yes |align=center
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[[Category:Nobility from Turin]]
[[Category:Nobility from Turin]]
[[Category:Italian monarchs]]
[[Category:Italian monarchs]]
[[Category:Italian princes]]
[[Category:Princes in Italy]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic monarchs]]
[[Category:Princes of Savoy]]
[[Category:Princes of Savoy]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (military class)]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (military class)]]
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[[Category:Claimant kings of Jerusalem]]
[[Category:Claimant kings of Jerusalem]]
[[Category:Deaths by firearm in Italy]]
[[Category:Deaths by firearm in Italy]]
[[Category:Male murder victims]]
[[Category:Kings of Italy (1861–1946)]]
[[Category:Kings of Italy (1861–1946)]]
[[Category:Grand Masters of the Gold Medal of Military Valor]]
[[Category:Grand Masters of the Gold Medal of Military Valor]]
[[Category:Burials at the Pantheon, Rome]]
[[Category:Burials at the Pantheon, Rome]]
[[Category:Victor Emmanuel II of Italy]]
[[Category:Children of Victor Emmanuel II]]
[[Category:People of the Second Italian War of Independence]]
[[Category:People of the Second Italian War of Independence]]
[[Category:People of the Third Italian War of Independence]]
[[Category:People of the Third Italian War of Independence]]
[[Category:Italian people of the First Italo-Ethiopian War]]

Revision as of 07:29, 15 July 2024

"Umberto I" redirects here. For other uses, see Humbert I.

Umberto I
Portrait of Umberto I in 1882
King of Italy
(more...)
Reign9 January 1878 – 29 July 1900
PredecessorVictor Emmanuel II
SuccessorVictor Emmanuel III
Prime ministers
See list
Born14 March 1844
Turin, Kingdom of Sardinia
Died29 July 1900(1900-07-29) (aged 56)
Monza, Kingdom of Italy
Burial
Pantheon, Rome
Spouse
​
(m. 1868)​
IssueVictor Emmanuel III
Names
Umberto Ranieri Carlo Emanuele Giovanni Maria Ferdinando Eugenio di Savoia
HouseSavoy
FatherVictor Emmanuel II
MotherAdelaide of Austria
ReligionCatholic Church
SignatureUmberto I's signature

Umberto I (Italian: Umberto Ranieri Carlo Emanuele Giovanni Maria Ferdinando Eugenio di Savoia; 14 March 1844 – 29 July 1900) was King of Italy from 9 January 1878 until his assassination in 1900. His reign saw Italy's expansion into the Horn of Africa, as well as the creation of the Triple Alliance among Italy, Germany and Austria-Hungary.

The son of Victor Emmanuel II and Adelaide of Austria, Umberto took part in the Italian Wars of Independence as a commander of the Royal Sardinian Army. He assumed the Italian throne in 1878 on the death of his father. A strong militarist, Umberto approved the alliance with Germany and Austria-Hungary, which was formalised in 1882. He also encouraged Italy's colonial efforts and oversaw the incorporation of Eritrea and Somalia into the Italian Empire.

Domestically, Umberto faced increasing social unrest and serious economic difficulties. Tensions mounted as a result of public opposition to Italy's colonial wars, the spread of socialist ideas, and crackdowns on civil liberties. He was deeply loathed in left-wing circles for his conservatism and his support of the Bava Beccaris massacre in Milan, in which demonstrations over rising food prices were violently suppressed by the military. He was particularly hated by Italian anarchists, who attempted to assassinate him during the first year of his reign.

In 1900, two years after the Bava Beccaris massacre, Umberto was killed in Monza by Italian-American anarchist Gaetano Bresci. He was succeeded by his son, Victor Emmanuel III. Before his killing, he was also one of the recipients of one of Friedrich Nietzsche's Wahnbriefe notes. The Umbertino architecture style was named after him.

Youth

Crown Prince Umberto
Umberto I depicted on a 100 lira gold coin (1891)
Umberto I depicted on a 100 lira gold coin (1891)

The son of Victor Emmanuel II and Archduchess Adelaide of Austria, Umberto was born in Turin, which was then capital of the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia, on 14 March 1844,[1] his father's 24th birthday. His education was entrusted to, among others, Massimo Taparelli, Marquess d'Azeglio, and Pasquale Stanislao Mancini.[1] As Crown Prince, Umberto was distrusted by his father, who gave him no training in politics or constitutional government. Umberto was brought up with no affection or love.[2] Instead, Umberto was taught to be obedient and loyal; he had to stand at attention whenever his father entered the room. When speaking to his father, Umberto had to get down on his knees to kiss his father's hand first.[2] The fact that Umberto had to kiss his father's hand before being allowed to speak to him (both in public and in private) right up to his father's death contributed much to the tension between the two.[2]

From March 1858, he had a military career in the Royal Sardinian Army, beginning with the rank of captain.[1] Umberto took part in the Italian Wars of Independence. In the Second War of Italian Independence (1859), Umberto, who was only 14, was present at the battle of Solferino.[3] In the Third War of Italian Independence (1866), Umberto commanded the XVI Division at the Villafranca battle that followed the Italian defeat at Custoza.[1]

Because of the upheaval the House of Savoy caused to a number of other royal houses (all the Italian ones, and those related closely to them, such as the Bourbons of Spain and France) in 1859–60, only a minority of royal families in the 1860s were willing to establish relations with the newly founded Italian royal family. It proved difficult to find any royal bride for either of the sons of king Victor Emmanuel II (his younger son Amedeo, Umberto's brother, married ultimately a Piedmontese subject, princess Vittoria of Cisterna). Their conflict with the papacy did not help these matters. Not many eligible Catholic royal brides were easily available for young Umberto.[citation needed]

At first, Umberto was to marry Archduchess Mathilde of Austria, a scion of a remote sideline of the Austrian imperial house; however, she died as the result of an accident at the age of 18. On 21 April 1868, Umberto married his first cousin, Margherita Teresa Giovanna, Princess of Savoy.[1] Their only son was Victor Emmanuel, prince of Naples.[1] While Umberto was to be described by a modern historian as "a colourless and physically unimpressive man, of limited intellect", Margherita's appearance, cultural interests and strong personality were to enhance the popularity of the monarchy.[4] Umberto kept many mistresses on the side, and his favourite mistress, Eugenia, the wife of Duke Litta Visconti-Arese, lived with him at his court as his common-law wife. He forced Queen Margherita to accept Eugenia as a lady-in-waiting.[5]

In 1876, when the British Foreign Secretary, Lord Salisbury, visited Rome, he reported to London that King Victor Emmanuel II and Crown Prince Umberto were "at war with each other".[6] Upon taking the Crown, Umberto dismissed all of his father's friends from the court, sold off his father's racing horse collection (which numbered 1,000 horses) and cut down on extravagances to pay down the debts Victor Emmanuel II had run up.[2] The British historian Denis Mack Smith commented that it was a sign of the great wealth of the House of Savoy that Umberto was able to pay off his father's debts without having to ask parliament for assistance.[2]

Like his father, Umberto was a poorly educated man without intellectual or artistic interests, never read any books, and preferred to dictate rather than write letters. He found writing to be too mentally taxing.[2] He was said to have been raised with no real plan and was even uncomfortable when writing his signature in front of onlookers.[7] After meeting him, Queen Victoria described Umberto as having his father's "gruff, abrupt manner of speaking", but without his "rough speech and manners".[2] In contrast, Queen Margherita was widely read in all the classics of European literature, and kept up a salon of intellectuals. Although French was her first language, Margherita was often praised for her beautiful Italian in her letters and when speaking.[5]

Reign

Accession to the throne and first assassination attempt

Ascending the throne on the death of his father (9 January 1878), Umberto adopted the title "Umberto I of Italy" rather than "Umberto IV"[1] (of Savoy), ignoring his three ancestral namesakes, Umberto I, Umberto II, and Umberto III.[3] He consented that the remains of his father should be interred at Rome in the Pantheon, rather than the royal mausoleum of the Basilica of Superga.[1] While on a tour of the kingdom, accompanied by Queen Margherita and the Prime Minister Benedetto Cairoli, he was attacked with a dagger by an anarchist, Giovanni Passannante, during a parade in Naples on 17 November 1878. The King warded off the blow with his sabre, but Cairoli, in attempting to defend him, was severely wounded in the thigh.[1] The would-be assassin was condemned to death,[1] even though the law only allowed the death penalty if the King was killed. The King commuted the sentence to one of penal servitude for life,[1] which was served in a cell only 1.4 meters (4 ft 7 in) high, without sanitation and with 18 kilograms (40 lb) of chains. Passanante would die three decades later in a psychiatric institution.[8]

Foreign policy

The royal family of King Umberto I
Wearing the robes of the Order of the Garter

In foreign policy, Umberto I approved the Triple Alliance with Austria-Hungary and the German Empire, repeatedly visiting Vienna and Berlin. Many in Italy, however, viewed with hostility an alliance with their former Austrian enemies, who were still occupying areas claimed by Italy.[9] The Alliance was later renewed with the addition of commercial treaties.[9] A strong militarist, Umberto loved Prussian-German militarism.[9] On his visits to Germany, his favourite activity was to review the Prussian Army and he was greatly honoured to be allowed to lead a Prussian hussar regiment on field manoeuvres outside of Frankfurt.[10] Emperor Wilhelm II of Germany told him during one visit that he should strengthen the Regio Esercito to the point that he could abolish parliament and rule Italy as a dictator.[10]

A major criticism of the policies carried out by the Prime Ministers appointed by Umberto was the continued power of organized crime in the Mezzogiorno (southern Italy), with the Mafia dominating Sicily and the Camorra dominating Campania.[11] Both the Mafia and the Camorra functioned as "parallel states" whose existence and power was tolerated by successive governments in Rome as both the Mafia and the Camorra engaged in electoral fraud and voter intimidation so effective that it was Mafia and Camorra bosses who decided who won elections.[12] As it was impossible to win elections in the Mezzogiorno without the support of organized crime, politicians cut deals with the bosses of the Camorra and Mafia to exchange toleration of their criminal activities for votes.[12] The Mezzogiorno was the most backward region of Italy with high levels of poverty, emigration and an illiteracy rate estimated as high as 70%.[13] The deputies from the Mezzogiorno always voted against more schools for the Mezzogiorno, thus perpetuating southern backwardness and poverty as both the Mafia and the Camorra were opposed to any sort of social reform that might threaten their power.[13] However, the king preferred heavy military spending rather than engaging in social reforms and every year, the Italian state spent 10 times more money on the military than on education.[14] Umberto, an aggressive proponent of militarism, once said that to accept cuts in the military budget would be "an abject scandal and we might as well give up politics altogether".[15] At least part of the reason why Umberto was so opposed to cutting the military budget was because he personally promised Emperor Wilhelm II that Italy would send 5 army corps to Germany in the event of a war with France, a promise that the king did not see fit to share with his prime ministers.[15]

Umberto was also favourably disposed towards the policy of colonial expansion inaugurated in 1885 by the occupation of Massawa[1] in Eritrea. Italy expanded into Somalia in the 1880s as well. Umberto's preferred solution to the problems of Italy was to conquer Ethiopia, regardless of overwhelming public opposition. He supported the ultra-imperialist Prime Minister Francesco Crispi who in May 1895 spoke of "the absolute impossibility of continuing to govern through Parliament."[16] In December 1893, Umberto appointed Crispi prime minister despite his "shattered reputation" due to his involvement in the Banca Romana scandal together with numerous other scandals that the king himself called "sordid".[17] As Crispi was heavily in debt, the king secretly agreed to pay off his debts in exchange for Crispi following the king's advice.[17]

Umberto openly called Parliament a "bad joke" and refused to allow Parliament to meet again lest Crispi faced difficult questions about the Banca Romana scandal. Crispi only avoided indictment because of his parliamentary immunity.[16] When the king was warned that it was dangerous for the crown to support someone like Crispi, Umberto replied that "Crispi is a pig, but a necessary pig", who despite his corruption, had to stay in power for "the national interest, which is the only thing that matters".[16] With the support of the king, Crispi governed in an authoritarian manner, preferring to pass legislation by having the king issue royal decrees as opposed to getting bills passed by Parliament. On 25 June 1895 Crispi refused to allow a parliamentary inquiry into the bank scandal, saying that as a prime minister, he was above the law because he had "served Italy for 53 years".[18] Umberto I was suspected of aspiring to a vast empire in northeast Africa, a suspicion which tended somewhat to diminish his popularity after the disastrous Battle of Adwa in Ethiopia on 1 March 1896.[1] After the Battle of Adwa, public frustration with the deeply unpopular war with Ethiopia came to the fore, and demonstrations broke out in Rome with people shouting "death to the king!" and "long live the republic!".[19]

Menelik II's victory over the Italians at the Battle of Adwa
Umberto's coat of arms as a knight of the garter

Despite the defeat at Adwa, Umberto still harboured imperialistic ambitions towards Ethiopia, saying: "I am what they call a warmonger and my personal wish would be to strike back at Menelik and avenge our defeat."[20] In 1897, the prime minister, Antonio Starabba, Marchese di Rudinì tried to sell Eritrea to Belgium on the grounds that Eritrea was too expensive to hold onto, but was overruled by the king who insisted that Eritrea must stay Italian.[21] Rudinì attempted to reduce military spending, citing a study showing that since 1861 military spending constituted over half the budget every year, but was again blocked by the king.[21] In 1899, Foreign Minister Felice Napoleone Canevaro dispatched a Regia Marina squadron to China with an ultimatum demanding that the Chinese government hand over a coastal city to be ruled as an Italian concession in the same manner as other Western imperial powers in China.[22] Prime Minister Luigi Pelloux and his fellow cabinet ministers stated that Canevaro had acted without informing them, and it was widely believed that the king was the one who had given Canevaro the orders to acquire a concession in China.[22] After the Chinese government refused, Canevaro threatened war, but was forced to back down. He settled for breaking diplomatic relations with China.[22]

In the summer of 1900, Italian forces were part of the Eight-Nation Alliance which participated in suppressing the Boxer Rebellion in Imperial China. Through the Boxer Protocol, signed after Umberto's death, the Kingdom of Italy gained a concession territory in Tientsin.

Umberto's attitude towards the Holy See was uncompromising. In an 1886 telegram, he declared Rome "untouchable" and affirmed the permanence of the Italian possession of the "Eternal City".[1]

Turmoil

Umberto I in his later years

The reign of Umberto I was a time of social upheaval, though it was later claimed to have been a tranquil Belle Époque.[by whom?] Social tensions mounted as a consequence of the relatively recent occupation of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, the spread of socialist ideas, public hostility to the colonialist plans of the various governments, especially Crispi's, and the numerous crackdowns on civil liberties. The protesters included the young Benito Mussolini, then a member of the socialist party. On 22 April 1897, Umberto I was attacked again, by an unemployed ironsmith, Pietro Acciarito, who tried to stab him near Rome.[citation needed]

Bava Beccaris massacre

Main article: Bava Beccaris massacre

During the colonial wars in Africa, large demonstrations over the rising price of bread were held in Italy and on 7 May 1898, the city of Milan was put under military rule by General Fiorenzo Bava Beccaris, who ordered rifle-fire and artillery against the demonstrators. As a result, 82 people were killed according to the authorities, with opposition sources claiming that the death toll was 400 dead with 2,000 wounded.[23] King Umberto sent a telegram to congratulate Bava Beccaris on the restoration of order and later decorated him with the medal of Great Official of Savoy Military Order, greatly outraging a large part of the public opinion.

Assassination

Gaetano Bresci, the killer of Umberto I
Tomb of Umberto I at the Pantheon

On the evening of 29 July 1900, Italian-American anarchist Gaetano Bresci assassinated Umberto in Monza by shooting him four times. Bresci claimed he wanted to avenge the people killed in Milan during the suppression of the riots of May 1898.[24]

Umberto was buried in the Pantheon in Rome, by the side of his father Victor Emmanuel II, on 9 August 1900.[1] He was the last Savoy to be buried there, as his son and successor Victor Emmanuel III died in exile and was buried in Egypt until his remains were transferred to Vicoforte near Cuneo in 2017.

American anarchist Leon F. Czolgosz claimed that the assassination of Umberto I was his inspiration to kill President William McKinley in September 1901.[25]

Honours

Italian

Foreign

Ancestry

References

  1. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Steed, Henry Wickham (1911). "Humbert, Ranieri Carlo Emanuele Giovanni Maria Ferdinando Eugenio, King of Italy" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 13 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 872–873.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g Denis Mack Smith (1989). Italy and Its Monarchy. Yale University Press. p. 71. ISBN 0300051328.
  3. ^ a b Newton, Michael (2014). Famous Assassinations in World History [2 volumes]: An Encyclopedia [2 volumes]. New York: Bloomsbury Publishing USA. p. 589. ISBN 978-1-61069-286-1.
  4. ^ Christopher Duggan (2007). The Force of Destiny. A History of Italy Since 1796. Allen Lane. p. 307. ISBN 978-0-713-99709-5.
  5. ^ a b Denis Mack Smith (1989). Italy and Its Monarchy. Yale University Press. p. 72. ISBN 0300051328.
  6. ^ Denis Mack Smith (1989). Italy and Its Monarchy. Yale University Press. p. 60. ISBN 0300051328.
  7. ^ Müller, Frank Lorenz (2023). Royal Heirs: Succession and the Future of Monarchy in Nineteenth-Century Europe. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 123. ISBN 978-1-316-51291-3.
  8. ^ Salvatore Merlino, «L'Italia così com'è», 1891 in "Al caffè", by Errico Malatesta, 1922
  9. ^ a b c Ungari, Andrea (2013). The Libyan War 1911-1912. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. pp. 23–24. ISBN 978-1-4438-4837-4.
  10. ^ a b Denis Mack Smith (1989). Italy and Its Monarchy. Yale University Press. p. 109. ISBN 0300051328.
  11. ^ Denis Mack Smith (1989). Italy and Its Monarchy. Yale University Press. p. 164. ISBN 0300051328.
  12. ^ a b Denis Mack Smith (1989). Italy and Its Monarchy. Yale University Press. pp. 164–165. ISBN 0300051328.
  13. ^ a b Denis Mack Smith (1989). Italy and Its Monarchy. Yale University Press. p. 165. ISBN 0300051328.
  14. ^ Denis Mack Smith (1989). Italy and Its Monarchy. Yale University Press. p. 101. ISBN 0300051328.
  15. ^ a b Denis Mack Smith (1989). Italy and Its Monarchy. Yale University Press. p. 99. ISBN 0300051328.
  16. ^ a b c Denis Mack Smith (1989). Italy and Its Monarchy. Yale University Press. p. 115. ISBN 0300051328.
  17. ^ a b Denis Mack Smith (1989). Italy and Its Monarchy. Yale University Press. p. 106. ISBN 0300051328.
  18. ^ Denis Mack Smith (1989). Italy and Its Monarchy. Yale University Press. p. 116. ISBN 0300051328.
  19. ^ Denis Mack Smith (1989). Italy and Its Monarchy. Yale University Press. p. 122. ISBN 0300051328.
  20. ^ Denis Mack Smith (1989). Italy and Its Monarchy. Yale University Press. pp. 134–135. ISBN 0300051328.
  21. ^ a b Denis Mack Smith (1989). Italy and Its Monarchy. Yale University Press. p. 129. ISBN 0300051328.
  22. ^ a b c Denis Mack Smith (1989). Italy and Its Monarchy. Yale University Press. p. 135. ISBN 0300051328.
  23. ^ BBC History Magazine, October 2013, p. 91
  24. ^ Christopher Duggan (2007). The Force of Destiny. A History of Italy Since 1796. Allen Lane. p. 349. ISBN 978-0-713-99709-5.
  25. ^ Kemp, Michael (2018). "The Cook, the Blacksmith, the King and the Weaver". Bombs, Bullets and Bread: The Politics of Anarchist Terrorism Worldwide, 1866–1926. McFarland. p. 62. ISBN 978-1-4766-3211-7.
  26. ^ Cibrario, Luigi (1869). Notizia storica del nobilissimo ordine supremo della santissima Annunziata. Sunto degli statuti, catalogo dei cavalieri (in Italian). Eredi Botta. p. 116. Retrieved 4 March 2019.
  27. ^ a b Justus Perthes, Almanach de Gotha (1900) p. 47
  28. ^ "Umberto Ranieri di Savoia" (in Italian), Il sito ufficiale della Presidenza della Repubblica. Retrieved 14 August 2018.
  29. ^ Boettger, T. F. "Chevaliers de la Toisón d'Or – Knights of the Golden Fleece". La Confrérie Amicale. Retrieved 25 June 2019.
  30. ^ "A Szent István Rend tagjai" Archived 22 December 2010 at the Wayback Machine
  31. ^ Hof- und Staats-Handbuch des Großherzogtum Baden (1873), "Großherzogliche Orden" pp. 60, 74
  32. ^ a b c d e f g Gazzette
  33. ^ Hof- und Staats-Handbuch des Königreich Bayern (1873), "Königliche Orden" p. 10
  34. ^ Belgien (1869). Almanach royal officiel: 1869. p. 53.
  35. ^ Jørgen Pedersen (2009). Riddere af Elefantordenen, 1559–2009 (in Danish). Syddansk Universitetsforlag. p. 466. ISBN 978-87-7674-434-2.
  36. ^ Staatshandbücher für das Herzogtum Sachsen-Coburg und Gotha (1884), "Herzogliche Sachsen-Ernestinischer Hausorden" p. 31
  37. ^ "The Royal Order of Kamehameha". crownofhawaii.com. Official website of the Royal Family of Hawaii. Archived from the original on 28 February 2023. Retrieved 2 December 2019.
  38. ^ 刑部芳則 (2017). 明治時代の勲章外交儀礼 (PDF) (in Japanese). 明治聖徳記念学会紀要. p. 143.
  39. ^ Lehmann, Gustaf (1913). Die Ritter des Ordens pour le mérite 1812–1913 [The Knights of the Order of the Pour le Mérite] (in German). Vol. 2. Berlin: Ernst Siegfried Mittler & Sohn. p. 535.
  40. ^ Staatshandbuch für das Großherzogtum Sachsen / Sachsen-Weimar-Eisenach Archived 6 September 2020 at the Wayback Machine (1900), "Großherzogliche Hausorden" p. 16
  41. ^ Staatshandbuch für den Freistaat Sachsen: 1873. Heinrich. 1873. p. 4.
  42. ^ "Real y distinguida orden de Carlos III". Guía Oficial de España. 1887. p. 156. Retrieved 21 March 2019.
  43. ^ "Caballeros Grandes Cruces Real y Militar Orden de San Fernando". Guía Oficial de España. 1887. p. 387. Retrieved 21 March 2019.
  44. ^ Sveriges statskalender (in Swedish), 1877, p. 368, retrieved 6 January 2018 – via runeberg.org
  45. ^ Shaw, Wm. A. (1906) The Knights of England, I, London, p. 65
  46. ^ Hof- und Staats-Handbuch des Königreich Württemberg (1907), "Königliche Orden" p. 28
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Umberto I of Italy
Born: 14 March 1844 Died: 29 July 1900
Regnal titles
Preceded by King of Italy
1878–1900 		Succeeded by
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