Cassava: Difference between revisions
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{{short description| |
{{short description|Staple crop}} |
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{{good article}} |
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{{Redirect|Yuca|the flowering shrubs|Yucca}} |
{{Redirect|Yuca|the flowering shrubs|Yucca}} |
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{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2018}} |
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2018}} |
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{{speciesbox |
{{speciesbox |
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|name |
|name=Cassava |
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|image |
|image=Manihot_esculenta_-_Köhler–s_Medizinal-Pflanzen-090.jpg |
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|image_alt |
|image_alt=[[Botanical illustration]] of plant leaves and flowers |
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|image2 |
|image2=Manihot esculenta 001.jpg |
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|image2_caption |
|image2_caption=[[Tuber]] (waxed) |
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|image2_alt |
|image2_alt=Photograph of oblong brown tuber, waxed |
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|genus |
|genus=Manihot |
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|species |
|species=esculenta |
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|authority |
|authority=[[Heinrich Johann Nepomuk von Crantz|Crantz]]<ref name=POWO>{{cite web |url=https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:351790-1#synonyms |title=''Manihot esculenta'' Crantz, Rei Herb. 1: 167 (1766) |date=2022 |work=[[Plants of the World Online]] |publisher=Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew |access-date=11 November 2022 |archive-date=11 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221111131249/https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:351790-1#synonyms |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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|synonyms |
|synonyms= |
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* ''Janipha aipi'' <small>(Pohl) J.Presl</small> |
* ''Janipha aipi'' <small>(Pohl) J.Presl</small> |
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* ''Janipha manihot'' <small>(L.) Kunth</small> |
* ''Janipha manihot'' <small>(L.) Kunth</small> |
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* ''Manihot sprucei'' <small>Pax</small> |
* ''Manihot sprucei'' <small>Pax</small> |
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* ''Manihot utilissima'' <small>Pohl</small> |
* ''Manihot utilissima'' <small>Pohl</small> |
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|synonyms_ref |
|synonyms_ref=<ref name=POWO/> |
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}} |
}} |
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'''''Manihot esculenta''''', [[common name|commonly called]] '''cassava''' |
'''''Manihot esculenta''''', [[common name|commonly called]] '''cassava''', '''manioc''',<!--<ref name=GRIN>{{GRIN |access-date=4 January 2014}}</ref>--> or '''yuca''' (among numerous regional names), is a woody [[shrub]] of the [[spurge]] family, [[Euphorbiaceae]], native to South America, from Brazil, Paraguay and parts of the Andes. Although a perennial plant, cassava is extensively cultivated in [[tropical]] and [[subtropical]] regions as an annual [[crop]] for its edible [[starch]]y root [[tuber]]. Cassava is predominantly consumed in boiled form, but substantial quantities are processed to extract cassava starch, called [[tapioca]], which is used for food, animal feed, and industrial purposes. The Brazilian {{lang|pt-BR|farinha}}, and the related ''[[garri]]'' of West Africa, is an edible coarse flour obtained by grating cassava roots, pressing moisture off the obtained grated pulp, and finally drying it (and roasting in the case of both {{lang|pt-BR|farinha}} and ''garri''). |
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Cassava is the third-largest source of carbohydrates in food in the tropics, after [[rice]] and [[maize]], making it an important [[staple food|staple]]; more than 500 million people depend on it. It offers the advantage of being exceptionally [[drought-tolerant]], and able to grow productively on poor soil. The largest producer is Nigeria, while Thailand is the largest exporter of cassava starch. |
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Cassava is the third-largest source of food carbohydrates in the tropics, after [[rice]] and [[maize]].<ref name="FAO">{{cite web|title=Cassava|publisher= [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] of the United Nations (FAO) |url=http://www.fao.org/ag/agp/agpc/gcds/|access-date=24 November 2011|archive-date=18 November 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161118061344/http://www.fao.org/ag/agp/agpc/gcds/}}</ref><ref name="Claude-Denis-1990">{{cite journal | author1 = Fauquet Claude | author2 = Fargette Denis | year = 1990 | title = African Cassava Mosaic Virus: Etiology, Epidemiology, and Control | url = http://www.apsnet.org/publications/PlantDisease/BackIssues/Documents/1990Articles/PlantDisease74n06_404.pdf | journal = [[Plant Disease (journal)|Plant Disease]] | publisher = [[American Phytopathological Society]] (APS) | volume = 74 | issue = 6 | pages = 404–11 | doi = 10.1094/pd-74-0404 | access-date = 10 January 2011 | archive-date = 9 August 2017 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170809004240/http://www.apsnet.org/publications/PlantDisease/BackIssues/Documents/1990Articles/PlantDisease74n06_404.pdf | url-status = live }}</ref><ref name="Afedraru-2019">{{cite web | last=Afedraru | first=Lominda | title=Uganda to launch innovative gene-edited cassava research | website=[[Alliance for Science]] | date=2019-01-31 | url=http://allianceforscience.cornell.edu/blog/2019/01/uganda-launch-innovative-gene-edited-cassava-research/ | access-date=2021-08-15 | archive-date=15 August 2021 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210815171521/https://allianceforscience.cornell.edu/blog/2019/01/uganda-launch-innovative-gene-edited-cassava-research/ | url-status=live }}</ref> Cassava is a major [[staple food]] in the developing world, providing a basic diet for over half a billion people.<ref>{{cite web|title=Dimensions of Need: An atlas of food and agriculture|publisher=United Nations [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] (FAO) |year=1995|url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/u8480e/U8480E01.htm|access-date=23 November 2011|archive-date=24 November 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161124095410/http://www.fao.org/docrep/u8480e/U8480E01.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> It is one of the most [[drought-tolerant]] crops, capable of growing on marginal soils. Nigeria is the world's largest producer of cassava, while Thailand is the largest exporter of cassava starch. |
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Cassava is grown in sweet and bitter varieties; both contain toxins, but the bitter varieties have them in much larger amounts. Cassava has to be prepared carefully for consumption, as improperly prepared material can contain sufficient [[cyanide]] to cause [[cyanide poisoning|poisoning]]. The more toxic varieties of cassava have been used in some places as [[famine food]] during times of [[food insecurity]]. Farmers may however choose bitter cultivars to minimise crop losses. |
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Cassava is classified as either sweet or bitter. Like other roots and tubers, both bitter and sweet varieties of cassava contain [[antinutrient|antinutritional]] factors and toxins, with the bitter varieties containing much larger amounts.<ref name="fao.org">{{cite book|publisher= [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] of the United Nations (FAO) |year=1990|title=Roots, tubers, plantains and bananas in human nutrition|chapter=Ch. 7 Toxic substances and antinutritional factors|chapter-url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/t0207e/T0207E08.htm#Cassava%20toxicity|place=Rome|isbn=9789251028629|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/rootstubersplant0000unse}}</ref> It must be properly prepared before consumption, as improper preparation of cassava can leave enough residual [[cyanide]] to cause acute [[cyanide poisoning|cyanide intoxication]],<ref name="promedmail-4799579">{{cite web|url=https://www.promedmail.org/post/4799579|title=CASSAVA POISONING – VENEZUELA|date=29 January 2017|access-date=29 January 2017|publisher=[[ProMED-mail]]|archive-date=2 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202061550/https://www.promedmail.org/post/4799579}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Cassava poisoning was integral to Episode 177 of Series 17 of the BBC drama 'Doctors' |publisher=BBC |date=5 February 2016 |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/iplayer/episode/b06zn3j8/doctors-series-17-177-a-taste-of-home |access-date=13 February 2018 |archive-date=8 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160208105645/http://www.bbc.co.uk/iplayer/episode/b06zn3j8/doctors-series-17-177-a-taste-of-home |url-status=live }}</ref> [[goiter]], [[ataxia]], partial paralysis, or death.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Soto-Blanco |first1=Benito |last2=Górniak |first2=Silvana Lima |date=2010-07-01 |title=Toxic effects of prolonged administration of leaves of cassava (''Manihot esculenta'' Crantz) to goats |journal=[[Experimental and Toxicologic Pathology]]|language=en |volume=62 |issue=4 |pages=361–366 |doi=10.1016/j.etp.2009.05.011 |pmid=19559583 |issn=0940-2993}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Suharti |first1=Sri |last2=Oktafiani |first2=Hafni |last3=Sudarman |first3=Asep |last4=Baik |first4=Myunggi |last5=Wiryawan |first5=Komang Gede |date=2021-12-01 |title=Effect of cyanide-degrading bacteria inoculation on performance, rumen fermentation characteristics of sheep fed bitter cassava (''Manihot esculenta'' Crantz) leaf meal|journal=[[Annals of Agricultural Sciences]]|language=en |volume=66 |issue=2 |pages=131–136 |doi=10.1016/j.aoas.2021.09.001 |s2cid=244191058 |issn=0570-1783|doi-access=free }}</ref> The more toxic varieties of cassava have been used in some places as [[famine food]] during times of [[food insecurity]].<ref name="promedmail-4799579" /><ref name="fao.org"/> Farmers often prefer the bitter varieties because they deter pests, animals, and thieves.<ref name="leisa">{{cite journal |author1=Chiwona-Karltun, Linley |author2=Katundu, Chrissie |author3=Ngoma, James |author4=Chipungu, Felistus |author5=Mkumbira, Jonathan |author6=Simukoko, Sidney |author7=Jiggins, Janice |year=2002 |title=Bitter cassava and women: an intriguing response to food security |journal=[[LEISA Magazine]] |volume=18 |issue=4 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/255687456 |access-date=22 September 2018 |archive-date=22 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180922101746/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/255687456 |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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== Etymology == |
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The [[genus|generic]] name ''[[Manihot]]'' and the common name "manioc" both derive from the [[Guarani language|Guarani]] (Tupi) name ''mandioca'' or ''manioca'' for the plant.<ref name="SNP"/><ref>{{cite web |title=manioc (n.) |url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/manioc|publisher=[[Online Etymology Dictionary]] |access-date=7 July 2024}}</ref> The specific name ''esculenta'' is Latin for 'edible'.<ref name="SNP">{{cite web |title=''Manihot esculenta'' Crantz |publisher=Singapore National Parks |url=https://www.nparks.gov.sg/florafaunaweb/flora/2/2/2210 |access-date=7 July 2024 |quote=Genus Manihot is from the Tupi-Guarani name "manioca" which means cassava. Species esculenta means edible by humans.}}</ref> The common name "cassava" is a 16th century word from the French or Portuguese ''cassave'', in turn from [[Taíno]] ''caçabi''.<ref>{{cite web |title=cassava (n.) |url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/cassava |publisher=[[Online Etymology Dictionary]] |access-date=7 July 2024}}</ref> The common name "yuca" or "yucca" is most likely also from Taíno, via Spanish ''yuca'' or ''juca''.<ref>{{cite web |title=yucca (n.) |url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/yucca |publisher=[[Online Etymology Dictionary]] |access-date=7 July 2024}}</ref> |
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The cassava root is long and tapered, with a firm, homogeneous flesh encased in a detachable rind, about {{Convert|1|mm|abbr=off|frac=16}} thick, rough and brown on the outside. Commercial [[cultivar]]s can be {{convert|5|to|10|cm|in|0}} in diameter at the top, and around {{convert|15|to|30|cm|in|0|abbr=on}} long. A woody vascular bundle runs along the root's [[Coordinate axis|axis]]. The flesh can be chalk-white or yellowish. Cassava roots are very rich in [[starch]] and contain small amounts of calcium (16 milligrams per 100 grams), phosphorus (27 mg/100 g), and [[Vitamin C|vitamin C]] (20.6 mg/100 g).<ref>{{cite web|title=Basic Report: 11134, Cassava, raw|url=https://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/show/2907?manu=&fgcd=&ds=|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170712215400/https://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/show/2907?manu=&fgcd=&ds=|archive-date=12 July 2017|website=National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference Release 28|date=May 2016|publisher=Agricultural Research Service, US Department of Agriculture|access-date=7 December 2016}}</ref> However, they are poor in [[protein]] and other [[nutrient]]s. In contrast, cassava leaves are a good source of protein for [[animal]] and [[human]]<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Latif |first1=Sajid |last2=Müller |first2=Joachim |title=Potential of cassava leaves in human nutrition: a review|journal=[[Trends in Food Science & Technology]]|year=2015 |volume=44 |issue=2 |pages=147–158 |doi=10.1016/j.tifs.2015.04.006 |url=https://www.academia.edu/download/41611089/Potential_of_cassava_leaves_in_human_nut20160126-5657-1smq23z.pdf |access-date=7 September 2022}}</ref> |
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nutrition, but deficient in the [[amino acid]] [[methionine]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ravindran|first=Velmerugu|title=Preparation of cassava leaf products and their use as animal feeds|journal=[[FAO Animal Production and Health Paper]]|issue=95|pages=111–125|year=1992|url=http://www.fao.org/Ag/AGA/AGAP/FRG/AHPP95/95-111.pdf|access-date=13 August 2010|archive-date=15 January 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120115022720/http://www.fao.org/Ag/AGA/AGAP/FRG/AHPP95/95-111.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> |
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== Description == |
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{{gallery|mode=packed |
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|Cassava plant.jpg|Cassava plant |
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The harvested part of a cassava plant is the root. This is long and tapered, with an easily detached rough brown rind. The white or yellowish flesh is firm and even in texture. Commercial [[cultivar]]s can be {{convert|5|to|10|cm|in|0}} wide at the top, and some {{convert|15|to|30|cm|in|0|abbr=on}} long, with a woody vascular bundle running down the middle. The roots are largely [[starch]], with small amounts of calcium (16 milligrams per 100 grams), phosphorus (27 mg/100 g), and [[Vitamin C|vitamin C]] (20.6 mg/100 g).<ref>{{cite web|title=Basic Report: 11134, Cassava, raw|url=https://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/show/2907?manu=&fgcd=&ds=|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170712215400/https://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/show/2907?manu=&fgcd=&ds=|archive-date=12 July 2017|website=National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference Release 28|date=May 2016|publisher=Agricultural Research Service, US Department of Agriculture|access-date=7 December 2016}}</ref> Cassava roots contains little [[protein]], whereas the leaves are rich in protein,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Latif |first1=Sajid |last2=Müller |first2=Joachim |title=Potential of cassava leaves in human nutrition: a review |journal=[[Trends in Food Science & Technology]] |year=2015 |volume=44 |issue=2 |pages=147–158 |doi=10.1016/j.tifs.2015.04.006 }}</ref> except for being low in [[methionine]], an essential [[amino acid]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ravindran|first=Velmerugu |title=Preparation of cassava leaf products and their use as animal feeds |journal=FAO Animal Production and Health Paper |issue=95 |pages=111–125 |year=1992 |url=http://www.fao.org/Ag/AGA/AGAP/FRG/AHPP95/95-111.pdf |access-date=13 August 2010 |archive-date=15 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120115022720/http://www.fao.org/Ag/AGA/AGAP/FRG/AHPP95/95-111.pdf |url-status=dead}}</ref> |
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|Manihot esculenta dsc07325.jpg|Unprocessed roots |
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|Manihot esculenta - cross section 2.jpg|Tuber in cross-section |
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<gallery class=center mode=nolines widths=180 heights=180> |
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|Cassava1 (3945716612).jpg |Leaf |
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File:Cassava plant.jpg|Cassava plant |
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|Cassava2 (3945624614).jpg |Leaf detail |
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File:Manihot esculenta dsc07325.jpg|Unprocessed tubers |
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|Cassava buds (4733912948).jpg |Picked buds |
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File:Manihot esculenta - cross section 2.jpg|Tuber in cross-section |
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File:Cassava1 (3945716612).jpg |Leaf |
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}} |
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File:Cassava2 (3945624614).jpg |Leaf detail |
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File:Manihot esculenta cassava flower vijayanrajapuram.jpg|Flower buds |
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File:Manihot esculenta MHNT.BOT.2004.0.508.jpg |Seeds |
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</gallery> |
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=== Genome === |
=== Genome === |
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The complete and haplotype-resolved African cassava (TME204) genome was reconstructed and made available using the Hi-C technology.<ref name="qi">{{Cite journal |last1=Qi |first1=W. |last2=Lim |first2=Y. |last3=Patrignani |first3=A. |last4=Schläpfer |first4=P. |last5=Bratus-Neuenschwander |first5=A. |last6=Grüter |first6=S. |last7=Chanez |first7=C. |last8=Rodde |first8=N. |last9=Prat |first9=E. |last10=Vautrin |first10=S. |last11=Fustier |first11=M. |year=2022 |title=The haplotype-resolved chromosome pairs of a heterozygous diploid African cassava cultivar reveal novel pan-genome and allele-specific transcriptome features |journal=[[GigaScience]] |volume=11 |doi=10.1093/gigascience/giac028 |pmid=35333302 |last12=Pratas |first12=D. |last13=Schlapbach |first13=R. |last14=Gruissem |first14=W.|pmc=8952263 }}</ref> The genome shows abundant novel gene loci with enriched functionality related to chromatin organization, meristem development, and cell responses.<ref name="qi" /> Differentially expressed transcripts of different haplotype origins were enriched for different functionality during tissue development. In each tissue, 20–30% of transcripts showed allele-specific expression differences with <2% of direction-shifting. Despite high gene synteny, the HiFi genome assembly revealed extensive chromosome rearrangements and abundant intra-genomic and inter-genomic divergent sequences, with significant structural variations mostly related to long terminal repeat retrotransposons.<ref name="qi" /> |
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The complete and haplotype-resolved African cassava (TME204) genome has been reconstructed and made available using the Hi-C technology.<ref name="qi">{{Cite journal |last1=Qi |first1=W. |last2=Lim |first2=Y. |last3=Patrignani |first3=A. |last4=Schläpfer |first4=P. |last5=Bratus-Neuenschwander |first5=A. |last6=Grüter |first6=S. |last7=Chanez |first7=C. |last8=Rodde |first8=N. |last9=Prat |first9=E. |last10=Vautrin |first10=S. |last11=Fustier |first11=M. |year=2022 |title=The haplotype-resolved chromosome pairs of a heterozygous diploid African cassava cultivar reveal novel pan-genome and allele-specific transcriptome features |journal=[[GigaScience]] |volume=11 |doi=10.1093/gigascience/giac028 |pmid=35333302 |last12=Pratas |first12=D. |last13=Schlapbach |first13=R. |last14=Gruissem |first14=W.|pmc=8952263 }}</ref> The genome shows abundant novel gene loci with enriched functionality related to chromatin organization, meristem development, and cell responses.<ref name="qi" /> Differentially expressed transcripts of different haplotype origins were enriched for different functionality during tissue development. In each tissue, 20–30% of transcripts showed allele-specific expression differences with <2% of direction-shifting. Despite high gene synteny, the HiFi genome assembly revealed extensive chromosome rearrangements and abundant intra-genomic and inter-genomic divergent sequences, with significant structural variations mostly related to long terminal repeat retrotransposons.<ref name="qi" /> |
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Although [[smallholder]]s are otherwise [[economic efficiency|economically inefficient]] producers, they are vital to productivity at particular times.<ref name="Challenges-Opportunities" /> Small cassava farmers are no exception.<ref name="Challenges-Opportunities" /> [[Crop genetic diversity|Genetic diversity]] is vital when productivity has declined due to [[crop pest|pests]] and [[List of cassava diseases|diseases]], and smallholders tend to retain less productive but more diverse [[gene pool]]s.<ref name="Challenges-Opportunities">{{cite journal|date=2020|issn=0817-8038|journal=[[Pacific Economic Bulletin]]|publisher=[[Asia Pacific Press]]|first5=Mike|first4=R.|first3=S.|first2=M.|first1=Andrew|last5=Bourke|last4=Deo|last3=Tubuna|last2=Manley|last1=McGregor|title=Pacific Island food security: situation, challenges and opportunities|hdl=1885/39234}}</ref> |
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Although [[smallholder]]s are otherwise [[economic efficiency|economically inefficient]] producers, they are vital to productivity at particular times.<ref name="Challenges-Opportunities" /> Small cassava farmers are no exception.<ref name="Challenges-Opportunities" /> [[Crop genetic diversity|Genetic diversity]] is vital when productivity has declined due to [[crop pest|pests]] and [[List of cassava diseases|diseases]], and smallholders tend to retain less productive but more diverse [[gene pool]]s.<ref name="Challenges-Opportunities">{{cite journal |date=2020 |issn=0817-8038 |journal=Pacific Economic Bulletin|publisher=Asia Pacific Press |first5=Mike |first4=R. |first3=S. |first2=M. |first1=Andrew |last5=Bourke |last4=Deo |last3=Tubuna |last2=Manley |last1=McGregor |title=Pacific Island food security: situation, challenges and opportunities|hdl=1885/39234}}</ref> |
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{{ visible anchor |MeFT1 |MeFT2 |FLOWERING LOCUS T |FT |FT protein }} (FT) is a gene producing FT proteins which affect the formation of storage roots in many plants, including this one.<ref name="Development" /> Alleles in cassava include ''MeFT1'' and ''MeFT2''.<ref name="Development" /> ''MeFT1'' [[gene expression|expression]] in leaves seems to not be [[photoperiodic]], while ''MeFT2'' clearly is.<ref name="Development" /> ''MeFT1'' expression encourages motivation of [[sucrose]] towards the reproductive organs, as shown by experimental [[overexpression]] reducing storage root accumulation.<ref name="Development">{{cite journal |year=2021 |publisher=[[Annual Reviews (publisher)|Annual Reviews]] |issue=1 |volume=72 |pages=551–580 |first2=David |first4=Sophia |first1=Wolfgang |first3=Uwe |last4=Sonnewald |last3=Sonnewald |last2=Rüscher |last1=Zierer |issn=1543-5008 |journal=[[Annual Review of Plant Biology]] |doi=10.1146/annurev-arplant-080720-084456 |title=Tuber and Tuberous Root Development|pmid=33788583 |doi-access=free }}</ref> |
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=== Storage tuber === |
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{{ visible anchor | MeFT1 | MeFT2 | FLOWERING LOCUS T | FT | FT protein }} (FT) is a gene producing FT proteins which affect the formation of storage roots in many plants, including this one.<ref name="Development" /> Alleles in cassava include ''MeFT1'' and ''MeFT2''.<ref name="Development" /> ''MeFT1'' [[gene expression|expression]] in leaves seems to not be [[photoperiodic]], while ''MeFT2'' clearly is.<ref name="Development" /> ''MeFT1'' expression encourages motivation of [[sucrose]] towards the reproductive organs, as shown by experimental [[overexpression]] reducing storage root accumulation.<ref name="Development">{{cite journal | year=2021 | publisher=[[Annual Reviews (publisher)|Annual Reviews]] | issue=1 | volume=72 | pages=551–580 | first2=David | first4=Sophia | first1=Wolfgang | first3=Uwe | last4=Sonnewald | last3=Sonnewald | last2=Rüscher | last1=Zierer | issn=1543-5008 | journal=[[Annual Review of Plant Biology]] | doi=10.1146/annurev-arplant-080720-084456 | title=Tuber and Tuberous Root Development| pmid=33788583 | doi-access=free }}</ref> |
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== History == |
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=== History === |
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[[File:Ladang Singkong Putat Nutug Ciseeng-Bogor.jpg|thumb|A cassava field in [[Bogor Regency]], Indonesia]] |
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[[File:Taíno women preparing cassava bread.png|thumb|[[Taíno]] women preparing [[cassava bread]] in 1565: grating yuca roots into paste, shaping the bread, and cooking it on a fire-heated burén]] |
[[File:Taíno women preparing cassava bread.png|thumb|[[Taíno]] women preparing [[cassava bread]] in 1565: grating yuca roots into paste, shaping the bread, and cooking it on a fire-heated burén]] |
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[[File:Albert_Eckhout_-_Mandioca.jpg|thumb |
[[File:Albert_Eckhout_-_Mandioca.jpg|thumb|17th-century painting by [[Albert Eckhout]] in [[Dutch Brazil]]]] |
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Wild populations of ''M. esculenta'' subspecies ''flabellifolia'', shown to be the progenitor of domesticated cassava, are centered in west-central Brazil, where it was likely first domesticated no more than 10,000 years ago.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Olsen|first1=K. M. |last2=Schaal |first2=B. A. |title=Evidence on the origin of cassava: phylogeography of ''Manihot esculenta'' |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America]]|volume=96 |issue=10 |pages=5586–5591 |year=1999 |pmid=10318928 |pmc=21904 |bibcode=1999PNAS...96.5586O |doi=10.1073/pnas.96.10.5586 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Forms of the modern domesticated species can also be found growing in the wild in the south of Brazil. By 4600 BC, cassava pollen appears in the [[Gulf of Mexico]] lowlands, at the [[San Andrés (Mesoamerican site)|San Andrés]] archaeological site.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1126/science.292.5520.1370 |pmid=11359011 |bibcode=2001Sci...292.1370P |title=Origin and Environmental Setting of Ancient Agriculture in the Lowlands of Mesoamerica |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |volume=292 |issue=5520 |pages=1370–1373 |last1=Pope |first1=Kevin O. |last2=Pohl |first2=Mary E. D. |last3=Jones |first3=John G. |last4=Lentz |first4=David L. |last5=von Nagy |first5=Christopher |last6=Vega |first6=Francisco J. |last7=Quitmyer |first7=Irvy R. |year=2001}}</ref> The oldest direct evidence of cassava cultivation comes from a 1,400-year-old [[Maya civilization|Maya]] site, [[Joya de Cerén]], in [[El Salvador]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Carroll |first=Rory |title=CU team discovers Mayan crop system |newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |date=23 August 2007 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2007/aug/23/1 |access-date=31 July 2019 |archive-date=31 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190731171801/https://www.theguardian.com/science/2007/aug/23/1 |url-status=live }}</ref> It became a [[staple food]] of the native populations of northern South America, southern Mesoamerica, and the [[Taíno|Taino]] people in the [[List of Caribbean islands|Caribbean islands]], who grew it using a high-yielding form of [[shifting cultivation|shifting agriculture]] by the time of European contact in 1492.<ref>{{cite web |title=Taino {{!}} History & Culture |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Taino |access-date=2020-09-24 |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |archive-date=2020-09-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200901154607/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Taino |url-status=live}}</ref> Cassava was a staple food of [[pre-Columbian]] peoples in the Americas and is often portrayed in [[Pre-Columbian art|indigenous art]]. The [[Moche (culture)|Moche]] people often depicted yuca in their ceramics.<ref>Berrin, Katherine & Larco Museum. ''The Spirit of Ancient Peru:Treasures from the [[Larco Museum|Museo Arqueológico Rafael Larco Herrera]].'' New York: [[Thames & Hudson]], 1997.</ref> |
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Wild populations of ''M. esculenta'' subspecies ''flabellifolia'', shown to be the progenitor of domesticated cassava, are centered in west-central Brazil, where it was likely first domesticated no more than 10,000 years [[Before Present|BP]].<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Olsen | first1 = K. M. |
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| last2 = Schaal | first2 = B. A. | title = Evidence on the origin of cassava: phylogeography of ''Manihot esculenta'' |
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| journal =[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America]]| volume = 96 | issue = 10 | pages = 5586–91 |
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| year = 1999 | pmid = 10318928 | pmc = 21904|bibcode = 1999PNAS...96.5586O |doi = 10.1073/pnas.96.10.5586 | doi-access = free |
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}}</ref> Forms of the modern domesticated species can also be found growing in the wild in the south of Brazil. By 4600 BC, cassava pollen appears in the [[Gulf of Mexico]] lowlands, at the [[San Andrés (Mesoamerican site)|San Andrés]] archaeological site.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1126/science.292.5520.1370|pmid=11359011|bibcode=2001Sci...292.1370P|title=Origin and Environmental Setting of Ancient Agriculture in the Lowlands of Mesoamerica|journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]]|volume=292|issue=5520|pages=1370–3|last1=Pope|first1=Kevin O.|last2=Pohl|first2=Mary E. D.|last3=Jones|first3=John G.|last4=Lentz|first4=David L.|last5=von Nagy|first5=Christopher|last6=Vega|first6=Francisco J.|last7=Quitmyer|first7=Irvy R.|year=2001}}</ref> The oldest direct evidence of cassava cultivation comes from a 1,400-year-old [[Maya civilization|Maya]] site, [[Joya de Cerén]], in [[El Salvador]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2007/aug/23/1 |title=CU team discovers Mayan crop system |access-date=31 July 2019 |archive-date=31 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190731171801/https://www.theguardian.com/science/2007/aug/23/1 |url-status=live }}</ref> With its high food potential, it had become a [[staple food]] of the native populations of northern South America, southern Mesoamerica, and the [[Taíno|Taino]] people in the [[List of Caribbean islands|Caribbean islands]], who grew it using a high-yielding form of [[shifting cultivation|shifting agriculture]] by the time of European contact in 1492.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Taino {{!}} History & Culture|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Taino|access-date=2020-09-24|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en|archive-date=1 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200901154607/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Taino|url-status=live}}</ref> Cassava was a staple food of [[pre-Columbian]] peoples in the Americas and is often portrayed in [[Pre-Columbian art|indigenous art]]. The [[Moche (culture)|Moche]] people often depicted yuca in their ceramics.<ref>Berrin, Katherine & Larco Museum. ''The Spirit of Ancient Peru:Treasures from the [[Larco Museum|Museo Arqueológico Rafael Larco Herrera]].'' New York: [[Thames & Hudson]], 1997.</ref> |
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[[Spaniards]] in their early occupation of Caribbean islands did not want to eat cassava or maize, which they considered insubstantial, dangerous, and not nutritious. They much preferred foods from Spain, specifically wheat bread, olive oil, red wine, and meat, and considered maize and cassava damaging to Europeans.<ref>Earle, Rebecca (2012) ''The Body of the Conquistador: Food, Race, and the Colonial Experience in Spanish America, 1492–1700''. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 54–57, 151. {{ISBN|978-1107693296}}.</ref> The cultivation and consumption of cassava were nonetheless continued in both Portuguese and Spanish America. Mass production of cassava bread became the first Cuban industry established by the Spanish.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Rn9LZ2XrIWgC&pg=PA75|title=Conquest and food: consequences of the encounter of two worlds; page 75 |
[[Spaniards]] in their early occupation of Caribbean islands did not want to eat cassava or maize, which they considered insubstantial, dangerous, and not nutritious. They much preferred foods from Spain, specifically wheat bread, olive oil, red wine, and meat, and considered maize and cassava damaging to Europeans.<ref>Earle, Rebecca (2012) ''The Body of the Conquistador: Food, Race, and the Colonial Experience in Spanish America, 1492–1700''. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 54–57, 151. {{ISBN|978-1107693296}}.</ref> The cultivation and consumption of cassava were nonetheless continued in both Portuguese and Spanish America. Mass production of cassava bread became the first Cuban industry established by the Spanish.<ref>{{cite book|author=Long, Janet |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Rn9LZ2XrIWgC&pg=PA75 |title=Conquest and food: consequences of the encounter of two worlds; page 75|publisher=UNAM|date=2003 |isbn=978-9703208524 |access-date=24 August 2020 |archive-date=20 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230420125914/https://books.google.com/books?id=Rn9LZ2XrIWgC&pg=PA75 |url-status=live}}</ref> Ships departing to Europe from Cuban ports such as [[Havana]], [[Santiago de Cuba|Santiago]], [[Bayamo]], and [[Baracoa]] carried goods to Spain, but sailors needed to be provisioned for the voyage. The Spanish also needed to replenish their boats with dried meat, water, fruit, and large amounts of cassava bread.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sjsu.edu/faculty/watkins/havana.htm |title=The Economic History of Havana, Cuba: A City So Beautiful and Important It Was Once Worth More Than All of Florida |author=Watkins, Thayer|publisher=San José State University, Department of Economics|date=2006|access-date=20 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160502042108/http://www.sjsu.edu/faculty/watkins/havana.htm |archive-date=2 May 2016}}</ref> Sailors complained that it caused them digestive problems.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Super, John C. |title=Spanish Diet in the Atlantic Crossing|journal=[[Terrae Incognitae]] |volume=16 |year=1984 |pages=60–63 |doi=10.1179/008228884791016718}}</ref> |
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Portuguese traders introduced cassava to Africa from Brazil in the 16th century. Around the same period, it was also introduced to Asia through [[Columbian Exchange]] by Portuguese and Spanish traders, who planted it in their colonies in Goa, Malacca, Eastern Indonesia, Timor and the Philippines.<ref name="Nweke 2005">{{cite book |last=Nweke |first=Felix I. |chapter=The cassava transformation in Africa |chapter-url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/009/a0154e/A0154E02.HTM |publisher=The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |place=Rome |year=2005 |title=A review of cassava in Africa with country case studies on Nigeria, Ghana, the United Republic of Tanzania, Uganda and Benin |series=Proceedings of the Validation Forum on the Global Cassava Development Strategy |volume=2 |access-date=1 January 2011 |archive-date=11 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190211073843/http://www.fao.org/docrep/009/a0154e/A0154E02.htm |url-status=live}}</ref> Cassava has also become an important crop in Asia. While it is a valued food staple in parts of eastern Indonesia, it is primarily cultivated for starch extraction and bio-fuel production in Thailand, Cambodia and Vietnam.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hershey |first=Clair |display-authors=et al |date=April 2000 |chapter-url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/009/y1177e/Y1177E02.htm |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |title=A review of cassava in Asia with country case studies on Thailand and Viet Nam |chapter=Cassava in Asia. Expanding the Competitive Edge in Diversified Markets |place=Rome |access-date=28 January 2018 |archive-date=7 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107231144/http://www.fao.org/docrep/009/y1177e/Y1177E02.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> Cassava is sometimes described as the "bread of the tropics"<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Adams |first1=C. |last2=Murrieta |first2=R. |last3=Siqueira |first3=A. |last4=Neves |first4=W. |last5=Sanches |first5=R. |chapter=Bread of the Land: The Invisibility of Manioc in the Amazon |title=Amazon Peasant Societies in a Changing Environment |doi=10.1007/978-1-4020-9283-1_13 |pages=281–305 |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4020-9282-4 }}</ref> but should not be confused with the tropical and equatorial [[bread tree]] ''(Encephalartos)'', the [[breadfruit]] ''(Artocarpus altilis)'' or the [[African breadfruit]] ''(Treculia africana)''. This description definitely holds in Africa and parts of South America; in Asian countries such as Vietnam fresh cassava barely features in human diets.<ref name=MotaGuttierez2019>{{cite journal |last1=Mota-Guttierez |first1=Jatziri |last2=O'Brien |first2=Gerard Michael |date=September 2019 |title=Cassava consumption and the occurrence of cyanide in cassava in Vietnam, Indonesia and Philippines |journal=Public Health Nutrition |volume=23 |issue=13 |pages=2410–2423 |doi=10.1017/S136898001900524X |doi-access=free |pmid=32438936 }}</ref> |
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There is a legend that cassava was introduced in 1880–1885 CE to the South Indian state of [[Kerala]] by the King of [[Travancore]], Vishakham Thirunal Maharaja, after a great famine hit the kingdom, as a substitute for rice.<ref name=Saraswathy2019>Saraswathy Nagarajan |
There is a legend that cassava was introduced in 1880–1885 CE to the South Indian state of [[Kerala]] by the King of [[Travancore]], Vishakham Thirunal Maharaja, after a great famine hit the kingdom, as a substitute for rice.<ref name=Saraswathy2019>{{cite web |date=June 27, 2019 |author=Saraswathy Nagarajan |url=https://www.thehindu.com/life-and-style/food/how-tapioca-came-to-travancore/article28181288.ece |title=How tapioca came to Travancore |work=The Hindu |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200727082403/https://www.thehindu.com/life-and-style/food/how-tapioca-came-to-travancore/article28181288.ece |archive-date=27 July 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> However, there are documented cases of cassava cultivation in parts of the state before the time of Vishakham Thirunal Maharaja.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Ainslie |first1=Whitelaw |url=http://archive.org/details/b28037340 |title=Materia medica of Hindoostan, and artisan's and agriculturalist's nomenclature |last2=Halford|first2=Henry|date=1813|publisher=Government Press |location=Madras State}}</ref> Cassava is called kappa or maricheeni in [[Malayalam]], and [[tapioca]] in Indian English usage.<ref>{{cite web |title=Kappa for all seasons - many avatars of the magic starch root... |url=https://www.onmanorama.com/food/features/2018/01/30/kappa-for-all-seasons.html |website=Onmanorama |location=[[Kerala]], India |access-date=11 May 2024 |date=1 February 2018}}</ref> |
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== Cultivation == |
== Cultivation == |
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Optimal conditions for cassava cultivation are: mean annual temperatures between {{Convert|20 and 29|C|F}}, annual precipitation between {{Convert|1000 and 2500|mm|in|abbr=on}}, and an annual growth period of no less than 240 days.<ref name=Yuca2022>{{Cite journal |title=Zonificación edafoclimática de la yuca (Manihot esculenta Crantz) para la producción sostenible de bioproductos |journal=[[Norte Grande Geography Journal]] |url=https://www.scielo.cl/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0718-34022022000100361&lng=es&nrm=iso&tlng=es |last=Del-Rosario-Arellano|first=José Luis |volume=81 |last2=Aguilar-Rivera |first2=Noe|last3=Leyva-Ovalle|first3=Otto Raúl|last4=Andres-Meza|first4=Pablo|last5=Meneses-Marquez|first5=Isaac|last6=Bolio-López|first6=Gloria Ivette |doi=10.4067/S0718-34022022000100361 |year=2022 |language=Spanish |trans-title=Edaphoclimatic zoning of cassava (manihot esculenta crantz) for sustainable production of bioproducts}}</ref> These conditions are found, among other places, in the northern part of the [[Gulf Coastal Plain]] in Mexico.<ref name=Yuca2022/> In this part of Mexico the following soil types have been shown to be good for cassava cultivation: [[phaeozem]], [[regosol]], [[arenosol]], [[andosol]] and [[luvisol]].<ref name=Yuca2022/> |
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Optimal conditions for cassava cultivation are: mean annual temperatures between {{Convert|20 and 29|C|F}}, annual precipitation between {{Convert|1000 and 2500|mm|in|abbr=on}}, and an annual growth period of no less than 240 days.<ref name=Yuca2022>{{Cite journal |title=Zonificación edafoclimática de la yuca (Manihot esculenta Crantz) para la producción sostenible de bioproductos |journal=Norte Grande Geography Journal |eissn=0718-3402 |last1=Del-Rosario-Arellano |first1=José Luis |last2=Aguilar-Rivera |first2=Noe |last3=Leyva-Ovalle |first3=Otto Raúl |last4=Andres-Meza |first4=Pablo |last5=Meneses-Marquez |first5=Isaac |last6=Bolio-López |first6=Gloria Ivette |year=2022 |issue=81 |pages=361–383 |s2cid=249657496 |language=es |trans-title=Edaphoclimatic zoning of cassava (manihot esculenta crantz) for sustainable production of bioproducts |doi=10.4067/S0718-34022022000100361|url=http://www.scielo.cl/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0718-34022022000100361 }}</ref> Cassava is propagated by cutting the stem into sections of approximately {{cvt|15|cm|in}}, these being planted prior to the wet season.<ref name=CIAT>{{cite web |author=Howeler, Reinhardt H. |year=2007 |title=Production techniques for sustainable cassava production in Asia |publisher=Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT), Bangkok |url=http://ciat-library.ciat.cgiar.org/Articulos_Ciat/07169_Production_techniques_cassava.pdf |access-date=3 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161005114611/http://ciat-library.ciat.cgiar.org/Articulos_Ciat/07169_Production_techniques_cassava.pdf |archive-date=5 October 2016}}</ref> Cassava growth is favorable under temperatures ranging from {{convert|25 to 29|C|F|0}}, but it can tolerate temperatures as low as {{convert|12|C|F|0}} and as high as {{convert|40|C|F|0}}.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://www.eolss.net/ebooklib/bookinfo/soils-plant-growth-crop-production.aspx |title=Soils, Plant Growth and Crop Production Volume II |date=2010 |publisher=[[EOLSS]] Publishers |isbn=978-1-84826-368-0 |editor=Willy H. Verheye |page=273 |chapter=Tropical Root and Tuber Crops |access-date=29 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210511044506/https://www.eolss.net/ebooklib/bookinfo/soils-plant-growth-crop-production.aspx |archive-date=11 May 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> These conditions are found, among other places, in the northern part of the [[Gulf Coastal Plain]] in Mexico.<ref name=Yuca2022/> In this part of Mexico the following soil types have been shown to be good for cassava cultivation: [[phaeozem]], [[regosol]], [[arenosol]], [[andosol]] and [[luvisol]].<ref name=Yuca2022/> |
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<gallery class=center mode=nolines widths=180 heights=180><!--arrange images to stop'em running into next section--> |
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[[File:Ladang Singkong Putat Nutug Ciseeng-Bogor.jpg|thumb|Healthy crop, Indonesia]] |
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File:Cassava stakes1 (4627297822).jpg|Stakes |
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File:Cassava grafting7 (4425027331).jpg|[[Grafting]] |
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</gallery> |
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=== Pests === |
=== Pests === |
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{{Main|List of cassava diseases}} |
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A major cause of losses during cassava storage is infestation by insects.<ref name="jis">{{cite journal |last1=Osipitan |first1=A. A. |last2=Sangowusi |first2=V. T. |last3=Lawal |first3=O. I. |last4=Popoola |first4=K. O. |year=2015 |title=Correlation of Chemical Compositions of Cassava Varieties to Their Resistance to ''Prostephanus truncatus'' Horn (Coleoptera: Bostrichidae) |journal=[[Journal of Insect Science (Entomological Society of America)|Journal of Insect Science]]|volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=13 |doi=10.1093/jisesa/ieu173 |pmc=4535132 |pmid=25700536}}</ref> A wide range of species that feed directly on dried cassava chips have been reported as a major factor in spoiling stored cassava, with losses between 19% and 30% of the harvested produce.<ref name="jis" /> In [[Africa]], a previous issue was the cassava mealybug (''[[Phenacoccus manihoti]]'') and cassava green mite (''[[Mononychellus tanajoa]]''). These pests can cause up to 80 percent crop loss, which is extremely detrimental to the production of [[subsistence economy|subsistence]] farmers. These pests were rampant in the 1970s and 1980s but were brought under control following the establishment of the Biological Control Centre for Africa of the [[International Institute of Tropical Agriculture]] (IITA) under the leadership of [[Hans Rudolf Herren]].<ref>{{cite web |title=1995: Herren |url=http://www.worldfoodprize.org/en/laureates/19871999_laureates/1995_herren/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150711200345/http://www.worldfoodprize.org/en/laureates/19871999_laureates/1995_herren/ |archive-date=11 July 2015 |access-date=29 May 2015 |publisher=The World Food Prize Foundation}}</ref> The Centre investigated [[biological control]] for cassava pests; two [[South America]]n natural enemies ''[[Anagyrus lopezi]]'' (a [[parasitoid]] wasp) and ''[[Typhlodromalus]] [[Typhlodromalus aripo|aripo]]'' (a predatory mite) were found to effectively control the cassava mealybug and the cassava green mite, respectively. |
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{{further|List of cassava diseases}} |
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[[Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. manihotis|''Xanthomonas axonopodis'' pv. ''manihotis'']] causes [[bacterial blight of cassava]]. This disease originated in South America and has followed cassava around the world.<ref name="Lozano-1986">{{Cite journal |last=Lozano |first=J. Carlos |date=September 1986 |title=Cassava bacterial blight: a manageable disease |url=http://www.apsnet.org/publications/PlantDisease/BackIssues/Documents/1986Articles/PlantDisease70n12_1089.PDF |journal=[[Plant Disease (journal)|Plant Disease]] |publisher=[[American Phytopathological Society]] (APS) |volume=70 |issue=12 |pages=1089–1093 |doi=10.1094/PD-70-1089 |access-date=14 January 2023 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114224139/https://www.apsnet.org/publications/PlantDisease/BackIssues/Documents/1986Articles/PlantDisease70n12_1089.PDF |url-status=live }}</ref> Bacterial blight has been responsible for near catastrophic losses and famine in past decades, and its mitigation requires active management practices.<ref name="Lozano-1986" /> Several other bacteria also attack cassava, including the related ''[[Xanthomonas campestris]]'' pv. ''cassavae'', which causes bacterial angular leaf spot. |
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[[File:Thailand 19 lo (4039130033).jpg|thumb|An agronomist examines a diseased cassava crop in Thailand.]] |
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Several viruses are of economic importance. The [[African cassava mosaic virus]] causes the leaves of the cassava plant to wither, limiting the growth of the root.<ref>{{cite web |title=Cassava (manioc) |url=https://www.plantvillage.com/en/topics/cassava-manioc/infos/diseases_and_pests_description_uses_propagation |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150630145744/https://www.plantvillage.com/en/topics/cassava-manioc/infos/diseases_and_pests_description_uses_propagation |archive-date=30 June 2015 |access-date=29 May 2015}}</ref> An outbreak of the virus in Africa in the 1920s led to a major famine.<ref name="NYT May 2010">{{cite news |date=31 May 2010 |title=Virus ravages cassava plants in Africa |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/01/science/01cassava.html |access-date=24 February 2017 |archive-date=16 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170316113128/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/01/science/01cassava.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The virus is spread by the [[whitefly]] and by the transplanting of diseased plants into new fields. Sometime in the late-1980s, a mutation occurred in Uganda that made the virus even more harmful, causing the complete loss of leaves. This mutated virus spread at a rate of {{convert|50|mi|km|sigfig=1|order=flip|abbr=off}} per year, and as of 2005 was found throughout [[Uganda]], [[Rwanda]], [[Burundi]], the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] and the [[Republic of the Congo]].<ref>{{cite web |date=31 August 2005 |title=Hungry African nations balk at biotech cassava |url=http://www.redorbit.com/news/science/225369/hungry_african_nations_balk_at_biotech_cassava/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120303183231/http://www.redorbit.com/news/science/225369/hungry_african_nations_balk_at_biotech_cassava/ |archive-date=3 March 2012 |access-date=11 August 2008 |work=[[St. Louis Post-Dispatch]]}}</ref> Altogether viruses are a severe production limitation in the tropics. They are the primary reason for the complete lack of yield increases in the 25 years {{as of|2021|alt=up to 2021}}.<ref name="Afedraru-2019" /> |
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Cassava is subject to pests from multiple taxonomic groups, including viruses, bacteria, fungi, nematodes, and insects. All cause reductions in yield, and some cause serious losses of crops.<ref name="Alvarez 2012"/> |
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[[Cassava brown streak virus disease]] has been identified as a major threat to cultivation worldwide.<ref name="NYT May 2010" /> [[Cassava mosaic virus]] (CMV) is widespread in Africa, causing cassava mosaic disease (CMD).<ref name="Lebot-2020" /> Bredeson et al 2016 find the ''M. esculenta'' [[cultivar]]s most widely used on that continent have [[Manihot carthaginensis subsp. glaziovii|''M. carthaginensis'' subsp. ''glaziovii'']] genes of which some appear to be CMD [[plant disease resistance gene|resistance gene]]s.<ref name="Lebot-2020">{{cite book |last=Lebot |first=Vincent |title=Tropical Root and Tuber Crops: Cassava, Sweet Potato, Yams And Aroids |publisher=CABI ([[Centre for Agriculture and Bioscience International]]) |year=2020 |isbn=978-1-78924-336-9 |publication-place=[[Wallingford, Oxfordshire]], UK [[Boston]], USA |pages=541 |oclc=1110672215}}</ref> Although the ongoing CMD [[pandemic]] affects both [[East Africa|East]] and [[Central Africa|Central]] Africa, Legg ''et al.'' found that these two areas have two distinct [[subpopulation]]s of the [[vector (epidemiology)|vector]], ''[[Bemisia tabaci]]'' whiteflies.<ref name="Distinct-Vectors"> |
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{{ Unbulleted list citebundle |
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|{{*}} {{ Cite book |
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| language = en |
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| year = 2014 |
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| publisher = [[Elsevier Inc.]] |
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| issn = 0065-3527 |
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|author1=Legg, James P. |author2=Kumar, P. Lava |author3=Makeshkumar, T. |author4=Tripathi, Leena |author5=Ferguson, Morag |author6=Kanju, Edward |author7=Ntawuruhunga, Pheneas |author8=Cuellar, Wilmer |
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| doi = 10.1016/bs.aivir.2014.10.001 |
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| chapter = Cassava Virus Diseases: Biology, Epidemiology, and Management |
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|title=Control of Plant Virus Diseases: Vegetatively-Propagated Crops |
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| pmid = 25591878 |
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}} |
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|{{*}} {{ Cite journal |
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| language = en |
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| publisher = [[Elsevier]] |
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| year = 2014 |
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| volume = 186 |
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| pages = 61–75 |
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| journal = [[Virus Research]] |
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|author1=Legg, James |author2=Sseruwagi, Peter |author3=Boniface, Simon |author4=Okao, Geoffrey |author5=Shirima, Rudolph |author6=Bigirimana, Simon |author7=Gashaka, Gervais |author8=Herrmann, Hans |author9=Jeremiah, Simon |author10=Obiero, Hannington |author11=Ndyetabulai, Innocent |author12=Tata, Willy |author13=Masembe, Charles |author14=Brown, Judith |
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| title = Spatio-temporal patterns of genetic change amongst populations of cassava ''Bemisia tabaci'' whiteflies driving virus pandemics in East and Central Africa 2014 |
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| s2cid = 1844458 |
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| pmid = 24291251 |
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| doi = 10.1016/j.virusres.2013.11.018 |
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}} |
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}}</ref> |
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; Viruses |
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A wide range of plant parasitic nematodes have been reported associated with cassava worldwide. These include ''[[Pratylenchus brachyurus]]'', ''[[Rotylenchulus reniformis]]'', ''[[Helicotylenchus]]'' spp., ''[[Scutellonema]]'' spp. and ''[[Root-knot nematode|Meloidogyne]]'' spp., of which ''[[Meloidogyne incognita]]'' and ''[[Meloidogyne javanica]]'' are the most widely reported and economically important.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Mc Sorley, R. |author2=Ohair, S. K. |author3=Parrado, J. L. |date=1983 |title=Nematodes of Cassava, ''Manihot esculenta'' Crantz |url=http://journals.fcla.edu/nematropica/article/view/63820/61488 |journal=[[Nematropica]]|volume=13 |pages=261–287 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160603205439/http://journals.fcla.edu/nematropica/article/view/63820/61488 |archive-date=3 June 2016 |access-date=4 May 2016}}</ref> ''Meloidogyne'' spp. feeding produces physically damaging galls with eggs inside them. Galls later merge as the females grow and enlarge, and they interfere with water and nutrient supply.<ref name="Gapasin">{{cite journal |author1=Gapasin, R. M. |date=1980 |title=Reaction of golden yellow cassava to ''Meloidogyne'' spp. Inoculation |journal=[[Annals of Tropical Research]]|volume=2 |pages=49–53}}</ref> Cassava roots become tough with age and restrict the movement of the juveniles and the egg release. It is therefore possible that extensive galling can be observed even at low densities following infection.<ref name="Coyne">{{cite journal |author1=Coyne, D. L. |date=1994 |title=Nematode pests of cassava |url=https://www.ajol.info/index.php/acsj/article/view/135776 |journal=[[African Crop Science Journal]] |volume=2 |issue=4 |pages=355–359 |access-date=22 September 2018 |archive-date=22 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180922101847/https://www.ajol.info/index.php/acsj/article/view/135776 |url-status=live }}</ref> Other pests and diseases can gain entry through the physical damage caused by gall formation, leading to rots. They have not been shown to cause direct damage to the enlarged storage roots, but plants can have reduced height if there was loss of enlarged root weight.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Caveness, F. E. |date=1982 |title=Root-knot nematodes as parasites of cassava |journal=[[IITA Research Briefs]]|volume=3 |issue=2 |pages=2–3}}</ref> |
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Several viruses cause enough damage to cassava crops to be of economic importance. The [[African cassava mosaic virus]] causes the leaves of the cassava plant to wither, limiting the growth of the root.<ref>{{cite web |title=Cassava (manioc) |url=https://www.plantvillage.com/en/topics/cassava-manioc/infos/diseases_and_pests_description_uses_propagation |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150630145744/https://www.plantvillage.com/en/topics/cassava-manioc/infos/diseases_and_pests_description_uses_propagation |archive-date=30 June 2015 |access-date=29 May 2015}}</ref> An outbreak of the virus in Africa in the 1920s led to a major famine.<ref name="NYT May 2010">{{cite news |date=31 May 2010 |title=Virus ravages cassava plants in Africa |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/01/science/01cassava.html |access-date=24 February 2017 |archive-date=16 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170316113128/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/01/science/01cassava.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The virus is spread by the [[whitefly]] and by the transplanting of diseased plants into new fields. Sometime in the late-1980s, a mutation occurred in Uganda that made the virus even more harmful, causing the complete loss of leaves. This mutated virus spread at a rate of {{convert|50|mi|km|sigfig=1|order=flip|abbr=off}} per year, and as of 2005 was found throughout Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, the Democratic Republic of the Congo and the Republic of the Congo.<ref>{{cite web |date=31 August 2005 |title=Hungry African nations balk at biotech cassava |url=http://www.redorbit.com/news/science/225369/hungry_african_nations_balk_at_biotech_cassava/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120303183231/http://www.redorbit.com/news/science/225369/hungry_african_nations_balk_at_biotech_cassava/ |archive-date=3 March 2012 |access-date=11 August 2008 |work=[[St. Louis Post-Dispatch]]}}</ref> Viruses are a severe production limitation in the tropics. They are the primary reason for the complete lack of yield increases in the 25 years {{as of|2021|alt=up to 2021}}.<ref name="Afedraru-2019" /> [[Cassava brown streak virus disease]] is a major threat to cultivation worldwide.<ref name="NYT May 2010" /> [[Cassava mosaic virus]] (CMV) is widespread in Africa, causing cassava mosaic disease (CMD).<ref name="Lebot-2020" /> Bredeson et al. 2016 find the ''M. esculenta'' cultivars most widely used on that continent have [[Manihot carthaginensis subsp. glaziovii|''M. carthaginensis'' subsp. ''glaziovii'']] genes of which some appear to be CMD [[plant disease resistance gene|resistance gene]]s.<ref name="Lebot-2020">{{cite book |last=Lebot |first=Vincent |title=Tropical Root and Tuber Crops: Cassava, Sweet Potato, Yams And Aroids |publisher=CABI ([[Centre for Agriculture and Bioscience International]]) |year=2020 |isbn=978-1-78924-336-9 |publication-place=[[Wallingford, Oxfordshire]], UK; [[Boston]], USA |page=541 |oclc=1110672215}}</ref> Although the ongoing CMD [[pandemic]] affects both East and Central Africa, Legg ''et al.'' found that these two areas have two distinct [[subpopulation]]s of the [[vector (epidemiology)|vector]], ''[[Bemisia tabaci]]'' whiteflies.<ref>{{ Cite book |year=2015 |publisher=Academic Press |issn=0065-3527 |author1=Legg, James P. |author2=Kumar, P. Lava |author3=Makeshkumar, T. |author4=Tripathi, Leena |author5=Ferguson, Morag |author6=Kanju, Edward |author7=Ntawuruhunga, Pheneas |author8=Cuellar, Wilmer |doi=10.1016/bs.aivir.2014.10.001 |chapter=Cassava Virus Diseases: Biology, Epidemiology, and Management |editor1=Loebenstein, Gad |editor2=Katis, Nikolaos I. |series=Control of Plant Virus Diseases: Vegetatively-Propagated Crops |title=Advances in Virus Research |volume=91 |pages=85–142 |pmid=25591878 |isbn=9780128027622}}</ref><ref name="Legg 2014">{{cite journal |last1=Legg |first1=James P. |last2=Sseruwagi |first2=Peter |last3=Boniface |first3=Simon |last4=Okao-Okuja |first4=Geoffrey |last5=Shirima |first5=Rudolph |last6=Bigirimana |first6=Simon |last7=Gashaka |first7=Gervais |last8=Herrmann |first8=Hans-Werner |last9=Jeremiah |first9=Simon |last10=Obiero |first10=Hannington |last11=Ndyetabula |first11=Innocent |last12=Tata-Hangy |first12=Willy |last13=Masembe |first13=Charles |last14=Brown |first14=Judith K. |display-authors=6 |title=Spatio-temporal patterns of genetic change amongst populations of cassava Bemisia tabaci whiteflies driving virus pandemics in East and Central Africa |journal=Virus Research |volume=186 |date=2014 |doi=10.1016/j.virusres.2013.11.018 |pages=61–75 |pmid=24291251 }}</ref> Genetically engineered cassava offers opportunities for the improvement of virus resistance, including CMV and CBSD resistance.<ref name="Current-Perspectives">{{cite journal |last1=Rey |first1=Chrissie |last2=Vanderschuren |first2=Hervé |title=Cassava Mosaic and Brown Streak Diseases: Current Perspectives and Beyond |issue=1 |volume=4 |year=2017 |pages=429–452 |publisher=[[Annual Reviews (publisher)|Annual Reviews]] |journal=[[Annual Review of Virology]] |issn=2327-056X |s2cid=25767024 |pmid=28645239 |doi=10.1146/annurev-virology-101416-041913 |doi-access=free}}</ref> |
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Research on nematode pests of cassava is still in the early stages; results on the response of cassava is, therefore, not consistent, ranging from negligible to seriously damaging.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Coyne, D. L. |author2=Talwana, L. A. H. |date=2000 |title=Reaction of cassava cultivars to root-knot nematode (''Meloidogyne'' spp.) in pot experiments and farmer-managed field trials in Uganda |url=https://www.cabdirect.org/cabdirect/abstract/20013117434 |journal=[[International Journal of Nematology]] |volume=10 |pages=153–158 |access-date=22 September 2018 |archive-date=20 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230420125929/https://www.cabdirect.org/cabdirect/welcome/?target=%2fcabdirect%2fabstract%2f20013117434 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Makumbi-Kidza, N. N. |author2=Speijer |author3=Sikora R. A. |date=2000 |title=Effects of ''Meloidogyne incognita'' on growth and storage-root formation of cassava (''Manihot esculenta'') |journal=[[Journal of Nematology]] |volume=32 |issue=4S |pages=475–477 |pmc=2620481 |pmid=19270997}}</ref><ref name="Gapasin" /><ref>{{cite book |title=Common African pests and diseases of cassava, yam, sweet potato and cocoyam |date=1985 |publisher=International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) |isbn=9789781310010 |editor=Theberge, R. L. |location=Ibadan, Nigeria |page=107}}</ref> Since nematodes have such a seemingly erratic distribution in cassava agricultural fields, it is not easy to clearly define the level of direct damage attributed to nematodes and thereafter quantify the success of a chosen management method.<ref name="Coyne" /> |
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; Bacteria |
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The use of nematicides has been found to result in lower numbers of galls per feeder root compared to a control, coupled with a lower number of rots in the storage roots.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Coyne D. L. |author2=Kagoda F. |author3=Wambugu E. |author4=Ragama P. |date=2006 |title=Response of cassava to nematicide application and plant-parasitic nematode infection in East Africa, with emphasis on root-knot nematode |journal=[[International Journal of Pest Management]]|volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=215–23 |doi=10.1080/09670870600722959 |s2cid=84771539}}</ref> The organophosphorus nematicide [[femaniphos]], when used, did not affect crop growth and yield parameter variables measured at harvest. Nematicide use in cassava is not terribly effective at increasing harvested yield, but lower infestation at harvest and lower subsequent storage loss provide a higher effective yield. The use of tolerant and resistant cultivars is the most practical management method in most locales.<ref name="Coyne-et-al-2018">{{cite journal |last1=Coyne |first1=Danny L. |last2=Cortada |first2=Laura |last3=Dalzell |first3=Johnathan J. |last4=Claudius-Cole |first4=Abiodun O. |last5=Haukeland |first5=Solveig |last6=Luambano |first6=Nessie |last7=Talwana |first7=Herbert |date=2018-08-25 |title=Plant-Parasitic Nematodes and Food Security in Sub-Saharan Africa |journal=[[Annual Review of Phytopathology]] |publisher=[[Annual Reviews (publisher)|Annual Reviews]] |volume=56 |issue=1 |pages=381–403 |doi=10.1146/annurev-phyto-080417-045833 |issn=0066-4286 |pmc=7340484 |pmid=29958072 |s2cid=49615468}}</ref><ref name="Coyne" /><ref name="TodayNg-new-varieties" /> |
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Among the most serious bacterial pests is [[Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. manihotis|''Xanthomonas axonopodis'' pv. ''manihotis'']], which causes [[bacterial blight of cassava]]. This disease originated in South America and has followed cassava around the world.<ref name="Lozano-1986">{{Cite journal |last=Lozano |first=J. Carlos |date=September 1986 |title=Cassava bacterial blight: a manageable disease |url=http://www.apsnet.org/publications/PlantDisease/BackIssues/Documents/1986Articles/PlantDisease70n12_1089.PDF |journal=[[Plant Disease (journal)|Plant Disease]] |publisher=[[American Phytopathological Society]] (APS) |volume=70 |issue=12 |pages=1089–1093 |doi=10.1094/PD-70-1089 |access-date=14 January 2023 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114224139/https://www.apsnet.org/publications/PlantDisease/BackIssues/Documents/1986Articles/PlantDisease70n12_1089.PDF |url-status=live }}</ref> Bacterial blight has been responsible for near catastrophic losses and famine in past decades, and its mitigation requires active management practices.<ref name="Lozano-1986" /> Several other bacteria attack cassava, including the related ''[[Xanthomonas campestris]]'' pv. ''cassavae'', which causes bacterial angular leaf spot.<ref name="Zárate‐Chaves 2021">{{cite journal |last1=Zárate-Chaves |first1=Carlos A. |last2=Gómez de la Cruz |first2=Diana |last3=Verdier |first3=Valérie |last4=López |first4=Camilo E. |last5=Bernal |first5=Adriana |last6=Szurek |first6=Boris |title=Cassava diseases caused by Xanthomonas phaseoli pv. manihotis and Xanthomonas cassavae |journal=Molecular Plant Pathology |volume=22 |issue=12 |date=2021 |issn=1464-6722 |pmid=34227737 |pmc=8578842 |doi=10.1111/mpp.13094 |pages=1520–1537}}</ref> |
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This crop suffers from a [[rust (fungus)|rust]], {{Visible anchor|rust of cassava|Uromyces manihotis}}, caused by ''[[Uromyces manihotis]]''.<ref name="Rust">{{Cite web |url=https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/55848 |title=''Uromyces manihotis'' (rust of cassava) |year=2019 |website=[[Invasive Species Compendium]] (ISC) |publisher=[[Centre for Agriculture and Bioscience International|CABI]] (Centre for Agriculture and Bioscience International) |access-date=2022-10-27 |archive-date=9 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221109225057/https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/55848 |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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; Fungi |
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[[Genetically engineered cassava]] offers opportunities for the improvement of [[virus resistance]], including CMV and CBSD resistance.<ref name="Current-Perspectives">{{cite journal|issue=1|volume=4|year=2017|pages=429–452|publisher=[[Annual Reviews (publisher)|Annual Reviews]]|last1=Rey|journal=[[Annual Review of Virology]]|issn=2327-056X|first1=Chrissie|last2=Vanderschuren|first2=Hervé|s2cid=25767024|pmid=28645239|doi=10.1146/annurev-virology-101416-041913|title=Cassava Mosaic and Brown Streak Diseases: Current Perspectives and Beyond}}</ref> |
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{{anchor|Rust of cassava}} |
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Several fungi bring about significant crop losses, one of the most serious being cassava root rot; the [[pathogen]]s involved are species of ''[[Phytophthora]]'', the genus which causes potato blight. Cassava root rot can result in losses of as much as 80 percent of the crop.<ref name="Alvarez 2012">{{cite book|last1=Alvarez |first1=Elizabeth |author2=Llano, Germán Alberto |author3=Mejía, Juan Fernando |chapter=Cassava diseases in Latin America, Africa and Asia |title=The Cassava Handbook |page=258 |year=2012 |url=https://www.academia.edu/download/98098352/The_Cassava_Handbook_2011.pdf#page=266}}<!--Scholar: cassava fungal diseases--></ref> |
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A major pest is a [[rust (fungus)|rust]] caused by ''Uromyces manihotis''.<ref name="Rust">{{cite web |url=https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/55848 |title=''Uromyces manihotis'' (rust of cassava) |year=2019 |website=[[Invasive Species Compendium]] (ISC) |publisher=[[Centre for Agriculture and Bioscience International|CABI]] (Centre for Agriculture and Bioscience International) |access-date=27 October 2022 |archive-date=9 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221109225057/https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/55848 |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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Superelongation disease, caused by ''[[Elsinoë brasiliensis]]'', can cause losses of over 80 percent of young cassava in Latin America when temperature and rainfall are high.<ref name="Alvarez 2012"/> |
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; Nematodes |
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Nematode pests of cassava are thought to cause harms ranging from negligible to seriously damaging,<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Coyne, D. L. |author2=Talwana, L. A. H. |date=2000 |title=Reaction of cassava cultivars to root-knot nematode (''Meloidogyne'' spp.) in pot experiments and farmer-managed field trials in Uganda |journal=International Journal of Nematology|volume=10 |pages=153–158 |url=https://www.cabdirect.org/cabdirect/abstract/20013117434 |access-date=22 September 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Makumbi-Kidza, N. N. |author2=Speijer |author3=Sikora R. A. |date=2000 |title=Effects of ''Meloidogyne incognita'' on growth and storage-root formation of cassava (''Manihot esculenta'') |journal=Journal of Nematology|volume=32 |issue=4S |pages=475–477 |pmc=2620481 |pmid=19270997}}</ref><ref name="Gapasin"/> making the choice of management methods difficult.<ref name="Coyne"/> A wide range of plant parasitic nematodes have been reported associated with cassava worldwide. These include ''[[Pratylenchus brachyurus]]'', ''[[Rotylenchulus reniformis]]'', ''[[Helicotylenchus]]'' spp., ''[[Scutellonema]]'' spp. and ''[[Root-knot nematode|Meloidogyne]]'' spp., of which ''[[Meloidogyne incognita]]'' and ''[[Meloidogyne javanica]]'' are the most widely reported and economically important.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Mc Sorley, R. |author2=Ohair, S. K. |author3=Parrado, J. L. |date=1983 |title=Nematodes of Cassava, ''Manihot esculenta'' Crantz |url=http://journals.fcla.edu/nematropica/article/view/63820/61488 |journal=Nematropica|volume=13 |pages=261–287 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160603205439/http://journals.fcla.edu/nematropica/article/view/63820/61488 |archive-date=3 June 2016 |access-date=4 May 2016}}</ref> ''Meloidogyne'' spp. feeding produces physically damaging galls with eggs inside them. Galls later merge as the females grow and enlarge, and they interfere with water and nutrient supply.<ref name="Gapasin">{{cite journal |author1=Gapasin, R. M. |date=1980 |title=Reaction of golden yellow cassava to ''Meloidogyne'' spp. Inoculation |journal=Annals of Tropical Research|volume=2 |pages=49–53}}</ref> Cassava roots become tough with age and restrict the movement of the juveniles and the egg release. It is therefore possible that extensive galling can be observed even at low densities following infection.<ref name="Coyne">{{cite journal |author1=Coyne, D. L. |date=1994 |title=Nematode pests of cassava |journal=African Crop Science Journal|volume=2 |issue=4 |pages=355–359 |url=https://www.ajol.info/index.php/acsj/article/view/135776 |access-date=22 September 2018 |archive-date=22 September 2018 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180922101847/https://www.ajol.info/index.php/acsj/article/view/135776}}</ref> Other pests and diseases can gain entry through the physical damage caused by gall formation, leading to rots. They have not been shown to cause direct damage to the enlarged storage roots, but plants can have reduced height if there was loss of enlarged root weight.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Caveness, F. E. |date=1982 |title=Root-knot nematodes as parasites of cassava |journal=IITA Research Briefs|volume=3 |issue=2 |pages=2–3}}</ref> |
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Nematicides reduce the numbers of galls per feeder root, along with fewer rots in the storage roots.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Coyne D. L. |author2=Kagoda F. |author3=Wambugu E. |author4=Ragama P. |date=2006 |title=Response of cassava to nematicide application and plant-parasitic nematode infection in East Africa, with emphasis on root-knot nematode |journal=International Journal of Pest Management |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=215–223 |doi=10.1080/09670870600722959 |s2cid=84771539}}</ref> The organophosphorus nematicide femaniphos does not reduce crop growth or harvest yield. Nematicide use in cassava is not terribly effective at increasing harvested yield, but lower infestation at harvest and lower subsequent storage loss provide a higher effective yield. The use of tolerant and resistant cultivars is the most practical management method in most locales.<ref name="Coyne-et-al-2018">{{cite journal |last1=Coyne |first1=Danny L. |last2=Cortada |first2=Laura |last3=Dalzell |first3=Johnathan J. |last4=Claudius-Cole |first4=Abiodun O. |last5=Haukeland |first5=Solveig |last6=Luambano |first6=Nessie |last7=Talwana |first7=Herbert |date=2018-08-25 |title=Plant-Parasitic Nematodes and Food Security in Sub-Saharan Africa |journal=[[Annual Review of Phytopathology]] |publisher=[[Annual Reviews (publisher)|Annual Reviews]] |volume=56 |issue=1 |pages=381–403 |doi=10.1146/annurev-phyto-080417-045833 |issn=0066-4286 |pmc=7340484 |pmid=29958072 |s2cid=49615468}}</ref><ref name="Coyne"/><ref name="TodayNg-new-varieties">{{cite web |url=http://www.today.ng/news/nigeria/nigeria-introduce-cassava-varieties-334463 |title=Nigeria to introduce new cassava varieties |website=Todayng |date=2020-12-21 |first=Chidinma |last=Uchechukwumgemezu |access-date=21 December 2020 |archive-date=21 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201221194624/https://www.today.ng/news/nigeria/nigeria-introduce-cassava-varieties-334463 |url-status=live}}</ref> |
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; Insects |
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[[File:A Cassava Pest of the Southeastern Nigeria.jpg|thumb|upright|Grasshoppers, here on cassava in Nigeria, are secondary pests of cassava.<ref name="Alvarez 2012"/>]] |
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Insects such as stem borers and other beetles, moths including ''[[Chilomima clarkei]]'', scale insects, fruit flies, shootflies, [[burrower bug]]s, grasshoppers, leafhoppers, gall midges, leafcutter ants, and termites contribute to losses of cassava in the field,<ref name="Alvarez 2012"/> while others contribute to serious losses, between 19% and 30%, of dried cassava in storage.<ref name="jis">{{cite journal |last1=Osipitan |first1=A. A. |last2=Sangowusi |first2=V. T. |last3=Lawal |first3=O. I. |last4=Popoola |first4=K. O. |year=2015 |title=Correlation of Chemical Compositions of Cassava Varieties to Their Resistance to ''Prostephanus truncatus'' Horn (Coleoptera: Bostrichidae) |journal=[[Journal of Insect Science (Entomological Society of America)|Journal of Insect Science]]|volume=15 |issue=1 |page=13 |doi=10.1093/jisesa/ieu173 |pmc=4535132 |pmid=25700536}}</ref> In [[Africa]], a previous issue was the cassava mealybug (''[[Phenacoccus manihoti]]'') and cassava green mite (''[[Mononychellus tanajoa]]''). These pests can cause up to 80 percent crop loss, which is extremely detrimental to the production of [[subsistence economy|subsistence]] farmers. These pests were rampant in the 1970s and 1980s but were brought under control following the establishment of the Biological Control Centre for Africa of the [[International Institute of Tropical Agriculture]] (IITA) under the leadership of [[Hans Rudolf Herren]].<ref>{{cite web |title=1995: Herren |url=http://www.worldfoodprize.org/en/laureates/19871999_laureates/1995_herren/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150711200345/http://www.worldfoodprize.org/en/laureates/19871999_laureates/1995_herren/ |archive-date=11 July 2015 |access-date=29 May 2015 |publisher=The World Food Prize Foundation}}</ref> The Centre investigated [[biological control]] for cassava pests; two [[South America]]n natural enemies ''Anagyrus lopezi'' (a [[parasitoid]] wasp) and ''[[Typhlodromalus]] aripo'' (a predatory mite) were found to effectively control the cassava mealybug and the cassava green mite, respectively.<ref>{{cite web |title=1995: Herren |url=http://www.worldfoodprize.org/en/laureates/19871999_laureates/1995_herren/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150711200345/http://www.worldfoodprize.org/en/laureates/19871999_laureates/1995_herren/ |archive-date=11 July 2015 |access-date=29 May 2015 |publisher=The World Food Prize Foundation}}</ref> |
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=== Harvesting === |
=== Harvesting === |
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Cassava is harvested by hand by raising the lower part of the stem, pulling the roots out of the ground, and removing them from the base of the plant. The upper parts of the stems with the leaves are plucked off before harvest. Cassava is propagated by cutting the stem into sections of approximately 15 cm, these being planted prior to the wet season.<ref>{{cite web |author=Howeler, Reinhardt H. |year=2007 |title=Production techniques for sustainable cassava production in Asia |url=http://ciat-library.ciat.cgiar.org/Articulos_Ciat/07169_Production_techniques_cassava.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161005114611/http://ciat-library.ciat.cgiar.org/Articulos_Ciat/07169_Production_techniques_cassava.pdf |archive-date=5 October 2016 |access-date=3 May 2016 |publisher=Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT), Bangkok}}</ref> |
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Cassava growth is favorable under temperatures ranging from {{convert|25 to 29|C|F|0}}, but it can tolerate temperatures as low as {{convert|12|C|F|0}} and as high as {{convert|40|C|F|0}}.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://www.eolss.net/ebooklib/bookinfo/soils-plant-growth-crop-production.aspx |title=Soils, Plant Growth and Crop Production Volume II |date=2010 |publisher=[[EOLSS]] Publishers |isbn=978-1-84826-368-0 |editor=Willy H. Verheye |page=273 |chapter=Tropical Root and Tuber Crops |access-date=29 December 2020 |archive-date=11 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210511044506/https://www.eolss.net/ebooklib/bookinfo/soils-plant-growth-crop-production.aspx |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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Before harvest, the leafy stems are removed. The harvest is gathered by pulling up the base of the stem and cutting off the roots.<ref name=CIAT/> |
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|Cassava stakes1 (4627297822).jpg|Cassava stakes |
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|Cassava grafting7 (4425027331).jpg|Cassava [[grafting]] |
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|Manihot esculenta cassava flower vijayanrajapuram.jpg|Flower buds of cassava |
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}} |
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=== |
=== Handling and storage === |
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Cassava undergoes post-harvest physiological deterioration (PPD) once the tubers are separated from the main plant. The tubers, when damaged, normally respond with a healing mechanism. However, the same mechanism, which involves [[coumaric acid]]s, starts about 15 minutes after damage, and fails to switch off in harvested tubers. It continues until the entire tuber is oxidized and blackened within two to three days after harvest, rendering it unpalatable and useless. PPD is related to the accumulation of [[reactive oxygen species]] (ROS) initiated by cyanide release during mechanical harvesting. Cassava shelf life may be increased up to three weeks by overexpressing a cyanide-insensitive alternative oxidase, which suppressed ROS by 10-fold.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zidenga |first1=T |display-authors=etal |year=2012 |title=Extending cassava root shelf life via reduction of reactive oxygen species production |journal=[[Plant Physiology (journal)|Plant Physiology]]|volume=159 |issue=4 |pages=1396–1407 |doi=10.1104/pp.112.200345 |pmc=3425186 |pmid=22711743}}</ref> PPD is one of the main obstacles preventing farmers from exporting cassavas abroad and generating income. Fresh cassava can be preserved like potato, using [[thiabendazole]] or bleach as a fungicide, then wrapping in plastic, coating in wax or freezing.<ref>{{cite web |title=Storage and processing of roots and tubers in the tropics |url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/x5415e/x5415e04.htm |access-date=4 May 2016 |publisher=[[U.N. Food and Agriculture Organization]] |archive-date=22 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160422120308/http://www.fao.org/docrep/x5415e/x5415e04.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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Cassava deteriorates after harvest, when the tubers are first cut. The healing mechanism produces [[coumaric acid]], which oxidizes and blackens the tubers, making them inedible after a few days. This deterioration is related to the accumulation of [[reactive oxygen species]] initiated by cyanide release during mechanical harvesting. Cassava shelf life may be increased up to three weeks by overexpressing a cyanide-insensitive alternative oxidase, which suppressed ROS by 10-fold.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zidenga |first1=T |display-authors=etal |year=2012 |title=Extending cassava root shelf life via reduction of reactive oxygen species production |journal=[[Plant Physiology (journal)|Plant Physiology]]|volume=159 |issue=4 |pages=1396–1407 |doi=10.1104/pp.112.200345 |pmc=3425186 |pmid=22711743}}</ref> Post-harvest deterioration is a major obstacle to the export of cassava. Fresh cassava can be preserved like potato, using [[thiabendazole]] or bleach as a fungicide, then wrapping in plastic, freezing, or applying a wax coating.<ref>{{cite web |title=Storage and processing of roots and tubers in the tropics |url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/x5415e/x5415e04.htm |access-date=4 May 2016 |publisher=[[U.N. Food and Agriculture Organization]] |archive-date=22 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160422120308/http://www.fao.org/docrep/x5415e/x5415e04.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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While alternative methods for PPD control have been proposed, such as preventing ROS effects by use of plastic bags during storage and transport, coating the roots with wax, or freezing roots, such strategies have proved to be economically or technically impractical, leading to [[plant breeding|breeding]] of cassava varieties more tolerant to PPD and with improved durability after harvest.<ref name="gmr">{{cite journal |last1=Venturini |first1=M. T |last2=Santos |first2=L. R |last3=Vildoso |first3=C. I |last4=Santos |first4=V. S |last5=Oliveira |first5=E. J |year=2016 |title=Variation in cassava germplasm for tolerance to post-harvest physiological deterioration |journal=[[Genetics and Molecular Research]] |volume=15 |issue=2 |doi=10.4238/gmr.15027818 |pmid=27173317 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Plant breeding has resulted in different strategies for cassava tolerance to PPD.<ref name="gmr" /><ref name="cs">{{cite journal |last1=Morante |first1=N. |last2=Sánchez |first2=T. |last3=Ceballos |first3=H. |last4=Calle |first4=F. |last5=Pérez |first5=J. C. |last6=Egesi |first6=C. |last7=Cuambe |first7=C. E. |last8=Escobar |first8=A. F. |last9=Ortiz |first9=D. |last10=Chávez |first10=A. L. |last11=Fregene |first11=M. |year=2010 |title=Tolerance to Postharvest Physiological Deterioration in Cassava Roots |journal=[[Crop Science (journal)|Crop Science]]|volume=50 |issue=4 |pages=1333–1338 |doi=10.2135/cropsci2009.11.0666}}</ref> One was induced by [[mutagen]]ic levels of [[gamma ray]]s, which putatively silenced one of the genes involved in PPD genesis, while another was a group of high-[[carotene]] clones in which the [[antioxidant]] properties of [[carotenoid]]s are postulated to protect the roots from PPD.<ref name="cs" /> |
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While alternative methods for controlling post-harvest deterioration have been proposed, such as preventing reactive oxygen species effects by using plastic bags during storage and transport, coating the roots with wax, or freezing roots, such strategies have proved to be economically or technically impractical, leading to [[plant breeding|breeding]] of cassava varieties with improved durability after harvest, achieved by different mechanisms.<ref name="gmr">{{cite journal |last1=Venturini |first1=M. T |last2=Santos |first2=L. R |last3=Vildoso |first3=C. I |last4=Santos |first4=V. S |last5=Oliveira |first5=E. J |year=2016 |title=Variation in cassava germplasm for tolerance to post-harvest physiological deterioration |journal=[[Genetics and Molecular Research]] |volume=15 |issue=2 |doi=10.4238/gmr.15027818 |pmid=27173317 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="gmr" /><ref name="cs">{{cite journal |last1=Morante |first1=N. |last2=Sánchez |first2=T. |last3=Ceballos |first3=H. |last4=Calle |first4=F. |last5=Pérez |first5=J. C. |last6=Egesi |first6=C. |last7=Cuambe |first7=C. E. |last8=Escobar |first8=A. F. |last9=Ortiz |first9=D. |last10=Chávez |first10=A. L. |last11=Fregene |first11=M. |year=2010 |title=Tolerance to Postharvest Physiological Deterioration in Cassava Roots |journal=[[Crop Science (journal)|Crop Science]]|volume=50 |issue=4 |pages=1333–1338 |doi=10.2135/cropsci2009.11.0666}}</ref> One approach used [[gamma ray]]s to try to silence a gene involved in triggering deterioration; another strategy selected for plentiful [[carotenoid]]s, [[antioxidant]]s which may help to reduce oxidization after harvest.<ref name="cs" /> |
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{{gallery|mode=packed |
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|NP Cassava Processing 7 (5867707684).jpg|Cassava starch processing |
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<gallery class=center mode=nolines widths=180 heights=180><!--format prevents images becoming very large at some window widths--> |
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|NP Cassava Starch Processing (5867152719).jpg|Cassava starch flour processing |
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File:NP Cassava Processing 7 (5867707684).jpg|Starch processing |
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File:NP Cassava Starch Processing (5867152719).jpg|Starch flour |
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|Cassava starch processing in Colombia's southwestern Cauca department.jpg|Cassava starch |
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File:Vietnam cassava processing3 lo (4070319057).jpg|Starch wet-processing |
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|Secando casabe.JPG|Spreading ''Casabe burrero'' (cassava bread) to dry, Venezuela |
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File:Secando casabe.JPG|Spreading ''Casabe burrero'' (cassava bread) to dry, Venezuela |
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|Vietnam cassava processing24lo (4070342389).jpg|Cassava starch being prepared for packaging |
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File:Vietnam cassava processing24lo (4070342389).jpg|Starch being prepared for packaging |
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File:Vietnam cassava cellophane noodles.jpg|Starch noodles packaged for shipping |
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|Frozen cassava leaves.jpg|Frozen cassava leaves in a Los Angeles market |
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File:Frozen cassava leaves.jpg|Frozen leaves in a Los Angeles market |
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}} |
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File:Cassava buds (4733912948).jpg|Picked buds<!--used in some dishes--> |
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</gallery> |
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== Production == |
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{{see also|Tapioca#Production}} |
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{|class="wikitable" style="float:right; clear:right; width:14em; text-align:center; margin-right:1em;" |
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=== Production === |
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! colspan=2|Cassava production – 2022 |
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{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; clear:left; width:18em;" |
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! colspan=2|Cassava production – 2020 |
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|- |
|- |
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! |
! style="background:#ddf; width:75%;"|Country |
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! |
! style="background:#ddf; width:25%;"|<small>millions of [[tonne]]s</small> |
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|- |
|- |
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|{{NGR}} ||60.8 |
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|style="text-align: center;" | {{Flag|Nigeria}} ||style="text-align: center;" | 60.0 |
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|- |
|- |
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|{{DRC}} ||48.8 |
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|style="text-align: center;" | {{Flag|Democratic Republic of the Congo}} ||style="text-align: center;" | 41.0 |
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|- |
|- |
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|{{THA}} ||34.1 |
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|style="text-align: center;" | {{Flag|Thailand}} ||style="text-align: center;" | 29.0 |
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|- |
|- |
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|{{GHA}} ||25.6 |
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|style="text-align: center;" | {{Flag|Ghana}} ||style="text-align: center;" | 21.8 |
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|- |
|- |
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|{{CAM}} ||17.7 |
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|style="text-align: center;" | {{Flag|Indonesia}} ||style="text-align: center;" | 18.3 |
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|- |
|- |
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|{{BRA}} ||17.6 |
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|style="text-align: center;" | '''World''' ||style="text-align: center;" | '''303''' |
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|- |
|- |
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|'''World''' ||'''330''' |
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|style="text-align: center;" colspan=2|<small>Source: [[FAOSTAT]] of the [[United Nations]]<ref name="faostat18">{{cite web|url=http://faostat3.fao.org/browse/Q/QC/E|title=Cassava production in 2018, Crops/World Regions/Production Quantity from pick lists|date=2019|publisher=UN [[Food and Agriculture Organization Corporate Statistical Database]] (FAOSTAT)|access-date=19 April 2020|archive-date=22 November 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161122053717/http://faostat3.fao.org/browse/Q/QC/E|url-status=dead}}</ref></small> |
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|- |
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|colspan=2|<small>Source: [[FAOSTAT]] of the [[United Nations]]<ref name="faostat">{{cite web|url=http://faostat3.fao.org/browse/Q/QC/E|title=Cassava production in 2022, Crops/World Regions/Production Quantity/Year from pick lists|date=2024|publisher=UN [[Food and Agriculture Organization Corporate Statistical Database]] (FAOSTAT)|access-date=29 May 2024}}</ref></small> |
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|} |
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In 2022, world production of cassava root was 330 million tonnes, led by Nigeria with 18% of the total (table). Other major growers were Democratic Republic of the Congo and Thailand. |
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Cassava is the third-largest source of carbohydrates in food in the tropics, after [[rice]] and [[maize]].<ref name="FAO">{{cite web|title=Cassava|publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]] of the United Nations (FAO) |url=http://www.fao.org/ag/agp/agpc/gcds/|access-date=24 November 2011|archive-date=18 November 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161118061344/http://www.fao.org/ag/agp/agpc/gcds/}}</ref><ref name="Claude-Denis-1990">{{cite journal |author1=Fauquet Claude |author2=Fargette Denis |year=1990 |title=African Cassava Mosaic Virus: Etiology, Epidemiology, and Control |url=http://www.apsnet.org/publications/PlantDisease/BackIssues/Documents/1990Articles/PlantDisease74n06_404.pdf |journal=[[Plant Disease (journal)|Plant Disease]] |publisher=[[American Phytopathological Society]] (APS) |volume=74 |issue=6 |pages=404–411 |doi=10.1094/pd-74-0404 |access-date=10 January 2011 |archive-date=9 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170809004240/http://www.apsnet.org/publications/PlantDisease/BackIssues/Documents/1990Articles/PlantDisease74n06_404.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Afedraru-2019">{{cite web |last=Afedraru |first=Lominda |title=Uganda to launch innovative gene-edited cassava research |website=Alliance for Science |date=2019-01-31 |url=http://allianceforscience.cornell.edu/blog/2019/01/uganda-launch-innovative-gene-edited-cassava-research/ |access-date=2021-08-15 |archive-date=15 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210815171521/https://allianceforscience.cornell.edu/blog/2019/01/uganda-launch-innovative-gene-edited-cassava-research/ |url-status=live }}</ref> making it an important staple; more than 500 million people depend on it.<ref>{{cite web|title=Dimensions of Need: An atlas of food and agriculture|publisher=United Nations [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] (FAO) |year=1995|url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/u8480e/U8480E01.htm|access-date=23 November 2011|archive-date=24 November 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161124095410/http://www.fao.org/docrep/u8480e/U8480E01.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> It offers the advantage of being exceptionally [[drought-tolerant]], and able to grow productively on poor soil. Cassava grows well within 30° of the equator, where it can be produced at up to {{convert|2000|m|ft|sigfig=1|abbr=on}} above sea level, and with {{convert|50|to|5000|mm|in|sigfig=1|abbr=on}} of rain per year. These environmental tolerances suit it to conditions across much of South America and Africa.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Cock |first=James H. |title=Cassava |journal=The Crop Productivity Symposium, IRRI, los Banos, Philippines |date=September 1980 |pages=1–33 |url=https://cgspace.cgiar.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/0bb17dbb-ef96-4ea9-9ca6-100ae47f0503/content}} reprinted as a chapter in ''Crop physiology case histories for major crops''. [[Academic Press]], 2021, pages 588-633.</ref> |
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In 2020, global production of cassava root was 303 million [[tonne]]s, with [[Nigeria]] as the world's largest producer, producing 20% of the world total (table). Other major growers were [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] and [[Thailand]].<ref name=faostat18/> |
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Cassava yields a large amount of food energy per unit area of land per day – {{cvt|250,000|kcal/ha|kJ/ha|order=flip}}, as compared with {{cvt|156,000|kcal/ha|kJ/ha|order=flip}} for rice, {{cvt|110,000|kcal/ha|kJ/ha|order=flip}} for wheat and {{cvt|200,000|kcal/ha|kJ/ha|order=flip}} for maize.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=El-Sharkawy |first=Mabrouk A. |date=1 August 1993 |title=Drought-tolerant Cassava for Africa, Asia, and Latin America |url=http://academic.oup.com/bioscience/article/43/7/441/249072/Droughttolerant-Cassava-for-Africa-Asia-and-Latin |journal=[[BioScience]] |language=en |volume=43 |issue=7 |pages=441–451 |doi=10.2307/1311903 |jstor=1311903 |issn=1525-3244 |access-date=19 April 2020 |archive-date=21 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220121012151/https://academic.oup.com/bioscience/article/43/7/441/249072/Droughttolerant-Cassava-for-Africa-Asia-and-Latin |url-status=live}}</ref> |
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Cassava is one of the most [[drought-tolerant]] crops, can be successfully grown on marginal soils, and gives reasonable yields where many other crops do not grow well. Cassava is well adapted within latitudes 30° north and south of the equator, at elevations between sea level and {{convert|2000|m|ft|sigfig=1|abbr=on}} above sea level, in equatorial temperatures, with rainfalls from {{convert|50|to|5000|mm|in|sigfig=1|abbr=on}} annually, and to poor soils with a pH ranging from acidic to alkaline. These conditions are common in certain parts of Africa and South America. |
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Cassava, [[Yam (vegetable)|yams]] (''[[Dioscorea]]'' spp.), and [[sweet potato]]es (''Ipomoea batatas'') are important sources of food in the tropics. The cassava plant gives the third-highest yield of [[carbohydrates]] per cultivated area among crop plants, after [[sugarcane]] and [[sugar beet]]s.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gardeningplaces.com/articles/nutrition-per-hectare1.htm |title=Nutrition per Hectare for Staple Crops |website=GardeningPlaces.com |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160609084139/http://www.gardeningplaces.com/articles/nutrition-per-hectare1.htm |archive-date=9 June 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> Cassava plays a particularly important role in agriculture in developing countries, especially in [[sub-Saharan Africa]], because it does well on poor soils and with low rainfall, and because it is a perennial that can be harvested as required. Its wide harvesting window allows it to act as a famine reserve and is invaluable in managing labor schedules. It offers flexibility to resource-poor farmers because it serves as either a subsistence or a cash crop.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Stone |first1=G. D. |year=2002 |title=Both Sides Now |journal=[[Current Anthropology]]|volume=43 |issue=4 |pages=611–630 |doi=10.1086/341532 |s2cid=18867515}}</ref> Worldwide, 800 million people depend on cassava as their primary food staple.<ref>{{cite book |url=http://www.fao.org/3/a-i3278e.pdf |title=Save and Grow: Cassava |date=2013 |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]] |isbn=978-92-5-107641-5 |location=[[Rome]] |page=iii |access-date=27 October 2016 |archive-date=23 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161123042441/http://www.fao.org/3/a-i3278e.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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Cassava is a highly productive crop when considering food energy produced per unit land area per day – {{cvt|250,000|kcal/ha|kJ/ha|order=flip}}, as compared with {{cvt|156,000|kcal/ha|kJ/ha|order=flip}} for rice, {{cvt|110,000|kcal/ha|kJ/ha|order=flip}} for wheat and {{cvt|200,000|kcal/ha|kJ/ha|order=flip}} for maize.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=El-Sharkawy|first=Mabrouk A.|date=1993-08-01|title=Drought-tolerant Cassava for Africa, Asia, and Latin America|url=http://academic.oup.com/bioscience/article/43/7/441/249072/Droughttolerant-Cassava-for-Africa-Asia-and-Latin|journal=[[BioScience]]|language=en|volume=43|issue=7|pages=441–451|doi=10.2307/1311903|jstor=1311903|issn=1525-3244|access-date=19 April 2020|archive-date=21 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220121012151/https://academic.oup.com/bioscience/article/43/7/441/249072/Droughttolerant-Cassava-for-Africa-Asia-and-Latin|url-status=live}}</ref> |
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== Toxicity == |
== Toxicity == |
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Cassava roots, peels and leaves should not be consumed raw because they contain two [[Cyanogenic glycoside|cyanogenic glucosides]], [[linamarin]] and [[lotaustralin]]. These are decomposed by [[linamarase]], a naturally occurring [[enzyme]] in cassava, liberating [[hydrogen cyanide]] (HCN).<ref name="cereda">{{Cite journal |last1=Cereda |first1=M. P. |last2=Mattos |first2=M. C. Y. |year=1996 |title=Linamarin: the Toxic Compound of Cassava |journal=[[Journal of Venomous Animals and Toxins]]|volume=2 |pages=06–12 |doi=10.1590/S0104-79301996000100002 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Cassava varieties are often categorized as either bitter or sweet, signifying the presence or absence of toxic levels of cyanogenic glucosides, respectively. The so-called sweet (more accurately non-bitter) cultivars can produce as little as 20 milligrams of [[cyanide]] (CN) per kilogram of fresh roots, whereas bitter ones may produce more than 50 times as much (1 g/kg). Cassavas grown during [[drought]] are especially high in these toxins.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Aregheore E. M. |author2=Agunbiade O. O. |year=1991 |title=The toxic effects of cassava (''Manihot esculenta'' Crantz) diets on humans: a review|journal=[[Vet. Hum. Toxicol.]]|volume=33 |issue=3 |pages=274–275 |pmid=1650055}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1=White W. L. B. |author2=Arias-Garzon D. I. |author3=McMahon J. M. |author4=Sayre R. T. |year=1998 |title=Cyanogenesis in Cassava, The Role of Hydroxynitrile Lyase in Root Cyanide Production |journal=[[Plant Physiol.]]|volume=116 |issue=4 |pages=1219–1225 |doi=10.1104/pp.116.4.1219 |pmc=35028 |pmid=9536038}}</ref> A dose of 25 mg of pure cassava cyanogenic glucoside, which contains 2.5 mg of cyanide, is sufficient to kill a rat.<ref>{{cite journal |year=2004 |title=Opinion of the Scientific Panel on Food Additives, Flavourings, Processing Aids and Materials in Contact with Food (AFC) on hydrocyanic acid in flavourings and other food ingredients with flavouring properties |url=http://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/105 |journal=[[EFSA Journal]] |volume=105 |pages=1–28 |access-date=6 April 2013 |archive-date=29 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150929055532/http://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/105 |url-status=live }}</ref> Excess cyanide residue from improper preparation is known to cause acute cyanide intoxication, and goiters, and has been linked to ataxia (a neurological disorder affecting the ability to walk, also known as ''[[konzo]]'').<ref name="fao.org" /> It has also been linked to tropical calcific [[pancreatitis]] in humans, leading to chronic pancreatitis.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Bhatia E |year=2002 |title=Tropical calcific pancreatitis: strong association with SPINK1 trypsin inhibitor mutations |journal=[[Gastroenterology (journal)|Gastroenterology]]|volume=123 |issue=4 |pages=1020–1025 |doi=10.1053/gast.2002.36028 |pmid=12360463|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="bbc-2019">{{cite web |last1=Harford |first1=Tim |date=September 4, 2019 |title=How do people learn to cook a poisonous plant safely? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/business-48859333 |access-date=4 September 2019 |work=BBC News |archive-date=4 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190904023704/https://www.bbc.com/news/business-48859333 |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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Cassava roots, peels and leaves are dangerous to eat raw because they contain [[linamarin]] and [[lotaustralin]], which are toxic [[cyanogenic glycoside]]s. These are decomposed by the cassava enzyme [[linamarase]], releasing poisonous [[hydrogen cyanide]].<ref name="cereda">{{Cite journal |last1=Cereda |first1=M. P. |last2=Mattos |first2=M. C. Y. |year=1996 |title=Linamarin: the Toxic Compound of Cassava |journal=Journal of Venomous Animals and Toxins|volume=2 |pages=6–12 |doi=10.1590/S0104-79301996000100002 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Cassava varieties are often categorized as either bitter (high in cyanogenic glycosides) or sweet (low in those bitter compounds). Sweet cultivars can contain as little as 20 milligrams of [[cyanide]] per kilogram of fresh roots, whereas bitter cultivars may contain as much as 1000 milligrams per kilogram. Cassavas grown during [[drought]] are especially high in these toxins.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Aregheore E. M. |author2=Agunbiade O. O. |year=1991 |title=The toxic effects of cassava (''Manihot esculenta'' Crantz) diets on humans: a review|journal=Veterinary and Human Toxicology|volume=33 |issue=3 |pages=274–275 |pmid=1650055}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1=White W. L. B. |author2=Arias-Garzon D. I. |author3=McMahon J. M. |author4=Sayre R. T. |year=1998 |title=Cyanogenesis in Cassava, The Role of Hydroxynitrile Lyase in Root Cyanide Production |journal=[[Plant Physiol.]] |volume=116 |issue=4 |pages=1219–1225 |doi=10.1104/pp.116.4.1219 |pmc=35028 |pmid=9536038}}</ref> A dose of 25 mg of pure cassava cyanogenic glucoside, which contains 2.5 mg of cyanide, is sufficient to kill a rat.<ref>{{cite journal |year=2004 |title=Opinion of the Scientific Panel on Food Additives, Flavourings, Processing Aids and Materials in Contact with Food (AFC) on hydrocyanic acid in flavourings and other food ingredients with flavouring properties |url=http://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/105 |journal=[[EFSA Journal]] |volume=105 |pages=1–28 |access-date=6 April 2013 |archive-date=29 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150929055532/http://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/105 |url-status=live }}</ref> Excess cyanide residue from improper preparation causes goiters and acute cyanide poisoning, and is linked to ataxia (a neurological disorder affecting the ability to walk, also known as ''[[konzo]]'').<ref name="fao.org" /> It has also been linked to tropical fibrocalcific [[pancreatitis]] in humans, leading to chronic pancreatitis.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Bhatia E |year=2002 |title=Tropical calcific pancreatitis: strong association with SPINK1 trypsin inhibitor mutations |journal=[[Gastroenterology (journal)|Gastroenterology]]|volume=123 |issue=4 |pages=1020–1025 |doi=10.1053/gast.2002.36028 |pmid=12360463|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="bbc-2019">{{cite web |last1=Harford |first1=Tim |date=September 4, 2019 |title=How do people learn to cook a poisonous plant safely? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/business-48859333 |access-date=4 September 2019 |work=BBC News |archive-date=4 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190904023704/https://www.bbc.com/news/business-48859333 |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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Symptoms of acute cyanide intoxication appear four or more hours after ingesting raw or poorly processed cassava: vertigo, vomiting, and collapse. In some cases, death may result within one or two hours. It can be treated easily with an injection of [[thiosulfate]] (which makes sulfur available for the patient's body to detoxify by converting the poisonous cyanide into thiocyanate).<ref name="fao.org" /> |
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Symptoms of acute cyanide intoxication appear four or more hours after ingesting raw or poorly processed cassava: vertigo, vomiting, [[goiter]], [[ataxia]], partial paralysis, collapse, and death.<ref name="promedmail-4799579">{{cite web|url=https://www.promedmail.org/post/4799579|title=CASSAVA POISONING – VENEZUELA|date=29 January 2017|access-date=29 January 2017|publisher=[[ProMED-mail]]|archive-date=2 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202061550/https://www.promedmail.org/post/4799579}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Cassava poisoning was integral to Episode 177 of Series 17 of the BBC drama 'Doctors' |publisher=BBC |date=5 February 2016 |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/iplayer/episode/b06zn3j8/doctors-series-17-177-a-taste-of-home |access-date=13 February 2018 |archive-date=8 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160208105645/http://www.bbc.co.uk/iplayer/episode/b06zn3j8/doctors-series-17-177-a-taste-of-home |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Soto-Blanco |first1=Benito |last2=Górniak |first2=Silvana Lima |date=2010-07-01 |title=Toxic effects of prolonged administration of leaves of cassava (''Manihot esculenta'' Crantz) to goats |journal=Experimental and Toxicologic Pathology|language=en |volume=62 |issue=4 |pages=361–366 |doi=10.1016/j.etp.2009.05.011 |pmid=19559583 |bibcode=2010EToxP..62..361S |issn=0940-2993}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Suharti |first1=Sri |last2=Oktafiani |first2=Hafni |last3=Sudarman |first3=Asep |last4=Baik |first4=Myunggi |last5=Wiryawan |first5=Komang Gede |date=2021-12-01 |title=Effect of cyanide-degrading bacteria inoculation on performance, rumen fermentation characteristics of sheep fed bitter cassava (''Manihot esculenta'' Crantz) leaf meal|journal=Annals of Agricultural Sciences|language=en |volume=66 |issue=2 |pages=131–136 |doi=10.1016/j.aoas.2021.09.001 |s2cid=244191058 |issn=0570-1783|doi-access=free }}</ref> It can be treated easily with an injection of [[thiosulfate]] (which makes sulfur available for the patient's body to detoxify by converting the poisonous cyanide into thiocyanate).<ref name="fao.org"/> |
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"Chronic, low-level cyanide exposure is associated with the development of [[goiter]] and with tropical ataxic neuropathy, a nerve-damaging disorder that renders a person unsteady and uncoordinated. Severe cyanide poisoning, particularly during famines, is associated with outbreaks of a debilitating, irreversible paralytic disorder called [[konzo]] and, in some cases, death. The incidence of konzo and [[tropical ataxic neuropathy]] can be as high as three percent in some areas."<ref>{{cite web |last=Wagner |first=Holly |title=Cassava's cyanide-producing abilities can cause neuropathy |url=http://www.cidpusa.org/cassava.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100924054056/http://cidpusa.org/cassava.htm |archive-date=24 September 2010 |access-date=21 June 2010 |publisher=cidpusa.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Siritunga D |author2=Sayre RT |date=September–October 2007 |title=Transgenic approaches for cyanogen reduction in cassava |journal=[[J AOAC Int]] |volume=90 |issue=5 |pages=1450–5 |doi=10.1093/jaoac/90.5.1450 |pmid=17955993 |doi-access=free}}</ref> |
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Chronic, low-level exposure to cyanide may contribute to both goiter and [[tropical ataxic neuropathy]], also called [[konzo]], which can be fatal. The risk is highest in famines, when as many as 3 percent of the population may be affected.<ref>{{cite web |last=Wagner |first=Holly |title=Cassava's cyanide-producing abilities can cause neuropathy |url=http://www.cidpusa.org/cassava.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100924054056/http://cidpusa.org/cassava.htm |archive-date=24 September 2010 |access-date=21 June 2010 |publisher=cidpusa.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Siritunga D |author2=Sayre RT |date=September–October 2007 |title=Transgenic approaches for cyanogen reduction in cassava |journal=[[J AOAC Int]] |volume=90 |issue=5 |pages=1450–1455 |doi=10.1093/jaoac/90.5.1450 |pmid=17955993 |doi-access=free}}</ref> |
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During the [[shortages in Venezuela]] in the late 2010s, dozens of deaths were reported due to Venezuelans resorting to eating bitter cassava in order to curb starvation.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Castro |first1=Maolis |date=6 March 2017 |title=La yuca amarga alimenta la muerte en Venezuela |language=es |work=[[El País]] |url=https://elpais.com/internacional/2017/03/05/america/1488744764_611719.html |access-date=25 February 2018 |archive-date=12 February 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180212184804/https://elpais.com/internacional/2017/03/05/america/1488744764_611719.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=22 February 2018 |title=Estragos de la crisis: Ocho niños han muerto en Aragua por consumir yuca amarga |language=es-ES |work=[[La Patilla]] |url=https://www.lapatilla.com/site/2018/02/22/estragos-de-la-crisis-ocho-ninos-han-muerto-en-aragua-por-consumir-yuca-amarga/ |access-date=25 February 2018 |archive-date=23 February 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180223022727/https://www.lapatilla.com/site/2018/02/22/estragos-de-la-crisis-ocho-ninos-han-muerto-en-aragua-por-consumir-yuca-amarga/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Cases of cassava poisoning were also documented during the famine accompanying the [[Great Leap Forward]] (1958–1962) in China.<ref>{{cite book |author=Zhou Xun |title=The Great Famine in China, 1958-1962: A Documentary History |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2012 |chapter=Ch. 3 Seasons of death}}</ref> |
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Like many other roots and tubers, both bitter and sweet varieties of cassava contain [[antinutrient|antinutritional]] factors and toxins, with the bitter varieties containing much larger amounts.<ref name="fao.org">{{cite book |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]] of the United Nations (FAO) |year=1990 |title=Roots, tubers, plantains and bananas in human nutrition |chapter=Ch. 7 Toxic substances and antinutritional factors |chapter-url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/t0207e/T0207E08.htm#Cassava%20toxicity |place=Rome |isbn=9789251028629|url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/rootstubersplant0000unse}}</ref> The more toxic varieties of cassava have been used in some places as [[famine food]] during times of [[food insecurity]].<ref name="promedmail-4799579" /><ref name="fao.org"/> For example, during the [[shortages in Venezuela]] in the late 2010s, dozens of deaths were reported due to Venezuelans resorting to eating bitter cassava in order to curb starvation.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Castro |first1=Maolis |date=6 March 2017 |title=La yuca amarga alimenta la muerte en Venezuela |language=es |work=[[El País]] |url=https://elpais.com/internacional/2017/03/05/america/1488744764_611719.html |access-date=25 February 2018 |archive-date=12 February 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180212184804/https://elpais.com/internacional/2017/03/05/america/1488744764_611719.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=22 February 2018 |title=Estragos de la crisis: Ocho niños han muerto en Aragua por consumir yuca amarga |language=es-ES |work=[[La Patilla]] |url=https://www.lapatilla.com/site/2018/02/22/estragos-de-la-crisis-ocho-ninos-han-muerto-en-aragua-por-consumir-yuca-amarga/ |access-date=25 February 2018 |archive-date=23 February 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180223022727/https://www.lapatilla.com/site/2018/02/22/estragos-de-la-crisis-ocho-ninos-han-muerto-en-aragua-por-consumir-yuca-amarga/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Cases of cassava poisoning were also documented during the famine accompanying the [[Great Leap Forward]] (1958–1962) in China.<ref>{{cite book |author=Zhou Xun |title=The Great Famine in China, 1958-1962: A Documentary History |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2012 |chapter=Ch. 3 Seasons of death}}</ref> Farmers may select bitter cultivars to reduce crop losses.<ref name="leisa">{{cite magazine |author1=Chiwona-Karltun, Linley |author2=Katundu, Chrissie |author3=Ngoma, James |author4=Chipungu, Felistus |author5=Mkumbira, Jonathan |author6=Simukoko, Sidney |author7=Jiggins, Janice |year=2002 |title=Bitter cassava and women: an intriguing response to food security |magazine=LEISA Magazine |volume=18 |issue=4 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/255687456 |access-date=22 September 2018 |archive-date=22 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180922101746/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/255687456 |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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Societies that traditionally eat cassava generally understand that some processing (soaking, cooking, fermentation, etc.) is necessary to avoid getting sick. Brief soaking (four hours) of cassava is not sufficient, but soaking for 18–24 hours can remove up to half the level of cyanide. Drying may not be sufficient, either.<ref name="fao.org" /> |
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Societies that traditionally eat cassava generally understand that some processing (soaking, cooking, fermentation, etc.) is necessary to avoid getting sick. Brief soaking (four hours) of cassava is not sufficient, but soaking for 18–24 hours can remove up to half the level of cyanide. Drying may not be sufficient, either.<ref name="fao.org"/> |
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[[File:PeeledCassava.jpg|right|thumb|Cassava root, peeled and soaking]] |
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For some smaller-rooted, sweet varieties, cooking is sufficient to eliminate all toxicity. The cyanide is carried away in the processing water and the amounts produced in domestic consumption are too small to have environmental impact.<ref name="cereda" /> The larger-rooted, bitter varieties used for production of flour or starch must be processed to remove the cyanogenic glucosides. The large roots are peeled and then ground into flour, which is then soaked in water, squeezed dry several times, and toasted. The starch grains that flow with the water during the soaking process are also used in cooking.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Padmaja |first1=G. |last2=Steinkraus |first2=K. H. |year=1995 |title=Cyanide detoxification in cassava for food and feed uses |journal=[[Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition]]|volume=35 |issue=4 |pages=299–339 |doi=10.1080/10408399509527703 |pmid=7576161}}</ref> The flour is used throughout |
For some smaller-rooted, sweet varieties, cooking is sufficient to eliminate all toxicity. The cyanide is carried away in the processing water and the amounts produced in domestic consumption are too small to have environmental impact.<ref name="cereda" /> The larger-rooted, bitter varieties used for production of flour or starch must be processed to remove the cyanogenic glucosides. The large roots are peeled and then ground into flour, which is then soaked in water, squeezed dry several times, and toasted. The starch grains that flow with the water during the soaking process are also used in cooking.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Padmaja |first1=G. |last2=Steinkraus |first2=K. H. |year=1995 |title=Cyanide detoxification in cassava for food and feed uses |journal=[[Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition]]|volume=35 |issue=4 |pages=299–339 |doi=10.1080/10408399509527703 |pmid=7576161}}</ref> The flour is used throughout South America and the [[Caribbean]]. Industrial production of cassava flour, even at the cottage level, may generate enough cyanide and cyanogenic glycosides in the effluents to have a severe environmental impact.<ref name="cereda"/> |
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==Uses== |
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== Uses == |
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{{see also|Tapioca#Uses}} |
{{see also|Tapioca#Uses}} |
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{{more citations needed section|date=August 2017}} |
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[[File:Cambodia16 lo (4039995158).jpg|thumb|Processing cassava starch into cassava noodles, [[Kampong Cham (city)|Kampong Cham]]]] |
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=== |
===Food and drink=== |
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{{main|List of amylase-induced fermentations}} |
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{{Cookbook}} |
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[[Alcoholic beverage]]s made from cassava include [[cauim]] and tiquira (Brazil), [[kasiri]] (Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname), impala (Mozambique), masato (Peruvian [[Chicha#Amazonia|Amazonia chicha]]), [[Parakaria|parakari]] or kari (Venezuela, Guyana, Surinam), [[nihamanchi]] (South America) also known as {{which lang|date=August 2020}} (Ecuador and Peru), ö döi (chicha de yuca, Ngäbe-Bugle, Panama), sakurá (Brazil, Suriname), and tarul ko {{which lang|date=August 2020}} (Darjeeling, Sikkim, India). |
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===Culinary=== |
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{{main|Cassava-based dishes}} |
{{main|Cassava-based dishes}} |
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There are [[Cassava-based dishes|many ways of cooking cassava]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Opie |first=Frederick Douglass |title=Hog and Hominy: Soul Food from Africa to America |publisher=[[Columbia University Press]] |year=2008 |at=chapters 1–2}}</ref> It has to be prepared correctly to remove its toxicity.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-02-09 |title=Cassava: Benefits, toxicity, and how to prepare |url=https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/323756 |access-date=2022-03-30 |website=www.medicalnewstoday.com |archive-date=30 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220330124043/https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/323756 |url-status=live }}</ref> The root of the sweet variety is mild to the taste, like potatoes; Jewish households sometimes use it in [[cholent]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Manioc Root - Cargo Handbook - the world's largest cargo transport guidelines website |url=https://cargohandbook.com/Manioc_Root |access-date=2022-03-30 |website=cargohandbook.com |archive-date=20 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220520225044/https://www.cargohandbook.com/Manioc_Root |url-status=live }}</ref> It can be made into a flour that is used in breads, cakes and cookies. In Brazil, ''[[farofa]]'', a dry meal made from cooked powdered cassava, is roasted in butter, eaten as a side dish, or sprinkled on other food.<ref name="zeldes">{{cite web |last=Zeldes |first=Leah A. |author-link=Leah A. Zeldes |title=Eat this! Hearty Brazilian feijoada, just in time for Carnival! |work=Dining Chicago |publisher=Chicago's Restaurant & Entertainment Guide |date=February 3, 2010 |url=http://blog.diningchicago.com/2010/02/03/eat-this-hearty-brazilian-feijoada-just-in-time-for-carnival/ |format=|doi=|access-date=February 5, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100212233129/http://blog.diningchicago.com/2010/02/03/eat-this-hearty-brazilian-feijoada-just-in-time-for-carnival/ |archive-date=February 12, 2010 |url-status=dead}}</ref> |
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[[File:Cassava heavy cake.jpg|thumb|right|Cassava heavy cake]] |
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[[Alcoholic beverage]]s made from cassava include [[cauim]] (Brazil),<ref name="rschwan">{{cite journal |title=Yeast diversity in rice-cassava fermentations produced by the indigenous Tapirapé people of Brazil |author=Rosane F. Schwan |author2=Euziclei G. Almeida |author3=Maria Aparecida G. Souza-Dias |author4=Lene Jespersen |date=September 2007 |volume=7 |pages=966–972 |journal=FEMS Yeast Research |doi=10.1111/j.1567-1364.2007.00241.x |pmid=17697080 |issue=6 |doi-access=free }}</ref> [[kasiri]] (Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname),<ref>{{cite news |last=van Vark |first=Manon |title=Tribal cures for modern ailments, Surinam |date=28 August 1999 |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/431829.stm |quote=Their staple food is cassava, from which they make cassava bread and brew ''kasiri'', 'cassava beer'.}}</ref> [[parakari]] or kari (Venezuela, Guyana, Surinam),<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Henkel |first=Terry W. |date=2005-03-01 |title=Parakari, an indigenous fermented beverage using amylolytic Rhizopus in Guyana |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/15572536.2006.11832833 |journal=Mycologia |volume=97 |issue=1 |pages=1–11 |doi=10.1080/15572536.2006.11832833 |pmid=16389951 |s2cid=218588548 |issn=0027-5514}}</ref> and [[nihamanchi]] (South America),<ref>{{cite book |last=Howell |first=Edward |title=Enzyme Nutrition: The Food Enzyme Concept |publisher=Avery Publishing Group |year=1995 |isbn=978-0895292216 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h9EgG8O7GgIC&dq=Howell+Enzyme&pg=PP1 |page=49}}</ref> |
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[[Cassava-based dishes]] are widely consumed wherever the plant is cultivated; some have regional, national, or ethnic importance.<ref>Frederick Douglass Opie, ''Hog and Hominy: Soul Food from Africa to America'', (Columbia University Press 2008), chapters 1–2.</ref> Cassava must be cooked properly to detoxify it before it is eaten.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-02-09 |title=Cassava: Benefits, toxicity, and how to prepare |url=https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/323756 |access-date=2022-03-30 |website=www.medicalnewstoday.com |language=en |archive-date=30 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220330124043/https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/323756 |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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<gallery class=center mode=nolines widths=180 heights=180><!--arrange images to stop'em running into next section--> |
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Cassava can be cooked in many ways. The root of the sweet variety has a delicate flavor and can replace potatoes. It is used in [[cholent]] in some households.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Manioc Root - Cargo Handbook - the world's largest cargo transport guidelines website |url=https://cargohandbook.com/Manioc_Root |access-date=2022-03-30 |website=cargohandbook.com |archive-date=20 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220520225044/https://www.cargohandbook.com/Manioc_Root |url-status=live }}</ref> It can be made into a flour that is used in breads, cakes and cookies. In Brazil, detoxified cassava is ground and cooked to a dry, often hard or crunchy meal known as ''[[farofa]]'' used as a condiment, toasted in butter, or eaten alone as a side dish. |
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File:Cassava heavy cake.jpg|Heavy cake |
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File:Cassava bread.jpg|Bread |
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File:Cambodia16 lo (4039995158).jpg|Noodles, Cambodia |
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</gallery> |
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===Preparation=== |
=== Preparation of bitter cassava === |
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[[File:Cassava bread.jpg|thumb|Cassava bread]] |
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A safe processing method known as the "wetting method" is to mix the cassava flour with water into a thick paste, spread it in a thin layer over a basket and then let it stand for five hours at 30 °C in the shade.<ref name="fca">{{cite journal |last1=Bradbury |first1=J.H. |date=2006 |title=Simple wetting method to reduce cyanogen content of cassava flour |url=http://biology-assets.anu.edu.au/hosted_sites/CCDN/papers/Howard_06.pdf |journal=[[Journal of Food Composition and Analysis]] |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=388–393 |doi=10.1016/j.jfca.2005.04.012 |access-date=23 March 2018 |archive-date=5 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150205063243/http://biology-assets.anu.edu.au/hosted_sites/CCDN/papers/Howard_06.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> In that time, about 83% of the cyanogenic [[glycoside]]s are broken down by |
A safe processing method known as the "wetting method" is to mix the cassava flour with water into a thick paste, spread it in a thin layer over a basket and then let it stand for five hours at 30 °C in the shade.<ref name="fca">{{cite journal |last1=Bradbury |first1=J.H. |date=2006 |title=Simple wetting method to reduce cyanogen content of cassava flour |url=http://biology-assets.anu.edu.au/hosted_sites/CCDN/papers/Howard_06.pdf |journal=[[Journal of Food Composition and Analysis]] |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=388–393 |doi=10.1016/j.jfca.2005.04.012 |access-date=23 March 2018 |archive-date=5 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150205063243/http://biology-assets.anu.edu.au/hosted_sites/CCDN/papers/Howard_06.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> In that time, about 83% of the cyanogenic [[glycoside]]s are broken down by linamarase; the resulting hydrogen cyanide escapes to the atmosphere, making the flour safe for consumption the same evening.<ref name="fca" /> |
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The traditional method used in West Africa is to peel the roots and put them into water for three days to ferment. The roots are then dried or cooked. In Nigeria and several other west African countries, including Ghana, Cameroon, Benin, Togo, Ivory Coast, and Burkina Faso, they are usually grated and lightly fried in palm oil to preserve them. The result is a foodstuff called |
The traditional method used in West Africa is to peel the roots and put them into water for three days to ferment. The roots are then dried or cooked. In Nigeria and several other west African countries, including Ghana, Cameroon, Benin, Togo, Ivory Coast, and Burkina Faso, they are usually grated and lightly fried in palm oil to preserve them. The result is a foodstuff called [[garri]]. Fermentation is also used in other places such as Indonesia, such as [[Tapai]]. The fermentation process also reduces the level of antinutrients, making the cassava a more nutritious food.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Oboh |first1=G. |last2=Oladunmoye |first2=M.K. |title=Biochemical Changes in Micro-Fungi Fermented Cassava Flour Produced from Low- and Medium-Cyanide Variety of Cassava Tubers |journal=Nutrition and Health |volume=18 |issue=4 |date=2007 |issn=0260-1060 |doi=10.1177/026010600701800405 |pages=355–367|pmid=18087867 }}</ref> The reliance on cassava as a food source and the resulting exposure to the [[goitrogen]]ic effects of [[thiocyanate]] has been responsible for the endemic goiters seen in the [[Akoko]] area of southwestern Nigeria.<ref name="pmid10497657">{{cite journal |last1=Akindahunsi |first1=A. A. |last2=Grissom |first2=F. E. |last3=Adewusi |first3=S. R. |last4=Afolabi |first4=O. A. |last5=Torimiro |first5=S. E. |last6=Oke |first6=O. L. |title=Parameters of thyroid function in the endemic goitre of Akungba and Oke-Agbe villages of Akoko area of southwestern Nigeria |journal=African Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences |volume=27 |issue=3–4 |date=1998 |issn=0309-3913 |pmid=10497657 |pages=239–242}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bumoko |first1=G.M.-M. |last2=Sadiki |first2=N.H. |last3=Rwatambuga |first3=A. |last4=Kayembe |first4=K.P. |last5=Okitundu |first5=D.L. |last6=Mumba Ngoyi |first6=D. |last7=Muyembe |first7=J.-J.T. |last8=Banea |first8=J.-P. |last9=Boivin |first9=M.J. |last10=Tshala-Katumbay |first10=D. |title=Lower serum levels of selenium, copper, and zinc are related to neuromotor impairments in children with konzo |journal=Journal of the Neurological Sciences |volume=349 |issue=1–2 |date=2015 |pmid=25592410 |pmc=4323625 |doi=10.1016/j.jns.2015.01.007 |pages=149–153}}</ref> |
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<gallery class=center mode=nolines widths=180 heights=180><!--arrange images to stop'em running into next section--> |
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A traditional method used by the [[Lucayan people|Lucayans]] to detoxify manioc is by peeling, grinding, and mashing; filtering the mash through a basket tube to remove the hydrogen cyanide; and drying and sieving the mash for flour. The poisonous filtrate water was boiled to release the hydrogen cyanide, and used as a base for stews. <ref name="Keegan-2008">{{Cite book |last=Keegan |first=William |title=Talking Taino: Caribbean Natural History from a Native Perspective (Caribbean Archaeology and Ethnohistory) |last2=Carlson |first2=Lisbeth |publisher=Fire Ant Books |year=2008 |isbn=978-0817355081 |pages=74}}</ref> |
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File:Manihot esculenta dsc07325.jpg|Unprocessed roots |
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File:PeeledCassava.jpg|Tuber, peeled and soaking to reduce toxicity |
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</gallery> |
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A traditional method used by the [[Lucayan people|Lucayans]] to detoxify cassava is by peeling, grinding, and mashing; filtering the mash through a basket tube to remove the hydrogen cyanide; and drying and sieving the mash for flour. The poisonous filtrate water was boiled to release the hydrogen cyanide, and used as a base for stews.<ref name="Keegan-2008">{{Cite book |last1=Keegan |first1=William |title=Talking Taino: Caribbean Natural History from a Native Perspective (Caribbean Archaeology and Ethnohistory) |last2=Carlson |first2=Lisbeth |publisher=Fire Ant Books |year=2008 |isbn=978-0817355081 |page=74}}</ref> |
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A project called "BioCassava Plus" uses [[bioengineering]] to grow cassava with lower [[cyanogenic glycosides]] combined with [[food fortification|fortification]] of [[vitamin A]], [[iron]] and [[protein]] to improve the nutrition of people in [[sub-Saharan Africa]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sayre |first1=R. |last2=Beeching |first2=J. R. |last3=Cahoon |first3=E. B. |last4=Egesi |first4=C. |last5=Fauquet |first5=C. |last6=Fellman |first6=J. |last7=Fregene |first7=M. |last8=Gruissem |first8=W. |last9=Mallowa |first9=S. |last10=Manary |first10=M. |last11=Maziya-Dixon |first11=B. |year=2011 |title=The BioCassava Plus Program: Biofortification of Cassava for Sub-Saharan Africa |journal=[[Annual Review of Plant Biology]]|volume=62 |pages=251–272 |doi=10.1146/annurev-arplant-042110-103751 |pmid=21526968 |last12=Mbanaso |first12=A. |last13=Schachtman |first13=D. P. |last14=Siritunga |first14=D. |last15=Taylor |first15=N. |last16=Vanderschuren |first16=H. |last17=Zhang |first17=P.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=2018 |title=BioCassava Plus |url=https://www.danforthcenter.org/scientists-research/research-institutes/institute-for-international-crop-improvement/crop-improvement-projects/biocassava-plus |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160327133605/http://www.danforthcenter.org/scientists-research/research-institutes/institute-for-international-crop-improvement/crop-improvement-projects/biocassava-plus |archive-date=27 March 2016 |access-date=23 March 2018 |publisher=Donald Danforth Plant Science Center |place=St. Louis, Missouri, USA}}</ref> |
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[[Bioengineering]] has been applied to grow cassava with lower [[cyanogenic glycosides]] combined with [[food fortification|fortification]] of [[vitamin A]], [[iron]] and protein to improve the nutrition of people in sub-Saharan Africa.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sayre |first1=R. |last2=Beeching |first2=J. R. |last3=Cahoon |first3=E. B. |last4=Egesi |first4=C. |last5=Fauquet |first5=C. |last6=Fellman |first6=J. |last7=Fregene |first7=M. |last8=Gruissem |first8=W. |last9=Mallowa |first9=S. |last10=Manary |first10=M. |last11=Maziya-Dixon |first11=B. |year=2011 |title=The BioCassava Plus Program: Biofortification of Cassava for Sub-Saharan Africa |journal=[[Annual Review of Plant Biology]]|volume=62 |pages=251–272 |doi=10.1146/annurev-arplant-042110-103751 |pmid=21526968 |last12=Mbanaso |first12=A. |last13=Schachtman |first13=D. P. |last14=Siritunga |first14=D. |last15=Taylor |first15=N. |last16=Vanderschuren |first16=H. |last17=Zhang |first17=P.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=2018 |title=BioCassava Plus |url=https://www.danforthcenter.org/scientists-research/research-institutes/institute-for-international-crop-improvement/crop-improvement-projects/biocassava-plus |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160327133605/http://www.danforthcenter.org/scientists-research/research-institutes/institute-for-international-crop-improvement/crop-improvement-projects/biocassava-plus |archive-date=27 March 2016 |access-date=23 March 2018 |publisher=Donald Danforth Plant Science Center |place=St. Louis, Missouri, USA}}</ref> |
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In Guyana the traditional [[cassareep]] is made from bitter cassava juice.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Aregheore, E. M. |author2=Agunbiade, O. O. |title=The toxic effects of cassava (manihot esculenta grantz) diets on humans: a review. |journal=Vet. Hum. Toxicol.|year=1991 |volume=33 |issue=3 |pages=274–275 |pmid=1650055 }}</ref> The juice is boiled until it is reduced by half in volume,<ref name="food">{{Cite journal |last=Jackson |first=J. R. |title=New Edibles |journal=Food Journal |volume=2 |year=1872 |page=372-378 [375] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R3kBAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA375 }}</ref> to the consistency of [[molasses]]<ref name="nicholls">{{Cite book |last=Nicholls |first=Henry Alfred Alford |title=A text-book of tropical agriculture |publisher=Macmillan |year=1906 |page=[https://archive.org/details/atextbooktropic00nichgoog/page/n308 278] |url=https://archive.org/details/atextbooktropic00nichgoog }}</ref> and flavored with [[spice]]s—including [[clove]]s, [[cinnamon]], [[salt]], [[sugar]], and [[cayenne pepper]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Harris |first=Dunstan A. |title=Island Cooking: Recipes from the Caribbean |publisher=Ten Speed Press |year=2003 |page=138 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qqK1EzO00oIC&pg=PA138 |isbn=978-1-58008-501-4}}</ref> Traditionally, cassareep was boiled in a soft pot, the actual "pepper pot", which would absorb the flavors and also impart them (even if dry) to foods such as rice and chicken cooked in it.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wood |first=John George |title=Man and his handiwork |publisher=Society for promoting Christian knowledge |year=1886 |pages=455–456 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mAUPAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA455 }}</ref> The poisonous but volatile hydrogen cyanide is evaporated by heating.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Meehans' monthly: a magazine of horticulture, botany and kindred subjects, Volumes 11-12 |publisher=Thomas Meehan & Sons |year=1901 |page=108 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nqnNAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA107 }}</ref> Nevertheless, improperly cooked cassava has been blamed for a number of deaths.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=White |first1=W. L. B. |author2=Arias-Garzon, D. I. |author3=McMahon, J. M. |author4=Sayre R. T. |title=Cyanogenesis in Cassava : The Role of Hydroxynitrile Lyase in Root Cyanide Production |journal=Plant Physiology |year=1998 |volume=116 |issue=4 |pmid=9536038 |pages=1219–1225 |pmc=35028 |doi=10.1104/pp.116.4.1219}}</ref> Amerindians from Guyana reportedly made an antidote by steeping [[chili pepper]]s in [[rum]].<ref name="nicholls"/> The natives of Guyana traditionally brought the product to town in bottles,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dalton |first=Henry G. |title=The History of British Guiana: Comprising a General Description of the Colony (1855) |publisher=Adamant Media Corporation (reprint) |year=2005 |page=185 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8nM8-MbduHgC&pg=PA184 |isbn=978-1-4021-8865-7}}</ref> and it is available on the [[United States|US market]] in bottled form.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Herbst |first=Sharon Tyler |title=The new food lover's companion: comprehensive definitions of nearly 6,000 food, drink, and culinary terms |publisher=Barron's Educational Series |year=2001 |page=[https://archive.org/details/newfoodloverscom00herb/page/105 105] |url=https://archive.org/details/newfoodloverscom00herb/page/105 |isbn=978-0-7641-1258-4 |url-access=registration }}</ref> |
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=== Nutrition === |
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===Nutrition=== |
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{{Nutritional value |
{{Nutritional value |
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| |
|name=Cassava, raw |
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|kJ=670 |
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| kcal = 160 |
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| |
|water=60 g |
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| |
|protein=1.4 g |
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|fat=0.3 g |
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| |
|carbs=38.1 g |
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| |
|fiber=1.8 g |
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| |
|sugars=1.7 g |
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| |
|calcium_mg=16 |
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|iron_mg=0.27 |
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|magnesium_mg=21 |
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|phosphorus_mg=27 |
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|potassium_mg=271 |
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|sodium_mg=14 |
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|zinc_mg=0.34 |
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|manganese_mg= |
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|vitC_mg=20.6 |
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|thiamin_mg=0.087 |
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| |
|riboflavin_mg=0.048 |
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|niacin_mg=0.854 |
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|pantothenic_mg= |
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|vitB6_mg=0.088 |
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|folate_ug=27 |
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|note=[https://web.archive.org/web/20170712215400/https://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/show/2907?manu=&fgcd=&ds=Full Link to USDA Database entry] |
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}} |
}} |
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Raw cassava is 60% water, 38% |
Raw cassava is 60% water, 38% carbohydrates, 1% protein, and has negligible [[fat]] (table).<ref name="fao">{{cite web |title=The Global Cassava Development Strategy|year=2004 |author=Tewe, Olumide O.|publisher=[[U.N. Food and Agriculture Organization]] |url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/007/j1255e/j1255e00.htm|access-date=24 November 2011|archive-date=19 January 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120119045952/http://www.fao.org/docrep/007/j1255e/j1255e00.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> In a {{convert|100|g|oz|frac=2|abbr=off|adj=on}} reference serving, raw cassava provides {{convert|160|kcal|kJ|order=flip|abbr=off}} of [[food energy]] and 23% of the [[Daily Value]] (DV) of vitamin C, but otherwise has no [[micronutrients]] in significant content (i.e. above 10% of the relevant DV).<ref name="fao" /> |
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=== Biofuel === |
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Cassava, like other foods, also has [[antinutrient|antinutritional]] and toxic factors. Of particular concern are the [[Glycoside#Cyanogenic glycosides|cyanogenic glucosides]] of cassava ([[linamarin]] and [[lotaustralin]]). On hydrolysis, these release [[hydrogen cyanide]] (HCN). The presence of cyanide in cassava is of concern for human and for animal consumption. The concentration of these antinutritional and unsafe glycosides varies considerably between varieties and also with climatic and cultural conditions. Selection of cassava species to be grown, therefore, is quite important. Once harvested, bitter cassava must be treated and prepared properly prior to human or animal consumption, while sweet cassava can be used after boiling. |
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Cassava has been studied as a feedstock to produce [[ethanol]] as a [[biofuel]], including to improve the efficiency of conversion from cassava flour,<ref name="Bakky 2021">{{cite journal |last1=Bakky |first1=Aa |last2=Hoque |first2=Mr |last3=Islam |first3=Ms |title=Production of Biofuel from Cassava |journal=Journal of Environmental Science and Natural Resources |volume=12 |issue=1–2 |date=11 February 2021 |issn=2408-8633 |doi=10.3329/jesnr.v12i1-2.52032 |pages=171–174}}</ref> and to convert crop residues such as stems and leaves as well as the more easily processed roots.<ref name="Sivamani 2018">{{cite journal |last1=Sivamani |first1=Selvaraju |last2=Chandrasekaran |first2=Arun Pandian |last3=Balajii |first3=Muthusamy |last4=Shanmugaprakash |first4=Muthusamy |last5=Hosseini-Bandegharaei |first5=Ahmad |last6=Baskar |first6=Rajoo |title=Evaluation of the potential of cassava-based residues for biofuels production |journal=Reviews in Environmental Science and Bio/Technology |volume=17 |issue=3 |date=2018 |issn=1569-1705 |doi=10.1007/s11157-018-9475-0 |pages=553–570|bibcode=2018RESBT..17..553S }}</ref> China has created facilities to produce substantial amounts of ethanol fuel from cassava roots.<ref name="CH15030">{{cite web |last1=Anderson-Sprecher |first1=Andrew |last2=Ji |first2=James |title=China Biofuel Industry Faces Uncertain Future |publisher=USDA Foreign Agriculture Service |url=https://apps.fas.usda.gov/newgainapi/api/report/downloadreportbyfilename?filename=Biofuels%20Annual_Beijing_China%20-%20Peoples%20Republic%20of_9-3-2015.pdf |access-date=8 November 2019 |archive-date=27 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200727083130/https://apps.fas.usda.gov/newgainapi/api/report/downloadreportbyfilename?filename=Biofuels%20Annual_Beijing_China%20-%20Peoples%20Republic%20of_9-3-2015.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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===Comparison with other major staple foods=== |
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A [[Staple food#Comparison of 10 staple foods|comparative table]] shows that cassava is a good energy source. In its prepared forms, in which its toxic or unpleasant components have been reduced to acceptable levels, it contains an extremely high proportion of starch compared to most staples. However, cassava is a poorer dietary source of protein and most other essential nutrients. Though an important staple, its main value is as a component of a balanced diet. |
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===Animal feed=== |
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Comparisons between the nutrient content of cassava and other major staple foods when raw must be interpreted with caution because most staples are not edible in such forms and many are indigestible, even dangerously poisonous or otherwise harmful.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Achidi|first1=Aduni U.|last2=Ajayi|first2=Olufunmike A.|last3=Maziya-Dixon|first3=Bussie|last4=Bokanga|first4=Mpoko|title=The Effect of Processing on the Nutrient Content of Cassava (''Manihot Esculenta'' Crantz) Leaves|date=June 2008|journal=[[Journal of Food Processing and Preservation]]|language=en|volume=32|issue=3|pages=486–502|doi=10.1111/j.1745-4549.2007.00165.x|issn=0145-8892}}</ref> For consumption, each must be prepared and cooked as appropriate. |
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Cassava tubers and hay are used worldwide as animal feed. Young cassava hay is harvested at three to four month, when it reaches about {{convert|30|to|45|cm|abbr=on}} above ground; it is dried in the sun until its dry matter content approaches 85 percent. The hay contains 20–27 percent [[Protein (nutrient)|protein]] and 1.5–4 percent [[tannin]]. It is valued as a source of roughage for [[ruminant]]s such as cattle.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=R. Lunsin |author2=M. Wanapat |author3=P. Rowlinson |title=Effect of cassava hay and rice bran oil supplementation on rumen fermentation, milk yield and milk composition in lactating dairy cows |journal=[[Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences]]|date=October 2012 |volume=25 |issue=10 |pages=1364–1373 |doi=10.5713/ajas.2012.12051 |pmc=4093022 |pmid=25049491}}</ref> |
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===Biofuel=== |
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In many countries, significant research has begun to evaluate the use of cassava as an [[ethanol]] [[biofuel]] feedstock. Under the Development Plan for Renewable Energy in the [[Eleventh Five-Year Plan (People's Republic of China)|Eleventh Five-Year Plan]] in the [[People's Republic of China]], the target was to increase the production of ethanol fuel from nongrain feedstock to {{ Convert |2|e6MT|abbr=off}}, and that of biodiesel to {{ Convert |200|e3MT|abbr=off}} by 2010. This is equivalent to the replacement of {{ Convert |10|e6MT|abbr=off}} of petroleum.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://stuartsbrasil.blogspot.com/2009/01/aipim-mandioca-manioc-pao-de-pobre.html|title=Stuart's Brasil|format=Blog|date=30 January 2009|access-date=29 May 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150407223440/http://stuartsbrasil.blogspot.com/2009/01/aipim-mandioca-manioc-pao-de-pobre.html|archive-date=7 April 2015}}</ref> This push for non-grain ethanol was further increased to a goal of {{ Convert|300|e6MT|abbr=off}} of cellulosic and non-grain based ethanol combined by 2020.<ref name="CH15030">{{cite web |url=https://apps.fas.usda.gov/newgainapi/api/report/downloadreportbyfilename?filename=Biofuels%20Annual_Beijing_China%20-%20Peoples%20Republic%20of_9-3-2015.pdf |last1=Anderson-Sprecher |first1=Andrew |last2=Ji |first2=James |title=China Biofuel Industry Faces Uncertain Future |publisher=USDA Foreign Agriculture Service |access-date=8 November 2019 |archive-date=27 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200727083130/https://apps.fas.usda.gov/newgainapi/api/report/downloadreportbyfilename?filename=Biofuels%20Annual_Beijing_China%20-%20Peoples%20Republic%20of_9-3-2015.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> As a result, cassava (tapioca) chips have gradually become a major source of ethanol production. On 22 December 2007, the largest cassava [[ethanol fuel]] production facility was completed in [[Beihai]], with annual output of {{ Convert|200|e3MT|abbr=off}}, which would need an average of {{ Convert|1.5|e6MT|abbr=off}} of cassava. In November 2008, China-based Hainan Yedao Group invested US$51.5 million in a new [[wikt:biofuel|biofuel]] facility that is expected to produce {{convert|33|e6USgal|e6L|abbr=off|order=flip}} a year of bioethanol from cassava plants.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.businessgreen.com/business-green/news/2229852/bio-ethanol-plant-open-china|title=Cassava bio-ethanol plant to open in China|work=businessGreen|date=5 November 2008|access-date=29 May 2015|archive-date=20 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230420125930/https://www.businessgreen.com/news/1805711/cassava-bio-ethanol-plant-china|url-status=live}}</ref> |
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<gallery class=center mode=nolines widths=180 heights=180><!--format prevents images becoming very large at some window widths--> |
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===Animal feed=== |
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File:Cassava being grated.jpg|Tubers being grated |
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{{multiple image |
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File:Close-up of grated cassava.jpg|A close-up of the product |
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| direction = horizontal |
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File:Cassava drying on a road.jpg|Drying on road to be used for pig and chicken feed |
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</gallery> |
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| image1 = Cassava being grated.jpg |
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| width1 = {{#expr: (120 * 2475 / 2952) round 0}} |
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| image2 = Close-up of grated cassava.jpg |
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| width2 = {{#expr: (120 * 4300 / 2952) round 0}} |
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| image3 = Cassava drying on a road.jpg |
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| width3 = {{#expr: (120 * 4300 / 2952) round 0}} |
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}} |
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=== Laundry starch === |
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Cassava tubers and hay are used worldwide as animal feed. Cassava hay is harvested at a young growth stage (three to four months) when it reaches about {{convert|30|to|45|cm|abbr=on}} above ground; it is then sun-dried for one to two days until its final dry matter content approaches 85 percent. Cassava hay contains high protein (20–27 percent [[Protein (nutrient)|crude protein]]) and condensed [[tannin]]s (1.5–4 percent CP). It is valued as a good roughage source for [[ruminant]]s such as cattle.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=R. Lunsin |author2=M. Wanapat |author3=P. Rowlinson |title=Effect of cassava hay and rice bran oil supplementation on rumen fermentation, milk yield and milk composition in lactating dairy cows |journal=[[Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences]]|date=October 2012 |volume=25 |issue=10 |pages=1364–1373 |doi=10.5713/ajas.2012.12051 |pmc=4093022 |pmid=25049491}}</ref> |
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{{further|Laundry starch}} |
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Cassava is also used in a number of commercially available laundry products, especially as starch for shirts and other garments.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Tapioca or Cassava |url=https://www.botanischetuinen.nl/en/plant_en/5818/tapioca-or-cassava |access-date=2022-03-30 |website=[[NVBT]] www.botanischetuinen.nl |archive-date=20 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230420125913/https://www.botanischetuinen.nl/en/plant_en/5818/tapioca-or-cassava |url-status=live }}</ref> Using cassava starch diluted in water and spraying it over fabrics before ironing helps stiffen collars. |
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Cassava is used in laundry products, especially as [[laundry starch|starch]] to stiffen shirts and other garments.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Tapioca or Cassava |url=https://www.botanischetuinen.nl/en/plant_en/5818/tapioca-or-cassava |access-date=2022-03-30 |website=www.botanischetuinen.nl |archive-date=20 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230420125913/https://www.botanischetuinen.nl/en/plant_en/5818/tapioca-or-cassava |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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=== Economic importance === |
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{{see also|Tapioca#Production}} |
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== Folklore == |
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Cassava, [[Yam (vegetable)|yams]] (''[[Dioscorea]]'' spp.), and [[sweet potato]]es (''Ipomoea batatas'') are important sources of food in the tropics. The cassava plant gives the third-highest yield of [[carbohydrates]] per cultivated area among crop plants, after [[sugarcane]] and [[sugar beet]]s.<ref>[http://www.gardeningplaces.com/articles/nutrition-per-hectare1.htm Nutrition per Hectare for Staple Crops] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160609084139/http://www.gardeningplaces.com/articles/nutrition-per-hectare1.htm|date=9 June 2016}}. gardeningplaces.com</ref> Cassava plays a particularly important role in agriculture in developing countries, especially in [[sub-Saharan Africa]], because it does well on poor soils and with low rainfall, and because it is a perennial that can be harvested as required. Its wide harvesting window allows it to act as a famine reserve and is invaluable in managing labor schedules. It offers flexibility to resource-poor farmers because it serves as either a subsistence or a cash crop.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Stone |first1=G. D. |year=2002 |title=Both Sides Now |journal=[[Current Anthropology]]|volume=43 |issue=4 |pages=611–630 |doi=10.1086/341532 |s2cid=18867515}}</ref> |
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In Java, a myth relates that food derives from the body of Dewi Teknowati, who killed herself rather than accept the advances of the god [[Batara Guru]]. She was buried, and her lower leg grew into a cassava plant.<ref name="Sudardi Widyastuti 2016">{{cite journal |last1=Sudardi |first1=Bani |last2=Widyastuti |first2=Hesti |title=The Folklore about Food Sustainability according Javanese Culture |journal=Journal of Education and Social Science |issue=3 |year=2016 |pages=8–11 |url=https://www.jesoc.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/KC3_17.pdf}}</ref> |
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Worldwide, 800 million people depend on cassava as their primary food staple.<ref>{{cite book |url=http://www.fao.org/3/a-i3278e.pdf |title=Save and Grow: Cassava |date=2013 |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]] |isbn=978-92-5-107641-5 |location=[[Rome]] |page=iii |access-date=27 October 2016 |archive-date=23 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161123042441/http://www.fao.org/3/a-i3278e.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> No continent depends as much on root and tuber crops in feeding its population as does Africa. In the humid and sub-humid areas of tropical Africa, it is either a primary staple food or a secondary costaple. In [[Ghana]], for example, cassava and yams occupy an important position in the agricultural economy and contribute about 46 percent of the agricultural gross domestic product. Cassava accounts for a daily caloric intake of 30 percent in [[Ghana]] and is grown by nearly every farming family. The importance of cassava to many Africans is epitomised in the [[Ewe language|Ewe]] (a language spoken in Ghana, [[Togo]] and [[Benin]]) name for the plant, ''agbeli'', meaning "there is life". |
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In Trinidad, folk stories tell of a ''saapina'' or snake-woman; the word is related to ''sabada'', meaning to pound, for what is traditionally a woman's work of pounding cassava.<ref name="Provost 2011">{{cite journal |last1=Provost |first1=M. C. L. |title=Where Asian Indian folklore meets Arawak and Kalinago folklore, 'Sound' Symmetry and Asymmetry can make you jump! |journal=Lokoratna Journal of Folklore |date=2011 |volume=6 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/267155922}}</ref> |
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The identity of the [[Macushi]] people of Guyana is closely bound up with the growth and processing of cassava in their [[slash-and-burn]] subsistence lifestyle. A story tells that the great spirit Makunaima climbed a tree, cutting off pieces with his axe; when they landed on the ground, each piece became a type of animal. The opossum brought the people to the tree, where they found all the types of food, including bitter cassava. A bird told the people how to prepare the cassava safely.<ref name="Schacht Bell 2013">{{cite journal |last1=Schacht |first1=Ryan N. |title=Cassava and the Makushi: a shared history of resiliency and transformation" |journal=Food and Identity in the Caribbean |year=2013 |pages=15–29 |doi=10.5040/9781350042162.ch-001 |isbn=978-1-350-04216-2 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/275521616}}</ref> |
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In [[Tamil Nadu]], India, there are many cassava processing factories alongside [[National Highway 68 (India)(old numbering)|National Highway 68]] between [[Thalaivasal]] and [[Attur]]. Cassava is widely cultivated and eaten as a staple food in [[Andhra Pradesh]] and in [[Kerala]]. In [[Assam]] it is an important source of carbohydrates especially for natives of hilly areas. |
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== See also == |
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In the subtropical region of southern China, cassava is the fifth-largest crop in terms of production, after [[rice]], [[sweet potato]], [[sugar cane]], and [[maize]]. China is also the largest export market for cassava produced in Vietnam and Thailand. Over 60 percent of cassava production in China is concentrated in a single province, [[Guangxi]], averaging over seven million tonnes annually. |
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==See also== |
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{{Div col}} |
{{Div col}} |
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* [[Attiéké]]{{spaced ndash}} a side dish made from cassava that is a part of the cuisine of [[Côte d'Ivoire]] in Africa |
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* [[Columbian Exchange]] |
* [[Columbian Exchange]] |
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* [[Couac]] |
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* [[Fufu]] |
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* [[Cassava-based dishes#Africa|Kwanga]] |
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* [[Kasiri]] |
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* [[Maní (Amazonian legend)]] |
* [[Maní (Amazonian legend)]] |
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*[[Nihamanchi]] |
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* [[Tapioca industry of Thailand]] |
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* [[Yellow cassava]] |
* [[Yellow cassava]] |
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==References== |
==References== |
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<ref name="TodayNg-new-varieties">{{cite web|url=http://www.today.ng/news/nigeria/nigeria-introduce-cassava-varieties-334463|title=Nigeria to introduce new cassava varieties|website=todayng|date=2020-12-21|first=Chidinma|last=Uchechukwumgemezu|access-date=21 December 2020|archive-date=21 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201221194624/https://www.today.ng/news/nigeria/nigeria-introduce-cassava-varieties-334463|url-status=live}}</ref> |
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==External links== |
==External links== |
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{{Sister project links |auto=no |c=Manihot esculenta |cookbook=Cassava |n=no |q=no |s=no |species=Manihot esculenta |v=no |wikt=cassava}} |
{{Sister project links |auto=no |c=Manihot esculenta |cookbook=Cassava |n=no |q=no |s=no |species=Manihot esculenta |v=no |wikt=cassava}} |
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* [http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/CropFactSheets/cassava.html Cassava – Purdue University Horticulture] |
* [http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/CropFactSheets/cassava.html Cassava – Purdue University Horticulture] |
Revision as of 01:19, 25 July 2024
Cassava | |
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![]() | |
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Tuber (waxed) | |
Scientific classification ![]() | |
Kingdom: | Plantae |
Clade: | Tracheophytes |
Clade: | Angiosperms |
Clade: | Eudicots |
Clade: | Rosids |
Order: | Malpighiales |
Family: | Euphorbiaceae |
Genus: | Manihot |
Species: | M. esculenta
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Binomial name | |
Manihot esculenta | |
Synonyms[1] | |
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Manihot esculenta, commonly called cassava, manioc, or yuca (among numerous regional names), is a woody shrub of the spurge family, Euphorbiaceae, native to South America, from Brazil, Paraguay and parts of the Andes. Although a perennial plant, cassava is extensively cultivated in tropical and subtropical regions as an annual crop for its edible starchy root tuber. Cassava is predominantly consumed in boiled form, but substantial quantities are processed to extract cassava starch, called tapioca, which is used for food, animal feed, and industrial purposes. The Brazilian farinha, and the related garri of West Africa, is an edible coarse flour obtained by grating cassava roots, pressing moisture off the obtained grated pulp, and finally drying it (and roasting in the case of both farinha and garri).
Cassava is the third-largest source of carbohydrates in food in the tropics, after rice and maize, making it an important staple; more than 500 million people depend on it. It offers the advantage of being exceptionally drought-tolerant, and able to grow productively on poor soil. The largest producer is Nigeria, while Thailand is the largest exporter of cassava starch.
Cassava is grown in sweet and bitter varieties; both contain toxins, but the bitter varieties have them in much larger amounts. Cassava has to be prepared carefully for consumption, as improperly prepared material can contain sufficient cyanide to cause poisoning. The more toxic varieties of cassava have been used in some places as famine food during times of food insecurity. Farmers may however choose bitter cultivars to minimise crop losses.
Etymology
The generic name Manihot and the common name "manioc" both derive from the Guarani (Tupi) name mandioca or manioca for the plant.[2][3] The specific name esculenta is Latin for 'edible'.[2] The common name "cassava" is a 16th century word from the French or Portuguese cassave, in turn from Taíno caçabi.[4] The common name "yuca" or "yucca" is most likely also from Taíno, via Spanish yuca or juca.[5]
Description
The harvested part of a cassava plant is the root. This is long and tapered, with an easily detached rough brown rind. The white or yellowish flesh is firm and even in texture. Commercial cultivars can be 5 to 10 centimetres (2 to 4 in) wide at the top, and some 15 to 30 cm (6 to 12 in) long, with a woody vascular bundle running down the middle. The roots are largely starch, with small amounts of calcium (16 milligrams per 100 grams), phosphorus (27 mg/100 g), and vitamin C (20.6 mg/100 g).[6] Cassava roots contains little protein, whereas the leaves are rich in protein,[7] except for being low in methionine, an essential amino acid.[8]
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Cassava plant
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Unprocessed tubers
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Tuber in cross-section
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Leaf
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Leaf detail
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Flower buds
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Seeds
Genome
The complete and haplotype-resolved African cassava (TME204) genome has been reconstructed and made available using the Hi-C technology.[9] The genome shows abundant novel gene loci with enriched functionality related to chromatin organization, meristem development, and cell responses.[9] Differentially expressed transcripts of different haplotype origins were enriched for different functionality during tissue development. In each tissue, 20–30% of transcripts showed allele-specific expression differences with <2% of direction-shifting. Despite high gene synteny, the HiFi genome assembly revealed extensive chromosome rearrangements and abundant intra-genomic and inter-genomic divergent sequences, with significant structural variations mostly related to long terminal repeat retrotransposons.[9]
Although smallholders are otherwise economically inefficient producers, they are vital to productivity at particular times.[10] Small cassava farmers are no exception.[10] Genetic diversity is vital when productivity has declined due to pests and diseases, and smallholders tend to retain less productive but more diverse gene pools.[10]
MeFT1 (FT) is a gene producing FT proteins which affect the formation of storage roots in many plants, including this one.[11] Alleles in cassava include MeFT1 and MeFT2.[11] MeFT1 expression in leaves seems to not be photoperiodic, while MeFT2 clearly is.[11] MeFT1 expression encourages motivation of sucrose towards the reproductive organs, as shown by experimental overexpression reducing storage root accumulation.[11]
History
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Ta%C3%ADno_women_preparing_cassava_bread.png/220px-Ta%C3%ADno_women_preparing_cassava_bread.png)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Albert_Eckhout_-_Mandioca.jpg/220px-Albert_Eckhout_-_Mandioca.jpg)
Wild populations of M. esculenta subspecies flabellifolia, shown to be the progenitor of domesticated cassava, are centered in west-central Brazil, where it was likely first domesticated no more than 10,000 years ago.[12] Forms of the modern domesticated species can also be found growing in the wild in the south of Brazil. By 4600 BC, cassava pollen appears in the Gulf of Mexico lowlands, at the San Andrés archaeological site.[13] The oldest direct evidence of cassava cultivation comes from a 1,400-year-old Maya site, Joya de Cerén, in El Salvador.[14] It became a staple food of the native populations of northern South America, southern Mesoamerica, and the Taino people in the Caribbean islands, who grew it using a high-yielding form of shifting agriculture by the time of European contact in 1492.[15] Cassava was a staple food of pre-Columbian peoples in the Americas and is often portrayed in indigenous art. The Moche people often depicted yuca in their ceramics.[16]
Spaniards in their early occupation of Caribbean islands did not want to eat cassava or maize, which they considered insubstantial, dangerous, and not nutritious. They much preferred foods from Spain, specifically wheat bread, olive oil, red wine, and meat, and considered maize and cassava damaging to Europeans.[17] The cultivation and consumption of cassava were nonetheless continued in both Portuguese and Spanish America. Mass production of cassava bread became the first Cuban industry established by the Spanish.[18] Ships departing to Europe from Cuban ports such as Havana, Santiago, Bayamo, and Baracoa carried goods to Spain, but sailors needed to be provisioned for the voyage. The Spanish also needed to replenish their boats with dried meat, water, fruit, and large amounts of cassava bread.[19] Sailors complained that it caused them digestive problems.[20]
Portuguese traders introduced cassava to Africa from Brazil in the 16th century. Around the same period, it was also introduced to Asia through Columbian Exchange by Portuguese and Spanish traders, who planted it in their colonies in Goa, Malacca, Eastern Indonesia, Timor and the Philippines.[21] Cassava has also become an important crop in Asia. While it is a valued food staple in parts of eastern Indonesia, it is primarily cultivated for starch extraction and bio-fuel production in Thailand, Cambodia and Vietnam.[22] Cassava is sometimes described as the "bread of the tropics"[23] but should not be confused with the tropical and equatorial bread tree (Encephalartos), the breadfruit (Artocarpus altilis) or the African breadfruit (Treculia africana). This description definitely holds in Africa and parts of South America; in Asian countries such as Vietnam fresh cassava barely features in human diets.[24]
There is a legend that cassava was introduced in 1880–1885 CE to the South Indian state of Kerala by the King of Travancore, Vishakham Thirunal Maharaja, after a great famine hit the kingdom, as a substitute for rice.[25] However, there are documented cases of cassava cultivation in parts of the state before the time of Vishakham Thirunal Maharaja.[26] Cassava is called kappa or maricheeni in Malayalam, and tapioca in Indian English usage.[27]
Cultivation
Optimal conditions for cassava cultivation are: mean annual temperatures between 20 and 29 °C (68 and 84 °F), annual precipitation between 1,000 and 2,500 mm (39 and 98 in), and an annual growth period of no less than 240 days.[28] Cassava is propagated by cutting the stem into sections of approximately 15 cm (5.9 in), these being planted prior to the wet season.[29] Cassava growth is favorable under temperatures ranging from 25 to 29 °C (77 to 84 °F), but it can tolerate temperatures as low as 12 °C (54 °F) and as high as 40 °C (104 °F).[30] These conditions are found, among other places, in the northern part of the Gulf Coastal Plain in Mexico.[28] In this part of Mexico the following soil types have been shown to be good for cassava cultivation: phaeozem, regosol, arenosol, andosol and luvisol.[28]
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Stakes
Pests
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Thailand_19_lo_%284039130033%29.jpg/220px-Thailand_19_lo_%284039130033%29.jpg)
Cassava is subject to pests from multiple taxonomic groups, including viruses, bacteria, fungi, nematodes, and insects. All cause reductions in yield, and some cause serious losses of crops.[31]
- Viruses
Several viruses cause enough damage to cassava crops to be of economic importance. The African cassava mosaic virus causes the leaves of the cassava plant to wither, limiting the growth of the root.[32] An outbreak of the virus in Africa in the 1920s led to a major famine.[33] The virus is spread by the whitefly and by the transplanting of diseased plants into new fields. Sometime in the late-1980s, a mutation occurred in Uganda that made the virus even more harmful, causing the complete loss of leaves. This mutated virus spread at a rate of 80 kilometres (50 miles) per year, and as of 2005 was found throughout Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, the Democratic Republic of the Congo and the Republic of the Congo.[34] Viruses are a severe production limitation in the tropics. They are the primary reason for the complete lack of yield increases in the 25 years up to 2021[update].[35] Cassava brown streak virus disease is a major threat to cultivation worldwide.[33] Cassava mosaic virus (CMV) is widespread in Africa, causing cassava mosaic disease (CMD).[36] Bredeson et al. 2016 find the M. esculenta cultivars most widely used on that continent have M. carthaginensis subsp. glaziovii genes of which some appear to be CMD resistance genes.[36] Although the ongoing CMD pandemic affects both East and Central Africa, Legg et al. found that these two areas have two distinct subpopulations of the vector, Bemisia tabaci whiteflies.[37][38] Genetically engineered cassava offers opportunities for the improvement of virus resistance, including CMV and CBSD resistance.[39]
- Bacteria
Among the most serious bacterial pests is Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. manihotis, which causes bacterial blight of cassava. This disease originated in South America and has followed cassava around the world.[40] Bacterial blight has been responsible for near catastrophic losses and famine in past decades, and its mitigation requires active management practices.[40] Several other bacteria attack cassava, including the related Xanthomonas campestris pv. cassavae, which causes bacterial angular leaf spot.[41]
- Fungi
Several fungi bring about significant crop losses, one of the most serious being cassava root rot; the pathogens involved are species of Phytophthora, the genus which causes potato blight. Cassava root rot can result in losses of as much as 80 percent of the crop.[31] A major pest is a rust caused by Uromyces manihotis.[42] Superelongation disease, caused by Elsinoë brasiliensis, can cause losses of over 80 percent of young cassava in Latin America when temperature and rainfall are high.[31]
- Nematodes
Nematode pests of cassava are thought to cause harms ranging from negligible to seriously damaging,[43][44][45] making the choice of management methods difficult.[46] A wide range of plant parasitic nematodes have been reported associated with cassava worldwide. These include Pratylenchus brachyurus, Rotylenchulus reniformis, Helicotylenchus spp., Scutellonema spp. and Meloidogyne spp., of which Meloidogyne incognita and Meloidogyne javanica are the most widely reported and economically important.[47] Meloidogyne spp. feeding produces physically damaging galls with eggs inside them. Galls later merge as the females grow and enlarge, and they interfere with water and nutrient supply.[45] Cassava roots become tough with age and restrict the movement of the juveniles and the egg release. It is therefore possible that extensive galling can be observed even at low densities following infection.[46] Other pests and diseases can gain entry through the physical damage caused by gall formation, leading to rots. They have not been shown to cause direct damage to the enlarged storage roots, but plants can have reduced height if there was loss of enlarged root weight.[48] Nematicides reduce the numbers of galls per feeder root, along with fewer rots in the storage roots.[49] The organophosphorus nematicide femaniphos does not reduce crop growth or harvest yield. Nematicide use in cassava is not terribly effective at increasing harvested yield, but lower infestation at harvest and lower subsequent storage loss provide a higher effective yield. The use of tolerant and resistant cultivars is the most practical management method in most locales.[50][46][51]
- Insects
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/A_Cassava_Pest_of_the_Southeastern_Nigeria.jpg/170px-A_Cassava_Pest_of_the_Southeastern_Nigeria.jpg)
Insects such as stem borers and other beetles, moths including Chilomima clarkei, scale insects, fruit flies, shootflies, burrower bugs, grasshoppers, leafhoppers, gall midges, leafcutter ants, and termites contribute to losses of cassava in the field,[31] while others contribute to serious losses, between 19% and 30%, of dried cassava in storage.[52] In Africa, a previous issue was the cassava mealybug (Phenacoccus manihoti) and cassava green mite (Mononychellus tanajoa). These pests can cause up to 80 percent crop loss, which is extremely detrimental to the production of subsistence farmers. These pests were rampant in the 1970s and 1980s but were brought under control following the establishment of the Biological Control Centre for Africa of the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) under the leadership of Hans Rudolf Herren.[53] The Centre investigated biological control for cassava pests; two South American natural enemies Anagyrus lopezi (a parasitoid wasp) and Typhlodromalus aripo (a predatory mite) were found to effectively control the cassava mealybug and the cassava green mite, respectively.[54]
Harvesting
Before harvest, the leafy stems are removed. The harvest is gathered by pulling up the base of the stem and cutting off the roots.[29]
Handling and storage
Cassava deteriorates after harvest, when the tubers are first cut. The healing mechanism produces coumaric acid, which oxidizes and blackens the tubers, making them inedible after a few days. This deterioration is related to the accumulation of reactive oxygen species initiated by cyanide release during mechanical harvesting. Cassava shelf life may be increased up to three weeks by overexpressing a cyanide-insensitive alternative oxidase, which suppressed ROS by 10-fold.[55] Post-harvest deterioration is a major obstacle to the export of cassava. Fresh cassava can be preserved like potato, using thiabendazole or bleach as a fungicide, then wrapping in plastic, freezing, or applying a wax coating.[56]
While alternative methods for controlling post-harvest deterioration have been proposed, such as preventing reactive oxygen species effects by using plastic bags during storage and transport, coating the roots with wax, or freezing roots, such strategies have proved to be economically or technically impractical, leading to breeding of cassava varieties with improved durability after harvest, achieved by different mechanisms.[57][57][58] One approach used gamma rays to try to silence a gene involved in triggering deterioration; another strategy selected for plentiful carotenoids, antioxidants which may help to reduce oxidization after harvest.[58]
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Starch processing
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Starch flour
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Starch wet-processing
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Spreading Casabe burrero (cassava bread) to dry, Venezuela
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Starch being prepared for packaging
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Starch noodles packaged for shipping
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Frozen leaves in a Los Angeles market
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Picked buds
Production
Cassava production – 2022 | |
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Land | millions of tonnes |
![]() |
60.8 |
![]() |
48.8 |
![]() |
34.1 |
![]() |
25.6 |
![]() |
17.7 |
![]() |
17.6 |
World | 330 |
Source: FAOSTAT of the United Nations[59] |
In 2022, world production of cassava root was 330 million tonnes, led by Nigeria with 18% of the total (table). Other major growers were Democratic Republic of the Congo and Thailand.
Cassava is the third-largest source of carbohydrates in food in the tropics, after rice and maize.[60][61][35] making it an important staple; more than 500 million people depend on it.[62] It offers the advantage of being exceptionally drought-tolerant, and able to grow productively on poor soil. Cassava grows well within 30° of the equator, where it can be produced at up to 2,000 m (7,000 ft) above sea level, and with 50 to 5,000 mm (2 to 200 in) of rain per year. These environmental tolerances suit it to conditions across much of South America and Africa.[63]
Cassava yields a large amount of food energy per unit area of land per day – 1,000,000 kJ/ha (250,000 kcal/ha), as compared with 650,000 kJ/ha (156,000 kcal/ha) for rice, 460,000 kJ/ha (110,000 kcal/ha) for wheat and 840,000 kJ/ha (200,000 kcal/ha) for maize.[64]
Cassava, yams (Dioscorea spp.), and sweet potatoes (Ipomoea batatas) are important sources of food in the tropics. The cassava plant gives the third-highest yield of carbohydrates per cultivated area among crop plants, after sugarcane and sugar beets.[65] Cassava plays a particularly important role in agriculture in developing countries, especially in sub-Saharan Africa, because it does well on poor soils and with low rainfall, and because it is a perennial that can be harvested as required. Its wide harvesting window allows it to act as a famine reserve and is invaluable in managing labor schedules. It offers flexibility to resource-poor farmers because it serves as either a subsistence or a cash crop.[66] Worldwide, 800 million people depend on cassava as their primary food staple.[67]
Toxicity
Cassava roots, peels and leaves are dangerous to eat raw because they contain linamarin and lotaustralin, which are toxic cyanogenic glycosides. These are decomposed by the cassava enzyme linamarase, releasing poisonous hydrogen cyanide.[68] Cassava varieties are often categorized as either bitter (high in cyanogenic glycosides) or sweet (low in those bitter compounds). Sweet cultivars can contain as little as 20 milligrams of cyanide per kilogram of fresh roots, whereas bitter cultivars may contain as much as 1000 milligrams per kilogram. Cassavas grown during drought are especially high in these toxins.[69][70] A dose of 25 mg of pure cassava cyanogenic glucoside, which contains 2.5 mg of cyanide, is sufficient to kill a rat.[71] Excess cyanide residue from improper preparation causes goiters and acute cyanide poisoning, and is linked to ataxia (a neurological disorder affecting the ability to walk, also known as konzo).[72] It has also been linked to tropical fibrocalcific pancreatitis in humans, leading to chronic pancreatitis.[73][74]
Symptoms of acute cyanide intoxication appear four or more hours after ingesting raw or poorly processed cassava: vertigo, vomiting, goiter, ataxia, partial paralysis, collapse, and death.[75][76][77][78] It can be treated easily with an injection of thiosulfate (which makes sulfur available for the patient's body to detoxify by converting the poisonous cyanide into thiocyanate).[72]
Chronic, low-level exposure to cyanide may contribute to both goiter and tropical ataxic neuropathy, also called konzo, which can be fatal. The risk is highest in famines, when as many as 3 percent of the population may be affected.[79][80]
Like many other roots and tubers, both bitter and sweet varieties of cassava contain antinutritional factors and toxins, with the bitter varieties containing much larger amounts.[72] The more toxic varieties of cassava have been used in some places as famine food during times of food insecurity.[75][72] For example, during the shortages in Venezuela in the late 2010s, dozens of deaths were reported due to Venezuelans resorting to eating bitter cassava in order to curb starvation.[81][82] Cases of cassava poisoning were also documented during the famine accompanying the Great Leap Forward (1958–1962) in China.[83] Farmers may select bitter cultivars to reduce crop losses.[84]
Societies that traditionally eat cassava generally understand that some processing (soaking, cooking, fermentation, etc.) is necessary to avoid getting sick. Brief soaking (four hours) of cassava is not sufficient, but soaking for 18–24 hours can remove up to half the level of cyanide. Drying may not be sufficient, either.[72]
For some smaller-rooted, sweet varieties, cooking is sufficient to eliminate all toxicity. The cyanide is carried away in the processing water and the amounts produced in domestic consumption are too small to have environmental impact.[68] The larger-rooted, bitter varieties used for production of flour or starch must be processed to remove the cyanogenic glucosides. The large roots are peeled and then ground into flour, which is then soaked in water, squeezed dry several times, and toasted. The starch grains that flow with the water during the soaking process are also used in cooking.[85] The flour is used throughout South America and the Caribbean. Industrial production of cassava flour, even at the cottage level, may generate enough cyanide and cyanogenic glycosides in the effluents to have a severe environmental impact.[68]
Uses
Food and drink
There are many ways of cooking cassava.[86] It has to be prepared correctly to remove its toxicity.[87] The root of the sweet variety is mild to the taste, like potatoes; Jewish households sometimes use it in cholent.[88] It can be made into a flour that is used in breads, cakes and cookies. In Brazil, farofa, a dry meal made from cooked powdered cassava, is roasted in butter, eaten as a side dish, or sprinkled on other food.[89]
Alcoholic beverages made from cassava include cauim (Brazil),[90] kasiri (Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname),[91] parakari or kari (Venezuela, Guyana, Surinam),[92] and nihamanchi (South America),[93]
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Heavy cake
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Bread
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Noodles, Cambodia
Preparation of bitter cassava
A safe processing method known as the "wetting method" is to mix the cassava flour with water into a thick paste, spread it in a thin layer over a basket and then let it stand for five hours at 30 °C in the shade.[94] In that time, about 83% of the cyanogenic glycosides are broken down by linamarase; the resulting hydrogen cyanide escapes to the atmosphere, making the flour safe for consumption the same evening.[94]
The traditional method used in West Africa is to peel the roots and put them into water for three days to ferment. The roots are then dried or cooked. In Nigeria and several other west African countries, including Ghana, Cameroon, Benin, Togo, Ivory Coast, and Burkina Faso, they are usually grated and lightly fried in palm oil to preserve them. The result is a foodstuff called garri. Fermentation is also used in other places such as Indonesia, such as Tapai. The fermentation process also reduces the level of antinutrients, making the cassava a more nutritious food.[95] The reliance on cassava as a food source and the resulting exposure to the goitrogenic effects of thiocyanate has been responsible for the endemic goiters seen in the Akoko area of southwestern Nigeria.[96][97]
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Unprocessed roots
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Tuber, peeled and soaking to reduce toxicity
A traditional method used by the Lucayans to detoxify cassava is by peeling, grinding, and mashing; filtering the mash through a basket tube to remove the hydrogen cyanide; and drying and sieving the mash for flour. The poisonous filtrate water was boiled to release the hydrogen cyanide, and used as a base for stews.[98]
Bioengineering has been applied to grow cassava with lower cyanogenic glycosides combined with fortification of vitamin A, iron and protein to improve the nutrition of people in sub-Saharan Africa.[99][100]
In Guyana the traditional cassareep is made from bitter cassava juice.[101] The juice is boiled until it is reduced by half in volume,[102] to the consistency of molasses[103] and flavored with spices—including cloves, cinnamon, salt, sugar, and cayenne pepper.[104] Traditionally, cassareep was boiled in a soft pot, the actual "pepper pot", which would absorb the flavors and also impart them (even if dry) to foods such as rice and chicken cooked in it.[105] The poisonous but volatile hydrogen cyanide is evaporated by heating.[106] Nevertheless, improperly cooked cassava has been blamed for a number of deaths.[107] Amerindians from Guyana reportedly made an antidote by steeping chili peppers in rum.[103] The natives of Guyana traditionally brought the product to town in bottles,[108] and it is available on the US market in bottled form.[109]
Nutrition
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Energy | 670 kJ (160 kcal) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
38.1 g | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Sugars | 1.7 g | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Dietary fiber | 1.8 g | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
0.3 g | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
1.4 g | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Other constituents | Quantity | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Water | 60 g | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
†Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults,[110] except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from the National Academies.[111] |
Raw cassava is 60% water, 38% carbohydrates, 1% protein, and has negligible fat (table).[112] In a 100-gram (3+1⁄2-ounce) reference serving, raw cassava provides 670 kilojoules (160 kilocalories) of food energy and 23% of the Daily Value (DV) of vitamin C, but otherwise has no micronutrients in significant content (i.e. above 10% of the relevant DV).[112]
Biofuel
Cassava has been studied as a feedstock to produce ethanol as a biofuel, including to improve the efficiency of conversion from cassava flour,[113] and to convert crop residues such as stems and leaves as well as the more easily processed roots.[114] China has created facilities to produce substantial amounts of ethanol fuel from cassava roots.[115]
Animal feed
Cassava tubers and hay are used worldwide as animal feed. Young cassava hay is harvested at three to four month, when it reaches about 30 to 45 cm (12 to 18 in) above ground; it is dried in the sun until its dry matter content approaches 85 percent. The hay contains 20–27 percent protein and 1.5–4 percent tannin. It is valued as a source of roughage for ruminants such as cattle.[116]
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Tubers being grated
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A close-up of the product
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Drying on road to be used for pig and chicken feed
Laundry starch
Cassava is used in laundry products, especially as starch to stiffen shirts and other garments.[117]
Folklore
In Java, a myth relates that food derives from the body of Dewi Teknowati, who killed herself rather than accept the advances of the god Batara Guru. She was buried, and her lower leg grew into a cassava plant.[118] In Trinidad, folk stories tell of a saapina or snake-woman; the word is related to sabada, meaning to pound, for what is traditionally a woman's work of pounding cassava.[119]
The identity of the Macushi people of Guyana is closely bound up with the growth and processing of cassava in their slash-and-burn subsistence lifestyle. A story tells that the great spirit Makunaima climbed a tree, cutting off pieces with his axe; when they landed on the ground, each piece became a type of animal. The opossum brought the people to the tree, where they found all the types of food, including bitter cassava. A bird told the people how to prepare the cassava safely.[120]
See also
References
- ^ a b "Manihot esculenta Crantz, Rei Herb. 1: 167 (1766)". Plants of the World Online. Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. 2022. Archived from the original on 11 November 2022. Retrieved 11 November 2022.
- ^ a b "Manihot esculenta Crantz". Singapore National Parks. Retrieved 7 July 2024.
Genus Manihot is from the Tupi-Guarani name "manioca" which means cassava. Species esculenta means edible by humans.
- ^ "manioc (n.)". Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 7 July 2024.
- ^ "cassava (n.)". Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 7 July 2024.
- ^ "yucca (n.)". Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 7 July 2024.
- ^ "Basic Report: 11134, Cassava, raw". National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference Release 28. Agricultural Research Service, US Department of Agriculture. May 2016. Archived from the original on 12 July 2017. Retrieved 7 December 2016.
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