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{{Short description|Language of the lost Tambora culture of Sumbawa, present-day Indonesia}}
{{improve|reason=Fix contradiction. box: "unclassified, probably Papuan" -- text: "This was the westernmost known Papuan language", i.e. it is Papuan without "probably".|date=January 2019}}
{{EngvarA|date=May 2021}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2021}}
{{Infobox language
{{Infobox language
|name=Tambora
| name = Tambora
|states=[[Indonesia]]
| states = [[Indonesia]]
|region=[[Sumbawa]]
| region = [[Sumbawa]]
| pushpin_map = Indonesia
⚫
|ethnicity=[[Tambora culture]]
| coordinates = {{coords|-8.25|118}}
|extinct=soon after 1815
⚫
| ethnicity = [[Tambora culture]]
⚫
|familycolor=Papuan
| extinct = Soon after [[1815 eruption of Mount Tambora|1815]]
⚫
|family=[[Unclassified languages|unclassified]], probably [[Papuan languages|Papuan]] based on existing basic vocabulary
⚫
| familycolor = Papuan
|iso3=xxt
⚫
| family = [[Unclassified languages|Unclassified]]; non-[[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] based on existing basic vocabulary
⚫
|glotto=tamb1257
| iso3 = xxt
⚫
|glottorefname=Tambora
| linglist = xxt.html
⚫
|notice=IPA
⚫
| glotto = tamb1257
⚫
| glottorefname = Tambora
⚫
| notice = IPA
}}
}}
⚫
'''Tambora''' is the poorly attested non-[[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] ([[Papuan languages|Papuan]]) language of the [[Tambora culture]] of central [[Sumbawa]], in what is now [[Indonesia]], that was made extinct by the [[1815 eruption of Mount Tambora|1815 eruption]] of [[Mount Tambora]]. It was the westernmost known Papuan language<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Donohue|first=Mark|date=2008-01-03|title=The Papuan Language of Tambora|url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/228921|journal=Oceanic Linguistics|volume=46|issue=2|pages=520–537|doi=10.1353/ol.2008.0014|s2cid=26310439|issn=1527-9421}}</ref> and was relatively unusual among such languages in being the language of a maritime trading state, though contemporary Papuan trading states were also found off [[Halmahera]] in [[Ternate]] and [[Tidore]].<ref>{{citation |first = Peter |last = Bellwood |title = First Islanders: Prehistory and Human Migration in Island Southeast Asia |year = 2017 |access-date = 2022-12-29 |isbn = 978-1-119-25154-5 |location = Hoboken |publisher = John Wiley & Sons |pages = 211–212 |oclc = 976434720 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=SmBGDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA211 |language = en}}</ref>

⚫
'''Tambora''' is the poorly attested [[Papuan languages|non-Austronesian]] (Papuan) language of the [[Tambora culture]] of central [[Sumbawa]], in what is now [[Indonesia]], which was wiped out by the 1815 eruption of [[Mount Tambora]]. This was the westernmost known Papuan language<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Donohue|first=Mark|date=2008-01-03|title=The Papuan Language of Tambora|url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/228921|journal=Oceanic Linguistics|volume=46|issue=2|pages=520–537|doi=10.1353/ol.2008.0014|issn=1527-9421}}</ref>, and was relatively unusual among such languages in being the language of a maritime trading state, though contemporary Papuan trading states were also found off Halmahera in [[Ternate]] and [[Tidore]].


==Vocabulary==
==Vocabulary==
[[File:The history of Java (page 576 crop) - Comparative vocabulary of the Bugis, Makasar, Mandhar, Buton, Sasak, Bima, Sembawa (Sumbawa), Tembora (Tambora), Ende languages.jpg|thumb|300px|Comparative vocabulary including Tambora words, from Raffles' ''[[The History of Java]]'']]
One word list was collected prior to the eruption, published as Raffles (1817, 1830). It is clear from this that the language is not [[Austronesian]]; indeed, there are only a few Austronesian loans.<ref name=":0" />
One word list was collected prior to the eruption, published as Raffles (1817, 1830). It is clear from this that the language is not [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]]; indeed, there are only a few Austronesian loans.<ref name=":0" />


In the list below<ref name=":0" />, it is presumed that {{angle bracket|ng'}} transcribes {{IPAblink|ŋ}} and {{angle bracket|dj}} {{IPAblink|dʒ}}. Hyphen is possibly a glottal stop {{IPAblink|ʔ}}. Two words are clearly Malay loans. Zollinger (1850) identified several possible loans from other Austronesian languages; Tambora was a regional trading power, so a number of loans might be expected. The connection with Timor, if not coincidence, would presumably be genetic, not a loan.<ref name=":0" />
In the list below,<ref name=":0" /> it is presumed that {{angle bracket|ng'}} transcribes {{IPAblink|ŋ}} and {{angle bracket|dj}} {{IPAblink|dʒ}}. Hyphen is possibly a glottal stop {{IPAblink|ʔ}}. Two words, ''búlu'' and ''mákan'', are clearly [[Malay language|Malay]] loans. Zollinger (1850) identified several possible loans from other Austronesian languages; Tambora was a regional trading power, so a number of loans might be expected. The connection of ''taintu'' with the Papuan [[Timor–Alor–Pantar languages|Timor–Alor–Pantar]] *tan(a), if not coincidence, would presumably be genetic, not a loan.<ref name=":0" /> However, [[Harald Hammarström]] considers it to be a [[language isolate]].<ref>{{Citation |editor-first = Lyle |editor-last = Campbell |chapter = Language isolates in the New Guinea region |first = Harald |last = Hammarström |title = Language Isolates |year = 2018 |location = Abingdon–New York |series = Routledge Language Family Series |isbn = 978-1-317-61091-5 |oclc = 1000447105 |doi = 10.4324/9781315750026-11 |publisher = Routledge |pages = 287–322 |language = en }}</ref>


{| class=wikitable
{| class=wikitable
!Tambora||gloss||Tambora||gloss
!Tambora||gloss||Tambora||gloss
|-
|-
|seena (AN?) || 'one' || maimpo ||'foot'
|{{wikt-lang|xxt|seena}} (AN?) || 'one' || {{wikt-lang|xxt|maimpo}} ||'foot'
|-
|-
|kálae || 'two' || kiro || 'blood'
|{{wikt-lang|xxt|kálae}} || 'two' || {{wikt-lang|xxt|kiro}} || 'blood'
|-
|-
|nih || 'three' || kóngkong || 'day'
|{{wikt-lang|xxt|nih}} || 'three' || {{wikt-lang|xxt|kóngkong}} || 'day'
|-
|-
|kude-in || 'four' || tádung || 'night'
|{{wikt-lang|xxt|kude-in}} || 'four' || {{wikt-lang|xxt|tádung}} || 'night'
|-
|-
|kutélin || 'five' || kidjum || 'sleep'
|{{wikt-lang|xxt|kutélin}} || 'five' || {{wikt-lang|xxt|kidjum}} || 'sleep'
|-
|-
|báta-in || 'six' || sílam || 'dead'
|{{wikt-lang|xxt|báta-in}} || 'six' || {{wikt-lang|xxt|sílam}} || 'dead'
|-
|-
|kúmba || 'seven' || si-yang (Z: Malay?) || 'white'
|{{wikt-lang|xxt|kúmba}} || 'seven' || {{wikt-lang|xxt|si-yang}} (Z: Malay?) || 'white'
|-
|-
|koného || 'eight' || naido || 'black'
|{{wikt-lang|xxt|koného}} || 'eight' || {{wikt-lang|xxt|naido}} || 'black'
|-
|-
|láli || 'nine' || sámar || 'good'
|{{wikt-lang|xxt|láli}} || 'nine' || {{wikt-lang|xxt|sámar}} || 'good'
|-
|-
|saróne || 'ten' || gonóre || 'bad'
|{{wikt-lang|xxt|saróne}} || 'ten' || {{wikt-lang|xxt|gonóre}} || 'bad'
|-
|-
|sisaróne || 'twenty' || maing'aing || 'fire'
|{{wikt-lang|xxt|sisaróne}} || 'twenty' || {{wikt-lang|xxt|maing'aing}} || 'fire'
|-
|-
|simári || 'one hundred' || naino (Z: Madura) || 'water'
|{{wikt-lang|xxt|simári}} || 'one hundred' || {{wikt-lang|xxt|naino}} (Z: [[Madurese language|Madura]]) || 'water'
|-
|-
|doh (Bima) || 'person' || gónong (Z: Malay?) || 'earth'
|{{wikt-lang|xxt|doh}} ([[Bima language|Bima]]) || 'person' || {{wikt-lang|xxt|gónong}} (Z: Malay?) || 'earth'
|-
|-
|sia-in (Z: Sangar) || 'man' || ilah || 'stone'
|{{wikt-lang|xxt|sia-in}} (Z: Sangar) || 'man' || {{wikt-lang|xxt|ilah}} || 'stone'
|-
|-
|óna-yit || 'woman' || kíwu || 'pig'
|{{wikt-lang|xxt|óna-yit}} || 'woman' || {{wikt-lang|xxt|kíwu}} || 'pig'
|-
|-
|homóri || 'father' || kilaíngkong || 'bird'
|{{wikt-lang|xxt|homóri}} || 'father' || {{wikt-lang|xxt|kilaíngkong}} || 'bird'
|-
|-
|yelai || 'mother' || andik (Z: Javanese) || 'egg'
|{{wikt-lang|xxt|yelai}} || 'mother' || {{wikt-lang|xxt|andik}} (Z: [[Javanese language|Javanese]]) || 'egg'
|-
|-
|kokóre || 'head' || karáyi || 'fish'
|{{wikt-lang|xxt|kokóre}} || 'head' || {{wikt-lang|xxt|karáyi}} || 'fish'
|-
|-
|saing'óre || 'eye' || ingkong || 'sun'
|{{wikt-lang|xxt|saing'óre}} || 'eye' || {{wikt-lang|xxt|ingkong}} || 'sun'
|-
|-
|saing kóme || 'nose' || mang'ong || 'moon'
|{{wikt-lang|xxt|saing kóme}} || 'nose' || {{wikt-lang|xxt|mang'ong}} || 'moon'
|-
|-
|búlu (Malay) || 'hair' || kingkong || 'star'
|{{wikt-lang|xxt|búlu}} (Malay: ''[[wikt:bulu#Malay|bulu]]'') || 'hair' || {{wikt-lang|xxt|kingkong}} || 'star'
|-
|-
|sóntong || 'teeth' || mákan (Malay) || 'eat'
|{{wikt-lang|xxt|sóntong}} || 'teeth' || {{wikt-lang|xxt|mákan}} (Malay: ''[[wikt:makan#Malay|makan]]'') || 'eat'
|-
|-
|sumóre || 'belly' || hok-hok (Z: German?) || 'sit'
|{{wikt-lang|xxt|sumóre}} || 'belly' || {{wikt-lang|xxt|hok-hok}} (Z: [[German language|German]]?) || 'sit'
|-
|-
|taintu (Timor?) || 'hand' || moríhoh (Sanskrit?) || 'God'
|{{wikt-lang|xxt|taintu}} (Timor?) || 'hand' || {{wikt-lang|xxt|moríhoh}} ([[Sanskrit]]?) || 'God'
|}
|}


==Analysis==
==Analysis==
Donohue notes that word lists of this size from other Indonesian languages with relatively small consonant inventories typically succeed in recording all consonants, so the same might be expected here, apart from consonants which could not be transcribed with [[Malay language|Malay]] orthographic conventions, such as the [[implosives]] found in the region. ''P'' only occurs after ''m'', and may be a reflex of ''h'', as in other languages of the area. Overall, the phonemic profile is consistent with many languages of eastern Indonesia: that is, to the east but not to the west of Tambora.<ref name=":0" />
Donohue notes that word lists of this size from other Indonesian languages with relatively small consonant inventories typically succeed in recording all consonants, so the same might be expected here, apart from consonants which could not be transcribed with [[Malay language|Malay]] orthographic conventions, such as the [[implosives]] found in the region. ''P'' only occurs after ''m'', and may be a reflex of ''h'', as in other languages of the area. Overall, the phonemic profile is consistent with many languages of eastern Indonesia: that is, to the east but not to the west of Tambora.<ref name=":0" />


''Hok-hok'' 'sit' suggests verbal reduplication, but the only other verb, ''makan'', is an obvious Malay loan.<ref name=":0" />
''Hok-hok'' 'sit' suggests verbal reduplication, but the only other verb, ''makan'', is an obvious Malay loan.<ref name=":0" />


''Saing'óre'' 'eye', ''saing kóme'' 'nose', ''sóntong'' 'teeth', ''sumóre'' 'belly' all begin similarly, suggesting a prefix, possibly a [[possessive prefix]], with a nasal ''-ng' ''that assimilates to a following consonant, and with ''sumóre'' 'belly' presumably from *more or *pore.<ref name=":0" />
''Saing'óre'' 'eye', ''saing kóme'' 'nose', ''sóntong'' 'teeth', ''sumóre'' 'belly' all begin similarly, suggesting a prefix, possibly a [[possessive prefix]], with a nasal ''-ng' ''that assimilates to a following consonant, and with ''sumóre'' 'belly' presumably from *more or *pore.<ref name=":0" />


Several of the numbers begin with ''sV-'', a common pattern in Austronesian languages where 'one' is reduced to a prefix. Indeed, ''seena'' 'one' is a possible Austronesian loan. Donohue suggests that ''sarone'' 'ten' ~ ''sisarone'' 'twenty' may reflect an earlier [[vigesimal]] system, possibly from ''sa-'' 'one' ''doh'' 'person' ''-ne'' (suffix), a common way of counting 'twenty' in the region. 'Twenty' might then have shifted to meaning 'ten' under the influence of decimal trading partners.<ref name=":0" />
Several of the numbers begin with ''sV-'', a common pattern in Austronesian languages where 'one' is reduced to a prefix. Indeed, ''seena'' 'one' is a possible Austronesian loan. Donohue suggests that ''sarone'' 'ten' ~ ''sisarone'' 'twenty' may reflect an earlier [[vigesimal]] system, possibly from ''sa-'' 'one' ''doh'' 'person' ''-ne'' (suffix), a common way of counting 'twenty' in the region. 'Twenty' might then have shifted to meaning 'ten' under the influence of decimal trading partners.<ref name=":0" />


The word ''moríhoh'' 'God' reflects a common term in the area, of uncertain but perhaps Sanskrit derivation. In Tambora, however, it also resembles ''homóri'' 'father', suggesting that neither word can be assumed to be native.<ref name=":0" />
The word ''moríhoh'' 'God' reflects a common term in the area, of uncertain but perhaps Sanskrit derivation. In Tambora, however, it also resembles ''homóri'' 'father', suggesting that neither word can be assumed to be native.<ref name=":0" />
Line 87: Line 92:


A number of words end in ''-(k)ong'' and ''-ore'', and the former are semantically similar (''ingkong'' 'sun', ''kóngkong'' 'day', ''mang'ong'' 'moon', ''kingkong'' 'star'), suggesting possible suffixes, though they might simply be coincidence.<ref name=":0" />
A number of words end in ''-(k)ong'' and ''-ore'', and the former are semantically similar (''ingkong'' 'sun', ''kóngkong'' 'day', ''mang'ong'' 'moon', ''kingkong'' 'star'), suggesting possible suffixes, though they might simply be coincidence.<ref name=":0" />

==See also==
*[[Tambora culture]]


==References==
==References==
Line 94: Line 102:
*Stamford Raffles, 1817, 1830. ''History of Java,'' vol. 2, app. F, 198–199.
*Stamford Raffles, 1817, 1830. ''History of Java,'' vol. 2, app. F, 198–199.


{{Papuan languages}}

[[Category:Tambora language| ]]
[[Category:Extinct languages of Asia]]
[[Category:Extinct languages of Asia]]
[[Category:Language isolates of Asia]]
[[Category:Language isolates of Asia]]

Latest revision as of 08:40, 6 August 2024

Tambora
Native toIndonesien
RegionSumbawa
EthnicityTambora culture
ExtinctSoon after 1815
Unclassified; non-Austronesian based on existing basic vocabulary
Language codes
ISO 639-3xxt
xxt.html
Glottologtamb1257
Approximate location where Tambora is spoken
Approximate location where Tambora is spoken
Tambora
Coordinates: 8°15′S 118°00′E / 8.25°S 118°E / -8.25; 118
This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA.

Tambora is the poorly attested non-Austronesian (Papuan) language of the Tambora culture of central Sumbawa, in what is now Indonesia, that was made extinct by the 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora. It was the westernmost known Papuan language[1] and was relatively unusual among such languages in being the language of a maritime trading state, though contemporary Papuan trading states were also found off Halmahera in Ternate and Tidore.[2]

Vocabulary

[edit]
Comparative vocabulary including Tambora words, from Raffles' The History of Java

One word list was collected prior to the eruption, published as Raffles (1817, 1830). It is clear from this that the language is not Austronesian; indeed, there are only a few Austronesian loans.[1]

In the list below,[1] it is presumed that ⟨ng'⟩ transcribes [ŋ] and ⟨dj⟩ [dʒ]. Hyphen is possibly a glottal stop [ʔ]. Two words, búlu and mákan, are clearly Malay loans. Zollinger (1850) identified several possible loans from other Austronesian languages; Tambora was a regional trading power, so a number of loans might be expected. The connection of taintu with the Papuan Timor–Alor–Pantar *tan(a), if not coincidence, would presumably be genetic, not a loan.[1] However, Harald Hammarström considers it to be a language isolate.[3]

Tambora gloss Tambora gloss
seena (AN?) 'one' maimpo 'foot'
kálae 'two' kiro 'blood'
nih 'three' kóngkong 'day'
kude-in 'four' tádung 'night'
kutélin 'five' kidjum 'sleep'
báta-in 'six' sílam 'dead'
kúmba 'seven' si-yang (Z: Malay?) 'white'
koného 'eight' naido 'black'
láli 'nine' sámar 'good'
saróne 'ten' gonóre 'bad'
sisaróne 'twenty' maing'aing 'fire'
simári 'one hundred' naino (Z: Madura) 'water'
doh (Bima) 'person' gónong (Z: Malay?) 'earth'
sia-in (Z: Sangar) 'man' ilah 'stone'
óna-yit 'woman' kíwu 'pig'
homóri 'father' kilaíngkong 'bird'
yelai 'mother' andik (Z: Javanese) 'egg'
kokóre 'head' karáyi 'fish'
saing'óre 'eye' ingkong 'sun'
saing kóme 'nose' mang'ong 'moon'
búlu (Malay: bulu) 'hair' kingkong 'star'
sóntong 'teeth' mákan (Malay: makan) 'eat'
sumóre 'belly' hok-hok (Z: German?) 'sit'
taintu (Timor?) 'hand' moríhoh (Sanskrit?) 'God'

Analysis

[edit]

Donohue notes that word lists of this size from other Indonesian languages with relatively small consonant inventories typically succeed in recording all consonants, so the same might be expected here, apart from consonants which could not be transcribed with Malay orthographic conventions, such as the implosives found in the region. P only occurs after m, and may be a reflex of h, as in other languages of the area. Overall, the phonemic profile is consistent with many languages of eastern Indonesia: that is, to the east but not to the west of Tambora.[1]

Hok-hok 'sit' suggests verbal reduplication, but the only other verb, makan, is an obvious Malay loan.[1]

Saing'óre 'eye', saing kóme 'nose', sóntong 'teeth', sumóre 'belly' all begin similarly, suggesting a prefix, possibly a possessive prefix, with a nasal -ng' that assimilates to a following consonant, and with sumóre 'belly' presumably from *more or *pore.[1]

Several of the numbers begin with sV-, a common pattern in Austronesian languages where 'one' is reduced to a prefix. Indeed, seena 'one' is a possible Austronesian loan. Donohue suggests that sarone 'ten' ~ sisarone 'twenty' may reflect an earlier vigesimal system, possibly from sa- 'one' doh 'person' -ne (suffix), a common way of counting 'twenty' in the region. 'Twenty' might then have shifted to meaning 'ten' under the influence of decimal trading partners.[1]

The word moríhoh 'God' reflects a common term in the area, of uncertain but perhaps Sanskrit derivation. In Tambora, however, it also resembles homóri 'father', suggesting that neither word can be assumed to be native.[1]

Donohue notes one word, taintu 'hand', which is plausibly connected to other Papuan languages, those of Timor and Alor to the east: Abui taŋ, Oirata tana, Kui tan. This leaves the -tu as a possible suffix, and the similar shape of maimpo 'foot' suggests to Donohue that these may derive from tayn and maym plus a suffix -ho or -hu which assimilates to the preceding consonant.[1]

A number of words end in -(k)ong and -ore, and the former are semantically similar (ingkong 'sun', kóngkong 'day', mang'ong 'moon', kingkong 'star'), suggesting possible suffixes, though they might simply be coincidence.[1]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Donohue, Mark (3 January 2008). "The Papuan Language of Tambora". Oceanic Linguistics. 46 (2): 520–537. doi:10.1353/ol.2008.0014. ISSN 1527-9421. S2CID 26310439.
  2. ^ Bellwood, Peter (2017), First Islanders: Prehistory and Human Migration in Island Southeast Asia, Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons, pp. 211–212, ISBN 978-1-119-25154-5, OCLC 976434720, retrieved 29 December 2022
  3. ^ Hammarström, Harald (2018), "Language isolates in the New Guinea region", in Campbell, Lyle (ed.), Language Isolates, Routledge Language Family Series, Abingdon–New York: Routledge, pp. 287–322, doi:10.4324/9781315750026-11, ISBN 978-1-317-61091-5, OCLC 1000447105

Further reading

[edit]
  • Stamford Raffles, 1817, 1830. History of Java, vol. 2, app. F, 198–199.
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