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Political repression is the act of a state entity controlling a citizenry by force for political reasons, particularly for the purpose of restricting or preventing the citizenry's ability to take part in the political life of a society, thereby reducing their standing among their fellow citizens.^[1]^[2] Repression tactics target the citizenry who are most likely to challenge the political ideology of the state in order for the government to remain in control.^[3] In autocracies, the use of political repression is to prevent anti-regime support and mobilization.^[4] It is often manifested through policies such as human rights violations, surveillance abuse, police brutality, imprisonment, involuntary settlement, stripping of citizen's rights, lustration, and violent action or terror such as the murder, summary executions, torture, forced disappearance, and other extrajudicial punishment of political activists, dissidents, or general population.^[5] Direct repression tactics are those targeting specific actors who become aware of the harm done to them while covert tactics rely on the threat of citizenry being caught (wiretapping and monitoring).^[6] The effectiveness of the tactics differ: covert repression tactics cause dissidents to use less detectable opposition tactics^[7] while direct repression allows citizenry to witness and react to the repression.^[8] Political repression can also be reinforced by means outside of written policy, such as by public and private media ownership and by self-censorship within the public.

Where political repression is sanctioned and organised by the state, it may constitute state terrorism, genocide, politicide or crimes against humanity. Systemic and violent political repression is a typical feature of dictatorships, totalitarian states and similar regimes.^[9] While the use of political repression varies depending on the authoritarian regime, it is argued that repression is a defining feature and the foundation of autocracies by creating a power hierarchy between the leader and citizenry, contributing to the longevity of the regime.^[10] Repressive activities have also been found within democratic contexts as well.^[11]^[12] This can even include setting up situations where the death of the target of repression is the end result.^[13] If political repression is not carried out with the approval of the state, a section of government may still be responsible. Some examples are the FBI COINTELPRO operations from 1956 to 1971 and the Palmer Raids from 1919-1920.^[14]^[15]^[16]

In some states, "repression" can be an official term used in legislation or the names of government institutions. The Soviet Union had a legal policy of repression of political opposition defined in its penal code and Cuba under Fulgencio Batista had a secret police agency officially named the Bureau for the Repression of Communist Activities. According to Soviet and Communist studies scholar Stephen Wheatcroft, in the case of the Soviet Union terms such as "the terror", "the purges" and "repression" are used to refer to the same events. He believes the most neutral terms are repression and mass killings, although in Russian the broad concept of repression is commonly held to include mass killings and is sometimes assumed to be synonymous with it, which is not the case in other languages.^[17]

In political conflict

Political conflict strongly increases the likelihood of state repression. This is arguably the most robust finding in social science research on political repression. Civil wars are a strong predictor of repressive activity, as are other forms of challenges from non-government actors.^[18] States so often engage in repressive behaviors in times of civil conflict that the relationship between these two phenomena has been termed the "Law of Coercive Responsiveness".^[19] When their authority or legitimacy is threatened, regimes respond by overtly or covertly suppressing dissidents to eliminate the behavioral threat. State repression subsequently affects dissident mobilization, though the direction of this effect is still an open question. Some strong evidence suggests that repression suppresses dissident mobilization by reducing the capacity of challengers to organize, yet it is also feasible that challengers can leverage state repressive behavior to spur mobilization among sympathizers by framing repression as a new grievance against the state.^[20]

Violence

Political repression is often accompanied by violence, which might be legal or illegal according to domestic law.^[21] Violence can both eliminate political opposition directly by killing opposition members, or indirectly by instilling fear.

Intolerance

Political repression is sometimes accompanied with intolerance. This intolerance is manifested through discriminatory policies, human rights violations, police brutality, imprisonment, extermination, exile, extortion, terrorism, extrajudicial killing, summary execution, torture, forced disappearance and other punishments against political activists, dissidents, and populations in general.

State terrorism

When political repression is sanctioned and organized by the state, situations of state terrorism, genocide and crimes against humanity can be reached. Systematic and violent political repression is a typical feature of dictatorships, totalitarian states and similar regimes. In these regimes, acts of political repression can be carried out by the police and secret police, the army, paramilitary groups and death squads. Sometimes regimes considered democratic exercise political repression and state terrorism to other states as part of their security policy.^[22]

Direct vs. indirect repression

Direct repression is a form of repression where the state targets an opposing political actor by obvious violent action. The target is clearly aware of the harm that is caused to their life and livelihood. Direct repression does not exclusively occur within the boundaries of a state, but also across borders.^[23] In personalist dictatorships, initiating conflicts with other states and people outside their own borders is more common because of lack of accountability via extremely limited or no competitive elections.^[24]

Indirect repression relies on the threat of violence which constitutes harassment, intimidation, and administrative blockages. These tactics tend to be non-violent, yet still are built to control citizenry.^[25]

Repressive success and monitoring

Individuals indirectly exposed to repression self-report higher trust in the leader and ruling party. This phenomenon was observed in Zimbabwe under Robert Mugabe, where the effects of repression increased approaching elections, even with deteriorating social and economic conditions.^[26] A large signifier of whether or not repression is successful in a state is evidence of preference falsification– where the preference expressed by an individual in public diverges from their private preference.^[27] In North Korea, accused of highly repressive activity in media and public culture, 100% of citizens vote in ‘no choice’ parliamentary elections so the state can identify defectors. Citizens are required to show complete devotion to North Korea's current leader and sacrifice their safety if they choose to speak out.^[28] Repressive measures including prison camps, torture, forced labor, and threats of execution are just some of the costs of defection.^[29] The Chinese Communist Party implements extensive surveillance measures in the People's Republic of China, including Internet censorship, camera monitoring, and other forms of mass surveillance. These practices involve the use of technologies such as AI, facial recognition, fingerprint identification, voice and iris recognition, big data analysis, DNA testing, and are closely linked to the Social Credit System in mainland China.^[30]^[31] At the same time, many domestic Chinese technology companies are also involved in the country's large-scale surveillance programs. These primarily include companies such as Hikvision, Sensetime, Huawei, ZTE, and others.^[32]^[33]^[34]^[35]

References

^ Davenport, Christian (2007). State Repression and the Domestic Democratic Peace New York: Cambridge University Press.
^ Davenport, Christian, Johnston, Hank and Mueller, Carol (2004). Repression and Mobilization Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
^ Hassan, Mai; Mattingly, Daniel; Nugent, Elizabeth R (November 30, 2021). "Political Control". Annual Review of Political Science.
^ Wang, Y. (2021). The Political Legacy of Violence During China's Cultural Revolution. British Journal of Political Science, 51(2), 463-487. doi:10.1017/S0007123419000255
^ Kittrie, Nicholas N. 1995. The War Against Authority: From the Crisis of Legitimacy to a New Social Contract. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.
^ Sullivan, Christopher M. Resistance is Mobile: Dynamics of Repression, Challenger Adaptationm and Surveillance in US 'Red Squad' and Black Nationalist Archives. Volume 55, Issue 2.
^ Sullivan, Christopher M. Resistance is Mobile: Dynamics of Repression, Challenger Adaptationm and Surveillance in US 'Red Squad' and Black Nationalist Archives. Volume 55, Issue 2.
^ Hassan, Mai; Mattingly, Daniel; Nugent, Elizabeth R (November 30, 2021). "Political Control". Annual Review of Political Science.
^ Serge, Victor, 1979, What Everyone Should Know About State Repression, London: New Park Publications.
^ Johannes Gerschewski (2013) The three pillars of stability: legitimation, repression, and co-optation in autocratic regimes, Democratization, 20:1, 13-38, DOI: 10.1080/13510347.2013.738860
^ Donner, Frank J. (1980). The Age of Surveillance: The Aims and Methods of America’s Political Intelligence System. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 0-394-40298-7
^ Donner, Frank J. (1990). Protectors of Privilege: Red Squads and Police Repression in Urban America. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-05951-4
^ Haas, Jeffrey. The Assassination of Fred Hampton: How the FBI and the Chicago Police Murdered a Black Panther. Chicago, Ill.: Lawrence Hill /Chicago Review, 2010.
^ COINTELPRO: The FBI's Covert Action Programs Against American Citizens, Final Report of the Senate Committee to Study Governmental Operations with respect to Intelligence Activities.
^ Cunningham, D. 2004. There’s something happening here: The New Left, the Klan, and FBI counterintelligence. Berkeley: Univ. of California.
^ "Justice Department Campaign Against the IWW, 1917-1920". depts.washington.edu. Retrieved 2023-04-13.
^ Wheatcroft, Stephen (1996). "The Scale and Nature of German and Soviet Repression and Mass Killings, 1930–45". Europe-Asia Studies. 48 (8): 1319–1353. doi:10.1080/09668139608412415.
^ Hill, Daniel W.; Jones, Zachary M. (2014). "An Empirical Evaluation of Explanations for State Repression". American Political Science Review. 108 (3): 661–687. doi:10.1017/s0003055414000306. S2CID 54908565.
^ Davenport, Christian (2007). "State Repression and Political Order". Annual Review of Political Science. 10: 1–23. doi:10.1146/annurev.polisci.10.101405.143216.
^ Ritter, Emily Hencken (2014). "Policy Disputes, Political Survival, and the Onset and Severity of State Repression". Journal of Conflict Resolution. 58 (1): 143–168. doi:10.1177/0022002712468724. S2CID 145054180.
^ "Los Derechos Humanos y la trata de personas" (PDF). www.ohchr.org. Retrieved 2017-05-14.
^ Patricia., Scipioni, Estela (2000-01-01). Torturadores, apropiadores y asesinos : el terrorismo de estado en la obra dramática de Eduardo Pavlovsky. Edition Reichenberger. ISBN 9783931887919. OCLC 477299442.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ Hassan, Mai; Mattingly, Daniel; Nugent, Elizabeth R (November 30, 2021). "Political Control". Annual Review of Political Science.
^ Frantz, Erica (November 15, 2018). Authoritarianism: What Everyone Needs to Know. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780190880194.
^ Hassan, Mai; Mattingly, Daniel; Nugent, Elizabeth R (November 30, 2021). "Political Control". Annual Review of Political Science.
^ Garcîa-Ponce, Omar; Pasquale, Benjamin (2015). "How Political Repression Shapes Attitudes Toward the State".
^ Kuran, Timur (October 1991). "Now Out of Never: The Element of Surprise in the East European Revolution of 1989". World Politics. 44 (1): 7–48. doi:10.2307/2010422. JSTOR 2010422. S2CID 154090678.
^ "North Koreans vote in 'no-choice' parliamentary elections". BBC News. March 10, 2019.
^ "North Korea: Systematic Repression". Human Rights Watch. 14 January 2020. Retrieved 2 March 2023.
^ 孟宝勒 (2018-07-17). "中国的威权主义未来：人工智能与无孔不入的监控" (in Chinese). 纽约时报中文网. Archived from the original on 2019-10-16. Retrieved 2019-11-14.
^ Vicky Xiuzhong Xu (2018-03-31). "【聚焦】中国社会信用系统致力于为公民打分并改造社会行为" (in Chinese). ABC中文. Archived from the original on 2018-09-29. Retrieved 2019-11-14.
^ "人臉識別 + 社會信用系統，一場重塑人類行為的社會實驗？". theinitium.com (in Traditional Chinese). 25 May 2018. Archived from the original on 2021-08-04. Retrieved 2019-11-14.
^ "打造平安城市精品视频监控网络" (PDF). 华为. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2019-02-17.
^ 孟宝勒 (2019-04-15). "单月50万次人脸识别：中国如何用AI监控维族人" (in Simplified Chinese). 纽约时报中文网. Archived from the original on 2019-10-16. Retrieved 2019-11-14.
^ "中国天网工程背后有三大功臣：包括中兴与华为". 多维新闻. Archived from the original on 2019-04-10. Retrieved 2019-11-14.

@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
-{{short description|Act of state entity involving restrictive political freedom of citizens}}
+{{short description|Act of state entity involving restrictive political freedom of citizens}}{{Discrimination sidebar}}
-'''Political repression''' is the act of a state entity controlling a citizenry by force for political reasons, particularly for the purpose of restricting or preventing the citizenry's ability to take part in the [[politics|political life]] of a [[society]], thereby reducing their standing among their fellow citizens.<ref>[[Christian Davenport|Davenport, Christian]] (2007). [http://www.cambridge.org/catalogue/catalogue.asp?isbn=0521864909 ''State Repression and the Domestic Democratic Peace''] New York: Cambridge University Press.</ref><ref>Davenport, Christian, Johnston, Hank and Mueller, Carol (2004). [http://www.upress.umn.edu/Books/D/davenport_repression.html ''Repression and Mobilization''] Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.</ref> Repression tactics target the citizenry who are most likely to challenge the political ideology of the state in order for the government to remain in control.<ref>Hassan, Mai; Mattingly, Daniel; Nugent, Elizabeth R (November 30, 2021). "Political Control". Annual Review of Political Science.</ref> In autocracies, the use of political repression is to prevent anti-regime support and mobilization.<ref> Wang, Y. (2021). The Political Legacy of Violence During China's Cultural Revolution. British Journal of Political Science, 51(2), 463-487. doi:10.1017/S0007123419000255 </ref> It is often manifested through policies such as [[human rights]] violations, [[surveillance abuse]], [[police brutality]], [[imprisonment]], [[Involuntary settlements in the Soviet Union|involuntary settlement]], [[Lishenets|stripping of citizen's rights]], [[lustration]], and violent action or [[Terror (politics)|terror]] such as the murder, [[summary execution]]s, [[torture]], [[forced disappearance]], and other [[extrajudicial punishment]] of [[political activist]]s, [[dissident]]s, or general population.<ref>Kittrie, Nicholas N. 1995. ''The War Against Authority: From the Crisis of Legitimacy to a New Social Contract. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.''</ref> Direct repression tactics are those targeting specific actors who become aware of the harm done to them while covert tactics rely on the threat of citizenry being caught (wiretapping and monitoring).<ref> Sullivan, Christopher M. ''Resistance is Mobile: Dynamics of Repression, Challenger Adaptationm and Surveillance in US 'Red Squad' and Black Nationalist Archives''. Volume 55, Issue 2. </ref> The effectiveness of the tactics differ: covert repression tactics cause dissidents to use less detectable opposition tactics<ref> Sullivan, Christopher M. ''Resistance is Mobile: Dynamics of Repression, Challenger Adaptationm and Surveillance in US 'Red Squad' and Black Nationalist Archives''. Volume 55, Issue 2. </ref> while direct repression allows citizenry to witness and react to the repression.<ref>Hassan, Mai; Mattingly, Daniel; Nugent, Elizabeth R (November 30, 2021). "Political Control". Annual Review of Political Science.</ref> Political repression can also be reinforced by means outside of written policy, such as by public and private media ownership and by [[self-censorship]] within the public.
+'''Political repression''' is the act of a state entity controlling a citizenry by force for political reasons, particularly for the purpose of restricting or preventing the citizenry's ability to take part in the [[politics|political life]] of a [[society]], thereby reducing their standing among their fellow citizens.<ref>[[Christian Davenport|Davenport, Christian]] (2007). [http://www.cambridge.org/catalogue/catalogue.asp?isbn=0521864909 ''State Repression and the Domestic Democratic Peace''] New York: Cambridge University Press.</ref><ref>Davenport, Christian, Johnston, Hank and Mueller, Carol (2004). [http://www.upress.umn.edu/Books/D/davenport_repression.html ''Repression and Mobilization''] Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.</ref> Repression tactics target the citizenry who are most likely to challenge the political ideology of the state in order for the government to remain in control.<ref>Hassan, Mai; Mattingly, Daniel; Nugent, Elizabeth R (November 30, 2021). "Political Control". Annual Review of Political Science.</ref> In [[autocracies]], the use of political repression is to prevent anti-regime support and mobilization.<ref>Wang, Y. (2021). The Political Legacy of Violence During China's Cultural Revolution. British Journal of Political Science, 51(2), 463-487. doi:10.1017/S0007123419000255</ref> It is often manifested through policies such as [[human rights]] violations, [[surveillance abuse]], [[police brutality]], [[imprisonment]], [[Involuntary settlements in the Soviet Union|involuntary settlement]], [[Lishenets|stripping of citizen's rights]], [[lustration]], and violent action or [[Terror (politics)|terror]] such as the murder, [[summary execution]]s, [[torture]], [[forced disappearance]], and other [[extrajudicial punishment]] of [[political activist]]s, [[dissident]]s, or general population.<ref>Kittrie, Nicholas N. 1995. ''The War Against Authority: From the Crisis of Legitimacy to a New Social Contract. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.''</ref> Direct repression tactics are those targeting specific actors who become aware of the harm done to them while covert tactics rely on the threat of citizenry being caught (wiretapping and monitoring).<ref>Sullivan, Christopher M. ''Resistance is Mobile: Dynamics of Repression, Challenger Adaptationm and Surveillance in US 'Red Squad' and Black Nationalist Archives''. Volume 55, Issue 2.</ref> The effectiveness of the tactics differ: covert repression tactics cause dissidents to use less detectable opposition tactics<ref>Sullivan, Christopher M. ''Resistance is Mobile: Dynamics of Repression, Challenger Adaptationm and Surveillance in US 'Red Squad' and Black Nationalist Archives''. Volume 55, Issue 2.</ref> while direct repression allows citizenry to witness and react to the repression.<ref>Hassan, Mai; Mattingly, Daniel; Nugent, Elizabeth R (November 30, 2021). "Political Control". Annual Review of Political Science.</ref> Political repression can also be reinforced by means outside of written policy, such as by public and private media ownership and by [[self-censorship]] within the public.
-Where political repression is sanctioned and organised by the state, it may constitute [[state terrorism]], [[genocide]], politicide or [[crimes against humanity]]. Systemic and violent political repression is a typical feature of [[dictatorship]]s, [[totalitarianism|totalitarian]] states and similar regimes.<ref>Serge, Victor, 1979, ''What Everyone Should Know About State Repression, London: New Park Publications.''</ref> While the use of political repression varies depending on the authoritarian regime, it is argued that repression is a defining feature and the foundation of autocracies by creating a power hierarchy between the leader and citizenry, contributing to the longevity of the regime. <ref> Johannes Gerschewski (2013) The three pillars of stability: legitimation, repression, and co-optation in autocratic regimes, Democratization, 20:1, 13-38, DOI: 10.1080/13510347.2013.738860 </ref>  Repressive activities have also been found within democratic contexts as well.<ref>Donner, Frank J. (1980). ''The Age of Surveillance: The Aims and Methods of America’s Political Intelligence System''. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. {{ISBN|0-394-40298-7}}</ref><ref>Donner, Frank J. (1990). ''Protectors of Privilege: Red Squads and Police Repression in Urban America.'' Berkeley: University of California Press. {{ISBN|0-520-05951-4}}</ref> This can even include setting up situations where the death of the target of repression is the end result.<ref>Haas, Jeffrey. ''The Assassination of Fred Hampton: How the FBI and the Chicago Police Murdered a Black Panther.'' Chicago, Ill.: Lawrence Hill /Chicago Review, 2010.</ref> If political repression is not carried out with the approval of the state, a section of government may still be responsible. Some examples are the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] [[COINTELPRO]] operations from 1956 to 1971 and the [[Palmer Raids]] from 1919-1920.<ref>''COINTELPRO: The FBI's Covert Action Programs Against American Citizens, Final Report of the Senate Committee to Study Governmental Operations with respect to Intelligence Activities.''</ref><ref>Cunningham, D. 2004. ''There’s something happening here: The New Left, the Klan, and FBI counterintelligence.'' Berkeley: Univ. of California.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Justice Department Campaign Against the IWW, 1917-1920 |url=https://depts.washington.edu/iww/justice_dept.shtml |access-date=2023-04-13 |website=depts.washington.edu}}</ref>
+Where political repression is sanctioned and organised by the state, it may constitute [[state terrorism]], [[genocide]], politicide or [[crimes against humanity]]. Systemic and violent political repression is a typical feature of [[dictatorship]]s, [[totalitarianism|totalitarian]] states and similar regimes.<ref>Serge, Victor, 1979, ''What Everyone Should Know About State Repression, London: New Park Publications.''</ref> While the use of political repression varies depending on the authoritarian regime, it is argued that repression is a defining feature and the foundation of autocracies by creating a power hierarchy between the leader and citizenry, contributing to the longevity of the regime.<ref>Johannes Gerschewski (2013) The three pillars of stability: legitimation, repression, and co-optation in autocratic regimes, Democratization, 20:1, 13-38, DOI: 10.1080/13510347.2013.738860</ref>  Repressive activities have also been found within democratic contexts as well.<ref>Donner, Frank J. (1980). ''The Age of Surveillance: The Aims and Methods of America’s Political Intelligence System''. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. {{ISBN|0-394-40298-7}}</ref><ref>Donner, Frank J. (1990). ''Protectors of Privilege: Red Squads and Police Repression in Urban America.'' Berkeley: University of California Press. {{ISBN|0-520-05951-4}}</ref> This can even include setting up situations where the death of the target of repression is the end result.<ref>Haas, Jeffrey. ''The Assassination of Fred Hampton: How the FBI and the Chicago Police Murdered a Black Panther.'' Chicago, Ill.: Lawrence Hill /Chicago Review, 2010.</ref> If political repression is not carried out with the approval of the state, a section of government may still be responsible. Some examples are the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] [[COINTELPRO]] operations from 1956 to 1971 and the [[Palmer Raids]] from 1919-1920.<ref>''COINTELPRO: The FBI's Covert Action Programs Against American Citizens, Final Report of the Senate Committee to Study Governmental Operations with respect to Intelligence Activities.''</ref><ref>Cunningham, D. 2004. ''There’s something happening here: The New Left, the Klan, and FBI counterintelligence.'' Berkeley: Univ. of California.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Justice Department Campaign Against the IWW, 1917-1920 |url=https://depts.washington.edu/iww/justice_dept.shtml |access-date=2023-04-13 |website=depts.washington.edu}}</ref>
-In some states, "repression" can be an official term used in legislation or the names of government institutions. The [[Soviet Union]] had a legal policy of repression of political opposition defined in [[Article 58 (RSFSR Penal Code)|its penal code]] and [[Cuba]] under [[Fulgencio Batista]] had a secret police agency officially named the [[Bureau for the Repression of Communist Activities]]. According to [[Soviet and Communist studies]] scholar [[Stephen Wheatcroft]], in the case of the Soviet Union terms such as "[[Terror (politics)|the terror]]", "[[Great Purge|the purges]]" and "repression" are used to refer to the same events. He believes the most neutral terms are ''repression'' and ''[[mass killing]]s'', although in Russian the broad concept of repression is commonly held to include mass killings and is sometimes assumed to be synonymous with it, which is not the case in other languages.<ref>Wheatcroft, Stephen (1996). [http://sovietinfo.tripod.com/WCR-German_Soviet.pdf "The Scale and Nature of German and Soviet Repression and Mass Killings, 1930–45"]. ''Europe-Asia Studies''. '''48''' (8): 1319–1353. {{doi|10.1080/09668139608412415}}.</ref>
+In some states, "repression" can be an official term used in legislation or the names of government institutions. The [[Soviet Union]] had a legal policy of repression of political opposition defined in [[Article 58 (RSFSR Penal Code)|its penal code]] and [[Republic of Cuba (1902-1959)|Cuba]] under [[Fulgencio Batista]] had a secret police agency officially named the [[Bureau for the Repression of Communist Activities]]. According to [[Soviet and Communist studies]] scholar [[Stephen Wheatcroft]], in the case of the Soviet Union terms such as "[[Terror (politics)|the terror]]", "[[Great Purge|the purges]]" and "repression" are used to refer to the same events. He believes the most neutral terms are ''repression'' and ''[[mass killing]]s'', although in Russian the broad concept of repression is commonly held to include mass killings and is sometimes assumed to be synonymous with it, which is not the case in other languages.<ref>Wheatcroft, Stephen (1996). [http://sovietinfo.tripod.com/WCR-German_Soviet.pdf "The Scale and Nature of German and Soviet Repression and Mass Killings, 1930–45"]. ''Europe-Asia Studies''. '''48''' (8): 1319–1353. {{doi|10.1080/09668139608412415}}.</ref>
 == In political conflict ==
@@ Line 11: / Line 11: @@
 == Violence ==
+{{Main article|Political violence}}
-[[File:Eino Niemisen pahoinpitely.jpg|thumb|Members of the right-wing [[Lapua Movement]] assault a former [[Red Guards (Finland)|Red Guard officer]] and the publisher of the [[Communism|communist]] newspaper at the [[Vaasa riot]] on June 4, 1930 in [[Vaasa]], [[Finland]].]]
+[[File:Eino Niemisen pahoinpitely.jpg|thumb|Members of the right-wing [[Lapua Movement]] assault a former [[Red Guards (Finland)|Red Guard officer]] and the publisher of the [[Communism|communist]] newspaper at the [[Vaasa riot]] on June 4, 1930, in [[Vaasa]], [[Finland]].]]
 Political repression is often accompanied by violence, which might be legal or illegal according to domestic law.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Publications/FS36_sp.pdf|title=Los Derechos Humanos y la trata de personas.|website=www.ohchr.org|language=en-us|access-date=2017-05-14}}</ref>  Violence can both eliminate political opposition directly by killing opposition members, or indirectly by instilling fear.
 == Intolerance ==
+{{See also|Infrahumanisation}}
-Political repression is sometimes accompanied with [[Social tolerance|intolerance]]. This intolerance is manifested through discriminatory policies, [[human rights violations]], [[police brutality]], [[imprisonment]], [[Genocide|extermination]], [[exile]], [[extortion]], [[terrorism]], [[extrajudicial killing]], [[summary execution]], [[torture]], [[forced disappearance]] and other punishments against political activists, dissidents, and population in general.
+Political repression is sometimes accompanied with [[Social tolerance|intolerance]]. This intolerance is manifested through discriminatory policies, [[human rights violations]], [[police brutality]], [[imprisonment]], [[Genocide|extermination]], [[exile]], [[extortion]], [[terrorism]], [[extrajudicial killing]], [[summary execution]], [[torture]], [[forced disappearance]] and other punishments against political activists, dissidents, and populations in general.
 == State terrorism ==
-When political repression is sanctioned and organized by the state, situations of [[state terrorism]], [[genocide]] and [[crimes against humanity]] can be reached. Systematic and violent political repression is a typical feature of [[dictatorship]]s, [[totalitarianism]]s and similar regimes. In these regimes, acts of political repression can be carried out by the police and [[secret police]], the army, paramilitary groups and death squads. Sometimes regimes considered democratic exercise political repression and state terrorism to other states as part of their security policy.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Torturadores, apropiadores y asesinos : el terrorismo de estado en la obra dramática de Eduardo Pavlovsky.|last=Patricia.|first=Scipioni, Estela|date=2000-01-01|publisher=Edition Reichenberger|isbn=9783931887919|oclc=477299442}}</ref>
+When political repression is sanctioned and organized by the state, situations of [[state terrorism]], [[genocide]] and [[crimes against humanity]] can be reached. Systematic and violent political repression is a typical feature of [[dictatorship]]s, [[totalitarianism|totalitarian states]] and similar regimes. In these regimes, acts of political repression can be carried out by the police and [[secret police]], the army, paramilitary groups and death squads. Sometimes regimes considered democratic exercise political repression and state terrorism to other states as part of their security policy.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Torturadores, apropiadores y asesinos : el terrorismo de estado en la obra dramática de Eduardo Pavlovsky.|last=Patricia.|first=Scipioni, Estela|date=2000-01-01|publisher=Edition Reichenberger|isbn=9783931887919|oclc=477299442}}</ref>
-== Direct vs. Indirect Repression ==
+== Direct vs. indirect repression ==
 Direct repression is a form of repression where the state targets an opposing political actor by obvious violent action. The target is clearly aware of the harm that is caused to their life and livelihood. Direct repression does not exclusively occur within the boundaries of a state, but also across borders.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hassan |first1=Mai |last2=Mattingly |first2=Daniel |last3=Nugent |first3=Elizabeth R |title=Political Control |journal=Annual Review of Political Science |date=November 30, 2021}}</ref> In personalist dictatorships, initiating conflicts with other states and people outside their own borders is more common because of lack of accountability via extremely limited or no competitive elections.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Frantz |first1=Erica |title=Authoritarianism: What Everyone Needs to Know |date=November 15, 2018 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780190880194 }}</ref>
 Indirect repression relies on the threat of violence which constitutes harassment, intimidation, and administrative blockages. These tactics tend to be non-violent, yet still are built to control citizenry.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hassan |first1=Mai |last2=Mattingly |first2=Daniel |last3=Nugent |first3=Elizabeth R |title=Political Control |journal=Annual Review of Political Science |date=November 30, 2021}}</ref>
 == Repressive success and monitoring ==
-Individuals indirectly exposed to repression self-report higher trust in the leader and ruling party. This phenomenon was observed in [[Zimbabwe]] under [[Robert Mugabe]], where the effects of repression increased approaching elections, even with deteriorating social and economic conditions.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Garcîa-Ponce |first1=Omar |last2=Pasquale |first2=Benjamin |title=How Political Repression Shapes Attitudes Toward the State |date=2015}}</ref> A large signifier of whether or not repression is successful in a state is evidence of [[preference falsification]]– where the preference expressed by an individual in public diverges from their private preference.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kuran |first1=Timur |title=Now Out of Never: The Element of Surprise in the East European Revolution of 1989 |journal=World Politics |date=October 1991 |volume=44 |issue=1 |page=7-48 |doi=10.2307/2010422 |jstor=2010422 |s2cid=154090678 |url=https://ir.lib.uwo.ca/economicsperg_ppe/19 }}</ref> In [[North Korea]], accused of [[Political repression in North Korea|highly repressive activity]] in media and public culture, 100% of citizens vote in ‘no choice’ parliamentary elections so the state can identify defectors. Citizens are required to show complete devotion to North Korea's current leader and sacrifice their safety if they choose to speak out.<ref>{{cite news |title=North Koreans vote in 'no-choice' parliamentary elections |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-47492747 |agency=BBC News |date=March 10, 2019}}</ref> Repressive measures including prison camps, torture, forced labor, and threats of execution are just some of the costs of defection.<ref>{{cite web |title=North Korea: Systematic Repression |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/01/14/north-korea-systematic-repression |website=Human Rights Watch |date=14 January 2020 |access-date=2 March 2023}}</ref>
+Individuals indirectly exposed to repression self-report higher trust in the leader and ruling party. This phenomenon was observed in [[Zimbabwe]] under [[Robert Mugabe]], where the effects of repression increased approaching elections, even with deteriorating social and economic conditions.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Garcîa-Ponce |first1=Omar |last2=Pasquale |first2=Benjamin |title=How Political Repression Shapes Attitudes Toward the State |date=2015}}</ref> A large signifier of whether or not repression is successful in a state is evidence of [[preference falsification]]– where the preference expressed by an individual in public diverges from their private preference.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kuran |first1=Timur |title=Now Out of Never: The Element of Surprise in the East European Revolution of 1989 |journal=World Politics |date=October 1991 |volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=7–48 |doi=10.2307/2010422 |jstor=2010422 |s2cid=154090678 |url=https://ir.lib.uwo.ca/economicsperg_ppe/19 }}</ref> In [[North Korea]], accused of [[Political repression in North Korea|highly repressive activity]] in media and public culture, 100% of citizens vote in ‘no choice’ parliamentary elections so the state can identify defectors. Citizens are required to show complete devotion to North Korea's current leader and sacrifice their safety if they choose to speak out.<ref>{{cite news |title=North Koreans vote in 'no-choice' parliamentary elections |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-47492747 |agency=BBC News |date=March 10, 2019}}</ref> Repressive measures including prison camps, torture, forced labor, and threats of execution are just some of the costs of defection.<ref>{{cite web |title=North Korea: Systematic Repression |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/01/14/north-korea-systematic-repression |website=Human Rights Watch |date=14 January 2020 |access-date=2 March 2023}}</ref> The [[Chinese Communist Party]] implements extensive surveillance measures in the [[People's Republic of China]], including [[Internet censorship in China|Internet censorship]], [[Closed-circuit television|camera monitoring]], and other forms of [[Mass surveillance in China|mass surveillance]]. These practices involve the use of technologies such as [[Artificial Intelligence|AI]], [[Facial recognition technology|facial recognition]], [[Fingerprint recognition|fingerprint identification]], [[Biometrics|voice and iris recognition]], [[big data]] analysis, [[Genetic testing|DNA testing]], and are closely linked to the [[Social Credit System]] in mainland China.<ref>{{Cite web|title=中国的威权主义未来：人工智能与无孔不入的监控|url=https://cn.nytimes.com/china/20180710/china-surveillance-technology/|accessdate=2019-11-14|author=孟宝勒|date=2018-07-17|format=|publisher=纽约时报中文网|language=zh|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191016000049/https://cn.nytimes.com/china/20180710/china-surveillance-technology/|archive-date=2019-10-16|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=【聚焦】中国社会信用系统致力于为公民打分并改造社会行为|url=https://www.abc.net.au/chinese/2018-03-31/china-social-credit-system/9600054|accessdate=2019-11-14|author=Vicky Xiuzhong Xu|date=2018-03-31|format=|publisher=ABC中文|language=zh|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180929152024/http://www.abc.net.au/chinese/2018-03-31/china-social-credit-system/9600054|archive-date=2018-09-29|url-status=live}}</ref> At the same time, many domestic Chinese technology companies are also involved in the country's large-scale surveillance programs. These primarily include companies such as [[Hikvision]], [[Sensetime]], [[Huawei]], [[ZTE]], and others.<ref>{{cite web|title=人臉識別 + 社會信用系統，一場重塑人類行為的社會實驗？|url=https://theinitium.com/article/20180525-wsj-introduction/|language=zh-Hant|website=theinitium.com|date=25 May 2018 |access-date=2019-11-14|archive-date=2021-08-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210804235102/https://theinitium.com/article/20180525-wsj-introduction/}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=打造平安城市精品视频监控网络|url=https://www.huawei.com/mediafiles/CORPORATE/PDF/Magazine/communicate/69/HW_412473.pdf|accessdate=|author=|date=|format=|publisher=华为|language=|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190217064814/https://www.huawei.com/mediafiles/CORPORATE/PDF/Magazine/communicate/69/HW_412473.pdf|archive-date=2019-02-17|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web|title=单月50万次人脸识别：中国如何用AI监控维族人|url=https://cn.nytimes.com/technology/20190415/china-surveillance-artificial-intelligence-racial-profiling/|accessdate=2019-11-14|author=孟宝勒|date=2019-04-15|format=|publisher=纽约时报中文网|language=zh-hans|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191016000001/https://cn.nytimes.com/technology/20190415/china-surveillance-artificial-intelligence-racial-profiling/|archive-date=2019-10-16|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=中国天网工程背后有三大功臣：包括中兴与华为|url=http://news.dwnews.com/china/news/2018-08-28/60080872.html|accessdate=2019-11-14|author=|date=|publisher=多维新闻|language=|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190410211135/http://news.dwnews.com/china/news/2018-08-28/60080872.html|archive-date=2019-04-10|url-status=live}}</ref>
 == See also ==
-* [[Anti-communist mass killings]]
+===Killings===
-* [[Authoritarianism]]
-* [[Autocracy]]
+ {{div col}}
-* [[Crimes against humanity under communist regimes]]
+*[[1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre]]
-* [[Dictatorship]]
+*[[Anti-communist mass killings]]
 * [[Mass killings under communist regimes]]
+{{div col end}}
-* [[Police state]]
-* [[Politicide]]
+===National institutions===
-* [[Political prisoner]]
+{{div col}}
-* [[Political violence]]
-* [[Preventive repression]]
-* [[Religious persecution]]
+*[[Secret Police]]
-* [[Restrictions on political parties]]
+*[[Committee of Public Safety]]
-* [[State terrorism]]
+*[[KGB]]
+*[[Gestapo]]
-* [[1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre]]
+*[[FBI]] (primarily during the [[Cold War]])
-* [[Totalitarianism]]
+*[[Kangaroo court]]
+{{div col end}}
+===Related systems===
+{{div col}}
+*[[Censorship]]
+*[[Restrictions on political parties]]
+*[[Press censorship]]
+{{div col end}}
+===Types of persecution===
+{{div col}}
+*[[Lawfare|Judicial persecution]]
+*[[Persecution]]
+*[[Religious Persecution]]
+{{div col end}}
+===Restrictions and actions===
+{{div col}}
+*[[Abuse of process]]
+*[[Arbitrary arrest and detention]]
+*[[Black Propaganda]]
+*[[Censorship]]
+*[[Forced disappearance]]
+*[[Martial Law]]
+*[[Mass Surveillance]]
+*[[Massacre]]
+*[[Agent provocateur|Provocateurs]]
+*[[Red Terror]]
+*[[Stalking]] or [[Harassment]]
+*[[White Terror (disambiguation)|White Terror]]{{div col end}}
+===Types of states and regimes===
+{{div col}}
+*[[Police State]]
+*[[State Terrorism]]
+*[[Dictatorship]]
+*[[État légal]]
+*[[Nanny State]]
+*[[Military Dictatorship]]
+*[[Police State]]
+{{div col end}}
+===Institutions and groups===
+{{div col}}
+*[[Dissidents]]
+*[[Government]]
+{{div col end}}
+===Related concepts===
+{{div col}}
+*[[An unjust law is no law at all]]
+*[[Human Rights]]
+*[[National Security]]
+*[[Racism]]
+*[[Totalitarianism]]
+{{div col end}}
 == References ==
@@ Line 62: / Line 124: @@
 * Irvin, Cynthia L. ''Militant Nationalism between movement and party in Ireland and the Basque Country.'' University of Minnesota Press, 1999.
 *Seigel, Micol. 2018. ''Violence Work: State Power and the Limits of Police''. Duke University Press.
+{{Discrimination}}{{Authority control}}
-{{Authority control}}
 [[Category:Comparative politics]]

v t e Discrimination
Forms	Institutional Structural Statistische Daten Taste-based
Attributes	Age Caste Class Dialect Disability Genetic Hair texture Height Sprache Looks Mental disorder Race / Ethnicity Skin color Scientific racism Rank Sex Sexual orientation Species Size Viewpoint
Social	Arophobia Acephobia Adultism Anti-albinism Anti-autism Anti-homelessness Anti-drug addicts Anti-intellectualism Anti-intersex Anti-left handedness Anti-Masonry Antisemitism Aporophobia Audism Biphobia Clannism Cronyism Elitism Ephebiphobia Social determinants of health Social determinants of health in poverty Social determinants of mental health Fatphobia Gayphobia Gerontophobia Heterosexism HIV/AIDS stigma Homophobia Leprosy stigma Lesbophobia Discrimination against men Misandry Misogyny Nepotism Pedophobia Perpetual foreigner Pregnancy Reverse Sectarianism Supremacism White Male Transphobia Non-binary Transmisogyny Trans men Vegaphobia Xenophobia
Religious	Ahmadiyya Atheism Baháʼí Faith Buddhism Catholicism Christianity post–Cold War era Falun Gong Hinduism Persecution Untouchability Islam Persecution Jehovah's Witnesses Judaism Persecution LDS or Mormon Neopaganism Eastern Orthodox Oriental Orthodox Protestantism Rastafari Shi'ism Sufism Zoroastrianism
Ethnic/National	Afghan African Albanian American Arab Armenian Asian Frankreich Südafrika Vereinigte Staaten Assyrian Azerbaijani Black people African Americans China Südafrika Bengali Bulgarian Catalan Chechen Chinese Colombian Croat Filipino Fulani Finnish Georgian Greek Haitian Hazara Hungarian Igbo Indian Indigenous people Australien Kanada Vereinigte Staaten Irish Israeli Italian Japanese Jewish Korean Kurdish Lithuanian Malay Māori Mexican Middle Eastern Mongolian Nigerian Pakistani Palestinians Pashtun Polish Quebec Romani Romanian Serb Slavic Somali Tatar Thai Turkish Ukrainian Uyghur Venezuelan Vietnamese
Manifestations	Anti-LGBTQ rhetoric SPLC-designated list of anti-LGBTQ hate groups Blood libel Bullying Cancel culture Capital punishment for homosexuality Compulsory sterilization Corrective rape Counter-jihad Cultural genocide Defamation Democide Disability hate crime Dog whistle Economic Bildung Employment Eliminationism Enemy of the people Ethnic cleansing Ethnic conflict Ethnic hatred Ethnic joke Ethnocide Excellence Forced conversion Freak show Gay bashing Gendercide Genital modification and mutilation Genocide examples Glass ceiling Hate crime LGBT Hate group Hate speech Homeless dumping Housing Indian rolling Intersectionality Kill Haole Day Lavender scare LGBT grooming conspiracy theory List of people killed for being transgender Lynching Mortgage Murder music Native American mascots Braves Blackhawks Chiefs Occupational segregation Opposition to immigration Persecution Pogrom Political repression Purge Racialization Religious persecution Religious terrorism Religious violence Religious war Scapegoating Segregation academy Sexual harassment Sex-selective abortion Slut-shaming Trans bashing Victimisation Violence against women White flight White genocide conspiracy theory Wife selling Witch-hunt
Discriminatory policies	Age of candidacy Blood purity Blood quantum Crime of apartheid Disabilities Catholic Jewish Gender pay gap Gender roles Gerontocracy Gerrymandering Ghetto benches Internment Jewish quota Law for Protection of the Nation MSM blood donation restrictions No kid zone Numerus clausus (as religious or racial quota) One-drop rule Racial quota Racial segregation Jim Crow laws Nuremberg Laws Racial steering Redlining Same-sex marriage (laws and issues prohibiting) Segregation age racial religious sexual Social exclusion Sodomy law State atheism State religion Ugly law Voter suppression
Countermeasures	Affirmative action Anti-discrimination law Anti-racism Constitutional colorblindness Cultural assimilation Cultural pluralism Diversity training Empowerment Fat acceptance movement Feminism Fighting Discrimination Hate speech laws by country Human rights Intersex human rights LGBT rights Masculism Multiculturalism Nonviolence Racial integration Reappropriation Self-determination Social integration Toleration
Related topics	Allophilia Amatonormativity Bias Christian privilege Cisnormativity Civil liberties Dehumanization Diversity Ethnic penalty Figleaf Gender-blind Heteronormativity Historical eugenics Internalized oppression Intersectionality Male privilege Masculism Medical model of disability autism Multiculturalism Net bias Neurodiversity Oikophobia Oppression Police brutality Political correctness Polyculturalism Power distance Prejudice Prisoner abuse Racial bias in criminal news in the United States Racism by country Racial color blindness Religious intolerance Second-generation gender bias Snobbery Social exclusion Social identity threat Social model of disability Social stigma Speciesism Stereotype threat The talk White privilege
Kategorie Commons

Latest revision as of 09:17, 9 August 2024

In political conflict

Violence

Intolerance

State terrorism

Direct vs. indirect repression

Repressive success and monitoring

See also

Killings

National institutions

Related systems

Types of persecution

Restrictions and actions

Types of states and regimes

Institutions and groups

Related concepts

References

Further reading