Anatolian beyliks: Difference between revisions
Marcocapelle (talk | contribs) removed Category:Ottoman Empire; added Category:History of the Ottoman Empire using HotCat |
RodRabelo7 (talk | contribs) |
||
(88 intermediate revisions by 57 users not shown) | |||
Line 1: | Line 1: | ||
{{short description|Historical, small Turkic principalities in Anatolia}} |
|||
{{ |
{{More citations needed|date=June 2010}} |
||
[[File: |
[[File:Beylicats d%u2019Anatolie vers 1330-en.svg|thumb|350px|A map of independent Turkic beyliks in Anatolia during the 14th century]] |
||
{{History of the Turkic peoples}} |
|||
⚫ | '''Anatolian beyliks''' ({{lang-tr|Anadolu beylikleri}}, [[Ottoman Turkish language|Ottoman Turkish]]: ''Tavâif-i mülûk'', ''Beylik''; {{IPA|tr|bejlic}}) were small [[principalities]] (or [[petty kingdoms]]) in [[Anatolia]] governed by [[bey|''beys'']], the first of which were founded at the end of the 11th century. A second and more extensive period of establishment took place as a result of the decline of the [[Seljuq Sultanate of Rûm]] in the latter half of the 13th century. |
||
{{History of Turkey}} |
|||
⚫ | '''Anatolian beyliks''' ({{lang-tr|Anadolu beylikleri}}, [[Ottoman Turkish language|Ottoman Turkish]]: ''Tavâif-i mülûk'', ''Beylik'' {{IPA |
||
One of the beyliks, the |
One of the ''beyliks'', that of the [[Osmanoğlu family|''Osmanoğlu'']] of the [[Kayı tribe|Kayı]] branch of [[Oghuz Turks]], from its capital in [[Bursa]] completed its incorporation of the other ''beyliks'' to form the [[Ottoman Empire]] by the late 15th century. |
||
The word |
The word ''beylik'' denotes a territory under the jurisdiction of a ''bey'', equivalent to a [[duchy]] or [[principality]] in other parts of Europe.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=3jZGVstzMhQC&dq=beylik&pg=RA2-PA105 (limited preview)] {{cite book |title = Histoire économique et sociale de l'Empire ottoman et de la Turquie (1326-1960) |isbn=90-6831-799-7 |author= Mohamed Hedi Cherif - Daniel Panzac |publisher=Peeters Publishers|year= 1995|language=fr}}</ref> |
||
== History == |
== History == |
||
[[File:Anatolian Beyliks in the Catalan Atlas (1375).jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Anatolian Beyliks in the ''[[Catalan Atlas]]'' (1375). The caption next to the seated ruler reads: "Asia Minor also called Turkey, where there are many cities and castles." The map is shown upside down.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Cresques Project - Panel IV |url=https://www.cresquesproject.net/catalan-atlas-legends/panel-iv |website=www.cresquesproject.net}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Forêt |first1=Philippe |last2=Kaplony |first2=Andreas |title=The Journey of Maps and Images on the Silk Road |date=30 November 2008 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-474-2497-0 |page=194 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Rw6wCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA194 |language=en}}</ref>]] |
|||
[[File:Anatolian Beyliks in 1300.png|thumb|Beyliks and other states around Anatolia, c. 1300.]] |
|||
Following the 1071 [[Seljuqs| |
Following the 1071 [[Seljuqs|Seljuk]] victory over the [[Byzantine Empire]] at the [[Battle of Manzikert]] and the subsequent conquest of Anatolia, [[Oghuz Turks|Oghuz Turkic]] clans began settling in present-day [[Turkey]]. The [[Sultanate of Rum|Seljuk Sultanate of Rum]]'s central power established in [[Konya#History|Konya]] was largely as a result of using these clans under appointed ''beys'' called ''[[uç bey]]'' or ''uj begi'' (especially in border areas to ensure safety against the Byzantines); ''uç'' is a Turkish term that denotes a border or frontier territory equivalent to [[marches]], with the similar term [[margrave]] used in other parts of Europe. These clans, led by ''beys'', would receive military and financial support from the Seljuks in return for their fealty. |
||
⚫ | |||
⚫ | As the Byzantine |
||
⚫ | However, [[Mongol invasion of Europe|Mongol invasions]] from the East saw a decline in Seljuk power which gradually deteriorated. The [[Ilkhanate]] commanders in Anatolia then gained strength and authority which encouraged the ''[[Bey|beys]]'', who had until then been [[Vassal|vassals]] to the [[Sultanate of Rum]], to declare sovereignty over their dominions. With the fall of Seljuk centralized power in Konya, many ''beys'' joined forces with the [[atabeg|''atabegs'']] (former Seljuk leaders), and other religious Muslim leaders, in addition to employing [[Ghazw|Ghazi warriors]] from Persia and Turkestan, who also fled the Mongols. The ghazis fought under the inspiration of either a [[mullah]] or a general, trying to assert Islamic power, with the attacks on [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] territory further expanding the power sphere of the beyliks. |
||
⚫ | By 1300, Turks had reached the [[Aegean Sea|Aegean]] coastline, held momentarily two centuries before. In the beginning, the most powerful states were the [[Karamanids]] and the [[Germiyanids]] in the central area. The Beylik of [[Osmanoğlu family|Osmanoğlu]] |
||
⚫ | As the [[Byzantine Empire]] weakened, their cities in [[Asia Minor]] became gradually less and less able to resist these attacks, and many Turks began to settle in western parts of Anatolia.<ref>This process is described in the pioneering work, Speros Vryonis, ''The decline of medieval Hellenism in Asia Minor: and the process of Islamization from the eleventh through the fifteenth century'' (Berkeley: University of California, 1971), {{ISBN|978-1597404761}}</ref> As a result, many more beyliks were founded in these newly conquered realms, who engaged in power struggles with the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantines]], the [[Republic of Genoa|Genoese]], the [[Knights Templar]], as well as between each other. |
||
[[File:Yivli minaret.jpg|thumb|200px|left|[[Yivli Minare Mosque]], symbol of [[Antalya]], built by the [[Beylik of Teke]] circa 1375.]] |
|||
⚫ | By 1300, the Turks had reached the [[Aegean Sea|Aegean]] coastline, held momentarily two centuries before. In the beginning, the most powerful states were the [[Karamanids]] and the [[Germiyanids]] in the central area. The Beylik of [[Osmanoğlu family|''Osmanoğlu'']], who would later go on to become the [[Ottoman Empire]], was situated in the northwest, around [[Söğüt]], and was at that stage relatively small and possessed modest military power. Along the [[Aegean Sea|Aegean coast]], from North to South, were the principalities of [[Karasids|Karasi]], [[Sarukhanids|Saruhan]], [[Aydinids|Aydin]], [[Beylik of Menteşe|Menteşe]], and [[Beylik of Teke|Teke]]. The [[Candar dynasty]] (later also known as Isfendiyar) reigned in the [[Black Sea]] region around the provinces of [[Kastamonu Province|Kastamonu]] and [[Sinop Province|Sinop]] in what was the Beylik of Candar.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Cbj2G4l7elYC&dq=beylik&pg=PA5 |title = European and Islamic Trade in the Early Ottoman State: The Merchants of Genoa and Turkey |isbn=0-521-64221-3 |author= Kate Fleet |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year= 1999}}</ref> |
||
⚫ | Under its eponymous founder, [[Osman I]], the Beylik of |
||
{{Continental Asia in 1300 CE|right|The Anatolian Beyliks and main contemporary Asian polities circa 1300. A small [[Sultanate of Rum]] still existed as a vassal of the [[Ilkhanate]].|{{Annotation|5|70|[[File:Long Rectangle (plain).png|30px]]}}}} |
|||
⚫ | But the Ottoman state quickly collected itself under [[Mehmed I]] and his son [[Murad II]] |
||
⚫ | Under its eponymous founder, [[Osman I]], the Beylik of Osman expanded at Byzantine expense westwards and southwards of the [[Sea of Marmara]] in the first decades of the 14th century. With their annexation of the neighboring [[Beylik of Karasi]] and their advance into [[Rumelia]] starting in 1354, they soon gained strength to emerge as the principal rivals of the [[Karamanids|Beylik of Karaman]], who at the time were thought to be the strongest. Towards the end of the 14th century, the [[Ottoman Turks|Ottomans]] advanced further into [[Anatolia]] either through the acquisition of towns or by cementing marriage alliances. Meanwhile, wary of an increase in Ottoman regional power, the Karamanids repeatedly engaged in conflict with the Ottomans with the help of other beyliks, [[Mamluk]]s, [[Aq Qoyunlu]] ("White Sheep Turkomans"), [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantines]], [[Pontus (region)|Pontics]] and [[Magyars|Hungarians]], failing and losing power every time. By the close of the century, the early Ottoman leaders had conquered large parts of land from Karamanids and other less prominent beyliks. These had a short respite when their territories were restored to them after the Ottoman defeat suffered against [[Tamerlane]] in 1402 in the [[Battle of Ankara]]. |
||
⚫ | But the Ottoman state quickly collected itself under [[Mehmed I]] and his son [[Murad II]], who reincorporated most of these beyliks into Ottoman territory in a period of about 25 years. The final blow to the [[Karamanids|Beylik of Karaman]] was struck by [[Mehmed II]], who conquered their lands and re-assured a homogeneous rule in Anatolia. The further steps towards a single rule by the Ottomans were taken by [[Selim I]] who conquered territories of the [[Ramadanid Emirate|Beylik of Ramadan]] and the [[Beylik of Dulkadir]] in 1515 during his campaign against the [[Mamluk Sultanate]], and his son [[Süleyman the Magnificent]] who more or less completely united the present territories of Turkey (and much more) in his 1534 campaign. Many of the former Anatolian beyliks subsequently became the basis for the [[Subdivisions of the Ottoman Empire|administrative subdivisions in the Ottoman Empire]]. |
||
== List of the Anatolian beyliks founded after the Battle of Manzikert == |
|||
[[File:DivrigiUluCami (2006).jpg|thumb|250px|[[Divriği Great Mosque]] in [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage List]], built in 1299 by a descendant of the first period [[Mengujekids]].]] |
|||
⚫ | In the list below, only the beyliks that were founded immediately after the [[Battle of Manzikert]] in 1071, mostly situated towards |
||
==List of beyliks== |
|||
=== Beyliks founded after Manzikert (1071) === |
|||
⚫ | In the list below, only the beyliks that were founded immediately after the [[Battle of Manzikert]] in 1071, mostly situated towards eastern Anatolia, and who were vassals (or sometimes at war) of the centralized power of the [[Sultanate of Rum|Seljuk Sultanate of Rum]] based in [[Konya]] are listed. |
||
[[File:Shaddadid.gif|thumb|upright=1.5|Map of the Anatolian beyliks in the 11th-12th centuries]] |
|||
{|class="wikitable sortable" |
{|class="wikitable sortable" |
||
|- |
|- |
||
Line 37: | Line 35: | ||
!Duration of rule |
!Duration of rule |
||
|- bgcolor="#e5e5e5" |
|- bgcolor="#e5e5e5" |
||
|[[ |
|[[Tzachas|Beylik of Smyrna]] |
||
|[[İzmir]] |
|[[İzmir]] |
||
|1081–1098 |
|1081–1098 |
||
Line 47: | Line 45: | ||
|[[Artuqids]] (three branches) |
|[[Artuqids]] (three branches) |
||
|[[Hasankeyf]], [[Mardin]], [[Harput]] |
|[[Hasankeyf]], [[Mardin]], [[Harput]] |
||
|1102–1409 |
|||
|1102-1409 |
|||
|- |
|- |
||
|[[Danishmend]] |
|[[Danishmend]] |
||
Line 55: | Line 53: | ||
|[[Beylik of Dilmaç|Dilmaçoğlu]] |
|[[Beylik of Dilmaç|Dilmaçoğlu]] |
||
|[[Bitlis]] |
|[[Bitlis]] |
||
|1085–1398 |
|||
|1085 - 1398 |
|||
|- |
|- |
||
|[[Beylik of İnal|İnaloğlu]] |
|[[Beylik of İnal|İnaloğlu]] |
||
Line 72: | Line 70: | ||
|[[Beylik of Çubukoğulları|Çubukoğulları]] |
|[[Beylik of Çubukoğulları|Çubukoğulları]] |
||
|[[Harput]] |
|[[Harput]] |
||
|1085–1112 |
|||
|1085-1112 |
|||
⚫ | |||
|[[Beylik of Tanrıbermiş]] |
|||
|[[Alaşehir]] |
|||
|1071–1098 |
|||
|} |
|} |
||
== |
=== Beyliks founded after Köse Dağ (1243) === |
||
A second group beyliks |
A second group beyliks emerged as a result of the weakening of this central state under the [[Mongol]] blow with the [[Battle of Köse Dağ]] in 1243, which had the indirect consequence of extending [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] territory in Western Anatolia toward the end of the 13th century. |
||
{|class="wikitable sortable" |
{|class="wikitable sortable" |
||
Line 84: | Line 86: | ||
!Capital city |
!Capital city |
||
!Duration of rule |
!Duration of rule |
||
|- |
|- |
||
|[[Ahiler]] |
|[[Ahiler]]<ref>The Ahiler Beylik is sometimes considered one of the Anatolian beyliks but was a mercantile [[republic]] rather than a monarchical dynasty. See [[Ahiler]] for more information.</ref> |
||
|[[Ankara]] |
|[[Ankara]] |
||
|c. |
|c. 1290–1362 |
||
|- |
|- |
||
|[[Alaiye]] |
|[[Alaiye]] |
||
|[[Alanya]] |
|[[Alanya]] |
||
| |
|1293–1471 as vassals to [[Karamanids]] |
||
|- |
|- |
||
|[[Aydinids]] |
|[[Aydinids]] |
||
|[[Birgi]], later [[Ayasluğ]] ([[Selçuk]]) |
|[[Birgi]], later [[Ayasluğ]] ([[Selçuk]]) |
||
Line 98: | Line 100: | ||
|- |
|- |
||
|[[Beyliks of Canik|Canik]] |
|[[Beyliks of Canik|Canik]] |
||
|[[Samsun]] |
|[[Samsun]], [[Amasya]] and the vicinity |
||
|? |
|?–1460 |
||
|- |
|- |
||
|[[ |
|[[Candar dynasty|Candar]] (later also known as Beylik of Isfendiyar) |
||
|[[Eflani]], later [[Kastamonu]], last [[Sinop, Turkey|Sinop]] |
|[[Eflani]], later [[Kastamonu]], last [[Sinop, Turkey|Sinop]] |
||
|1291–1461 |
|1291–1461 |
||
|- |
|- |
||
|[[Chobanids (beylik)|Chobanids]] |
|[[Chobanids (beylik)|Chobanids]] |
||
|[[Kastamonu]] ( |
|[[Kastamonu]] (preceding the [[Candar dynasty|Candars]]) |
||
|1211–1309 |
|1211–1309 |
||
|- |
|- |
||
Line 112: | Line 114: | ||
|[[Elbistan]], later [[Kahramanmaraş|Maraş]] |
|[[Elbistan]], later [[Kahramanmaraş|Maraş]] |
||
|1348–1522 |
|1348–1522 |
||
|- |
|- |
||
|[[Eretnids]] |
|[[Eretnids]] |
||
|[[Sivas]], later [[Kayseri]] |
|[[Sivas]], later [[Kayseri]] |
||
Line 124: | Line 126: | ||
|[[Beyşehir]] |
|[[Beyşehir]] |
||
|1285–1326 |
|1285–1326 |
||
|- |
|- |
||
|[[Germiyanids]] |
|[[Germiyanids]] |
||
|[[Kütahya]] |
|[[Kütahya]] |
||
Line 132: | Line 134: | ||
|[[Eğirdir]] |
|[[Eğirdir]] |
||
|1300–1391 |
|1300–1391 |
||
|- |
|- |
||
|[[Kadi Burhan al-Din]] |
|[[Kadi Burhan al-Din]] |
||
|[[Sivas]] ( |
|[[Sivas]] (replacing the [[Eretnids]]) |
||
|1381–1398 |
|1381–1398 |
||
|- |
|- |
||
|[[Karamanids]] |
|[[Karamanids]] |
||
|[[Larende]] ([[Karaman]]) |
|[[Larende]] ([[Karaman]]) |
||
|1250–1487 |
|||
|1250-1487 |
|||
|- |
|- |
||
|[[Karasids]]/[[Karası]] |
|[[Karasids]]/[[Karası]] |
||
|[[Balıkesir]], later [[Bergama]] and [[Çanakkale]] |
|[[Balıkesir]], later [[Bergama]] and [[Çanakkale]] |
||
|1296–1357 |
|1296–1357 |
||
|- |
|- |
||
|[[Beylik of Lâdik|Ladik]] ( |
|[[Beylik of Lâdik|Ladik]] (also called [[Inanjids]], subordinate to Sahib Ataids and Germiyanids) |
||
|[[Denizli]] |
|[[Denizli]] |
||
|1262–1391 |
|1262–1391 |
||
Line 152: | Line 154: | ||
|[[Milas]] |
|[[Milas]] |
||
|1261–1424 |
|1261–1424 |
||
|- |
|- |
||
|[[Rise of the Ottoman Empire| |
|[[Rise of the Ottoman Empire|Ottomanids]] (later the [[Ottoman Empire]]) |
||
|[[Söğüt]], later [[Bursa]], [[Dimetoka]], [[Edirne]] and [[Istanbul]] |
|[[Söğüt]], later [[Bursa]], [[Dimetoka]], [[Edirne]] and [[Istanbul]] |
||
|1299–1922 |
|||
|1299-1922 |
|||
|- |
|- |
||
|[[Pervâneoğlu]] |
|[[Pervâneoğlu|Pervâneid]] |
||
|[[Sinop, Turkey|Sinop]] |
|[[Sinop, Turkey|Sinop]] |
||
|1277–1322 |
|||
|1277-1322 |
|||
|- |
|- |
||
|[[Ramadanids]] |
|[[Ramadanid Emirate|Ramadanids]] |
||
|[[Adana]] |
|[[Adana]] |
||
|1352–1608 |
|1352–1608 |
||
|- |
|- |
||
|[[Sahib Ataids]] |
|[[Sahib Ataids]] |
||
|[[Afyonkarahisar]] |
|[[Afyonkarahisar]] |
||
Line 172: | Line 174: | ||
|[[Manisa]] |
|[[Manisa]] |
||
|1300–1410 |
|1300–1410 |
||
|- |
|- |
||
|[[Beylik of Teke|Teke]] ( |
|[[Beylik of Teke|Teke]] (issued from the [[Hamidids]]) |
||
|[[Antalya]], later [[Korkuteli]] |
|[[Antalya]], later [[Korkuteli]] |
||
|1321–1423 |
|1321–1423 |
||
⚫ | |||
|[[Seljuks in Dobruja|Beylik of Dobruja]] |
|||
|[[Babadag]] |
|||
|1281-1299 |
|||
|} |
|} |
||
==Society== |
|||
== List of the non-Turkic (and non-Muslim) Anatolian states == |
|||
⚫ | |||
Three Anatolian regions remained Christian until their defeat and Ottoman conquest: |
|||
Combined with the Seljuks and the migration of Turkic tribes into the Anatolian mainland, the Anatolian beyliks spread the Turkic language and Islamic culture in Anatolia.<ref name="Encycl">''Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire'', Gábor Ágoston, Bruce Alan Masters, page 40</ref> Unlike the Seljuks, whose administrative language was [[Persian language|Persian]], the Anatolian beyliks adopted spoken Turkic as their formal literary language.<ref name="Encycl"/> The [[Old Anatolian Turkish|Turkish]] language thus achieved widespread use in these principalities and reached its highest sophistication during the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] era.<ref name="Encycl"/> |
|||
* [[Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia]] with [[Tarsus (city)|Tarsus]] and [[Kozan, Adana|Sis]] (now [[Kozan, Adana|Kozan]]) as patriarchal seats, until 1375; |
|||
* [[Empire of Trebizond]], initially (1204) a breakaway Byzantine territory, centered on Trebizond (now [[Trabzon]]) on the south eastern [[Black Sea]] coastline, which survived until 1461; |
|||
* Philadelphia (present-day [[Alaşehir]]) held by the Byzantines until its conquest by [[Umur Beg]] in 1335. In 1337 Alaşehir (Philadelphia) was granted autonomy under [[Aydınids]] and this lasted until the total [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] conquest and annexation in 1390. |
|||
⚫ | |||
Combined with the Seljuqs and the immigration of Turkic tribes into the Anatolian mainland the Anatolian Beyliks spread Turkish and Islamic influence in Anatolia.<ref name="Encycl">''Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire'', Gábor Ágoston, Bruce Alan Masters, page 40</ref> |
|||
Unlike the Seljuqs, whose language of administration was Persian, the Anatolian emirates adopted spoken Turkish as their formal literary language.<ref name="Encycl"/> |
|||
The Turkish language achieved widespread use in these principalities and reached its highest sophistication during the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] era.<ref name="Encycl"/> |
|||
⚫ | |||
[[File:İsa Bey Camii.jpg|thumb|225px|right|[[İsa Bey Mosque]] in [[Selçuk]] near [[İzmir]], built by the Beylik of [[Aydınids]] in 1375.]] |
|||
⚫ | In spite of their limited sources and the political climate of their era, art during the Anatolian beyliks flourished, probably |
||
⚫ | |||
⚫ | Some representative examples of the Anatolian beyliks' architecture are [[İlyas Bey Mosque]] at [[Balat, Didim|Balat]] (Milet) (1404), ''[[İsabey Mosque]]'' at [[Selçuk]] (1375), ''Ulucami Mosque'' at [[Birgi]] (1312) built by the Aydın beylik. The above mosques, although being successors of Seljuq architecture, differ greatly in the increase of decorations in the interior and exterior spaces and the different placement of the [[courtyard]]s and [[minaret]]s. Karaman beylik also left noteworthy architectural works, such as ''Ulucami Mosque'' in [[Ermenek]] (1302), ''Hatuniye [[Madrassa]]'' in Karaman (1382), ''Akmedrese Madrassa'' in [[Niğde Province|Niğde]] (1409), all of which respect a new style that considers and incorporates the exterior surroundings also. One of the first examples of the Anatolian beylik architecture hinting at the forming of the [[Ottoman architecture]] that aims at uniting the interior space beneath one big [[dome]] and forming a [[monument]]al architectural structure is ''Ulucami Mosque'' in [[Manisa Province|Manisa]] (1374) built by the Saruhan beylik. Also worth noting is the increase in constructions of madrassas that points at the beyliks' attaching greater importance to sciences. |
||
⚫ | In spite of their limited sources and the political climate of their era, art during the Anatolian beyliks flourished, probably forming the basis for [[Culture of the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman art]]. Although the artistic style of the Anatolian beyliks can be considered as representatives of a transition period between [[Seljuks]] and Ottomans, new trends were also acquired. Especially wandering traditional crafts artists and architects helped spread these new trends and localized styles to several beyliks across Anatolia, which resulted in innovative and original works particularly in architecture. Wood and stone carving, clay tiles and other similar decorative arts of the Seljuks were still used, however with the influence of the pursuit for new spaces and its reflections in other arts as well. |
||
===Architecture=== |
|||
==Anatolian Beylik architecture== |
|||
⚫ | {{Further|Anatolian Seljuk architecture}}[[File:İsa Bey Camii.jpg|thumb|225px|right|[[İsa Bey Mosque]] in [[Selçuk]] near [[İzmir]], built by the Beylik of [[Aydınids]] in 1375.]]Some representative examples of the Anatolian beyliks' architecture are [[İlyas Bey Mosque]] at [[Balat, Didim|Balat]] (Milet) (1404), ''[[İsabey Mosque]]'' at [[Selçuk]] (1375), ''Ulucami Mosque'' at [[Birgi]] (1312) built by the Aydın beylik. The above mosques, although being successors of Seljuq architecture, differ greatly in the increase of decorations in the interior and exterior spaces and the different placement of the [[courtyard]]s and [[minaret]]s. Karaman beylik also left noteworthy architectural works, such as ''Ulucami Mosque'' in [[Ermenek]] (1302), ''Hatuniye [[Madrassa]]'' in Karaman (1382), ''Akmedrese Madrassa'' in [[Niğde Province|Niğde]] (1409), all of which respect a new style that considers and incorporates the exterior surroundings also. One of the first examples of the Anatolian beylik architecture hinting at the forming of the [[Ottoman architecture]] that aims at uniting the interior space beneath one big [[dome]] and forming a [[monument]]al architectural structure is ''Ulucami Mosque'' in [[Manisa Province|Manisa]] (1374) built by the Saruhan beylik. Also worth noting is the increase in constructions of madrassas that points at the beyliks' attaching greater importance to sciences. |
||
*Ulucami Mosque in [[Ermenek]] (1302) |
|||
*Ulucami Mosque in [[Manisa Province|Manisa]] (1374) |
|||
*[[İsabey Mosque]] at [[Selçuk]] (1375) |
|||
*Hatuniye Madrassa in [[Karaman]] (1382) |
|||
*İlyas Mosque at [[Balat, Didim|Balat]] (Milet) (1404) |
|||
*Akmedrese Madrassa in [[Niğde Province|Niğde]] (1409) |
|||
== See also == |
== See also == |
||
{{History of Turkey}} |
|||
*[[ |
* [[History of Turkey]] |
||
*[[List of Turkic dynasties and countries]] |
|||
* [[Sultanate of Rum]] |
* [[Sultanate of Rum]] |
||
* [[Taifa]] |
|||
* [[Timeline of the Sultanate of Rûm]] |
|||
* [[Byzantine–Seljuq Wars]] |
|||
* [[Ottoman Empire]] |
|||
* [[Islamic architecture]] |
|||
== References == |
== References == |
||
Line 222: | Line 201: | ||
== Sources == |
== Sources == |
||
{{refbegin}} |
{{refbegin}} |
||
* {{cite book |title = The Origins of the Ottoman Empire |isbn=0-7914-0819-1 |author= [[Mehmet Fuat Köprülü]] (translated by Gary Leiser) |publisher=[[State University of New York]] Press|year= 1992}} [https://books.google.com/books?id=D-WaKed2iNgC& |
* {{cite book |title = The Origins of the Ottoman Empire |isbn=0-7914-0819-1 |author= [[Mehmet Fuat Köprülü]] (translated by Gary Leiser) |publisher=[[State University of New York]] Press|year= 1992}} [https://books.google.com/books?id=D-WaKed2iNgC&q=germiyanid&pg=PA36 (limited preview)] |
||
* Westermann ''Großer Atlas zur Weltgeschichte'' {{ |
* Westermann ''Großer Atlas zur Weltgeschichte'' {{in lang|de}} |
||
{{refend}} |
{{refend}} |
||
== External links == |
== External links == |
||
{{Commons category|Anatolian beyliks}} |
{{Commons category|Anatolian beyliks}} |
||
* {{cite web |
* {{cite web|url = http://www.osmanlimedeniyeti.com/|title = Osmanlı Medeniyeti (Ottoman Civilization)|language = tr|access-date = 2005-07-18|archive-date = 2005-08-01|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20050801005725/http://www.osmanlimedeniyeti.com/|url-status = dead}} |
||
{{Turkic topics}} |
{{Turkic topics}} |
||
Line 235: | Line 214: | ||
[[Category:Anatolian beyliks| ]]<!--please leave the empty space as standard--> |
[[Category:Anatolian beyliks| ]]<!--please leave the empty space as standard--> |
||
⚫ | |||
[[Category:Historical Turkic states]] |
|||
[[Category:Turkic states]] |
|||
⚫ | |||
[[Category:History of the Turkic peoples]] |
|||
[[Category:Byzantine Empire successor states in Anatolia]] |
|||
[[Category:States in medieval Anatolia]] |
[[Category:States in medieval Anatolia]] |
||
[[Category: |
[[Category:14th century in the Ottoman Empire]] |
||
[[Category:15th century in the Ottoman Empire]] |
Latest revision as of 03:56, 21 August 2024
This article needs additional citations for verification. (June 2010) |
Anatolian beyliks (Turkish: Anadolu beylikleri, Ottoman Turkish: Tavâif-i mülûk, Beylik; Turkish pronunciation: [bejlic]) were small principalities (or petty kingdoms) in Anatolia governed by beys, the first of which were founded at the end of the 11th century. A second and more extensive period of establishment took place as a result of the decline of the Seljuq Sultanate of Rûm in the latter half of the 13th century.
One of the beyliks, that of the Osmanoğlu of the Kayı branch of Oghuz Turks, from its capital in Bursa completed its incorporation of the other beyliks to form the Ottoman Empire by the late 15th century.
The word beylik denotes a territory under the jurisdiction of a bey, equivalent to a duchy or principality in other parts of Europe.[1]
History
[edit]Following the 1071 Seljuk victory over the Byzantine Empire at the Battle of Manzikert and the subsequent conquest of Anatolia, Oghuz Turkic clans began settling in present-day Turkey. The Seljuk Sultanate of Rum's central power established in Konya was largely as a result of using these clans under appointed beys called uç bey or uj begi (especially in border areas to ensure safety against the Byzantines); uç is a Turkish term that denotes a border or frontier territory equivalent to marches, with the similar term margrave used in other parts of Europe. These clans, led by beys, would receive military and financial support from the Seljuks in return for their fealty.
However, Mongol invasions from the East saw a decline in Seljuk power which gradually deteriorated. The Ilkhanate commanders in Anatolia then gained strength and authority which encouraged the beys, who had until then been vassals to the Sultanate of Rum, to declare sovereignty over their dominions. With the fall of Seljuk centralized power in Konya, many beys joined forces with the atabegs (former Seljuk leaders), and other religious Muslim leaders, in addition to employing Ghazi warriors from Persia and Turkestan, who also fled the Mongols. The ghazis fought under the inspiration of either a mullah or a general, trying to assert Islamic power, with the attacks on Byzantine territory further expanding the power sphere of the beyliks.
As the Byzantine Empire weakened, their cities in Asia Minor became gradually less and less able to resist these attacks, and many Turks began to settle in western parts of Anatolia.[4] As a result, many more beyliks were founded in these newly conquered realms, who engaged in power struggles with the Byzantines, the Genoese, the Knights Templar, as well as between each other.
By 1300, the Turks had reached the Aegean coastline, held momentarily two centuries before. In the beginning, the most powerful states were the Karamanids and the Germiyanids in the central area. The Beylik of Osmanoğlu, who would later go on to become the Ottoman Empire, was situated in the northwest, around Söğüt, and was at that stage relatively small and possessed modest military power. Along the Aegean coast, from North to South, were the principalities of Karasi, Saruhan, Aydin, Menteşe, and Teke. The Candar dynasty (later also known as Isfendiyar) reigned in the Black Sea region around the provinces of Kastamonu and Sinop in what was the Beylik of Candar.[5]
Under its eponymous founder, Osman I, the Beylik of Osman expanded at Byzantine expense westwards and southwards of the Sea of Marmara in the first decades of the 14th century. With their annexation of the neighboring Beylik of Karasi and their advance into Rumelia starting in 1354, they soon gained strength to emerge as the principal rivals of the Beylik of Karaman, who at the time were thought to be the strongest. Towards the end of the 14th century, the Ottomans advanced further into Anatolia either through the acquisition of towns or by cementing marriage alliances. Meanwhile, wary of an increase in Ottoman regional power, the Karamanids repeatedly engaged in conflict with the Ottomans with the help of other beyliks, Mamluks, Aq Qoyunlu ("White Sheep Turkomans"), Byzantines, Pontics and Hungarians, failing and losing power every time. By the close of the century, the early Ottoman leaders had conquered large parts of land from Karamanids and other less prominent beyliks. These had a short respite when their territories were restored to them after the Ottoman defeat suffered against Tamerlane in 1402 in the Battle of Ankara.
But the Ottoman state quickly collected itself under Mehmed I and his son Murad II, who reincorporated most of these beyliks into Ottoman territory in a period of about 25 years. The final blow to the Beylik of Karaman was struck by Mehmed II, who conquered their lands and re-assured a homogeneous rule in Anatolia. The further steps towards a single rule by the Ottomans were taken by Selim I who conquered territories of the Beylik of Ramadan and the Beylik of Dulkadir in 1515 during his campaign against the Mamluk Sultanate, and his son Süleyman the Magnificent who more or less completely united the present territories of Turkey (and much more) in his 1534 campaign. Many of the former Anatolian beyliks subsequently became the basis for the administrative subdivisions in the Ottoman Empire.
List of beyliks
[edit]Beyliks founded after Manzikert (1071)
[edit]In the list below, only the beyliks that were founded immediately after the Battle of Manzikert in 1071, mostly situated towards eastern Anatolia, and who were vassals (or sometimes at war) of the centralized power of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum based in Konya are listed.
Beylik's name | Capital city | Duration of rule |
---|---|---|
Beylik of Smyrna | İzmir | 1081–1098 |
Shah-Armens (also called Ahlatshahs) | Ahlat | 1110–1207 |
Artuqids (three branches) | Hasankeyf, Mardin, Harput | 1102–1409 |
Danishmend | Sivas | 1071–1178 |
Dilmaçoğlu | Bitlis | 1085–1398 |
İnaloğlu | Diyarbekir | 1095–1183 |
Mengujekids | Erzincan, later Divriği | 1072–1277 |
Saltukids | Erzurum | 1072–1202 |
Çubukoğulları | Harput | 1085–1112 |
Beylik of Tanrıbermiş | Alaşehir | 1071–1098 |
Beyliks founded after Köse Dağ (1243)
[edit]A second group beyliks emerged as a result of the weakening of this central state under the Mongol blow with the Battle of Köse Dağ in 1243, which had the indirect consequence of extending Turkic territory in Western Anatolia toward the end of the 13th century.
Beylik's name | Capital city | Duration of rule |
---|---|---|
Ahiler[6] | Ankara | c. 1290–1362 |
Alaiye | Alanya | 1293–1471 as vassals to Karamanids |
Aydinids | Birgi, later Ayasluğ (Selçuk) | 1300–1425 |
Canik | Samsun, Amasya and the vicinity | ?–1460 |
Candar (later also known as Beylik of Isfendiyar) | Eflani, later Kastamonu, last Sinop | 1291–1461 |
Chobanids | Kastamonu (preceding the Candars) | 1211–1309 |
Dulkadirids | Elbistan, later Maraş | 1348–1522 |
Eretnids | Sivas, later Kayseri | 1335–1390 |
Erzincan | Erzincan | 1379–1410 |
Eshrefids | Beyşehir | 1285–1326 |
Germiyanids | Kütahya | 1300–1429 |
Hamidids | Eğirdir | 1300–1391 |
Kadi Burhan al-Din | Sivas (replacing the Eretnids) | 1381–1398 |
Karamanids | Larende (Karaman) | 1250–1487 |
Karasids/Karası | Balıkesir, later Bergama and Çanakkale | 1296–1357 |
Ladik (also called Inanjids, subordinate to Sahib Ataids and Germiyanids) | Denizli | 1262–1391 |
Menteşe | Milas | 1261–1424 |
Ottomanids (later the Ottoman Empire) | Söğüt, later Bursa, Dimetoka, Edirne and Istanbul | 1299–1922 |
Pervâneid | Sinop | 1277–1322 |
Ramadanids | Adana | 1352–1608 |
Sahib Ataids | Afyonkarahisar | 1275–1341 |
Sarukhanids | Manisa | 1300–1410 |
Teke (issued from the Hamidids) | Antalya, later Korkuteli | 1321–1423 |
Society
[edit]Sprache
[edit]Combined with the Seljuks and the migration of Turkic tribes into the Anatolian mainland, the Anatolian beyliks spread the Turkic language and Islamic culture in Anatolia.[7] Unlike the Seljuks, whose administrative language was Persian, the Anatolian beyliks adopted spoken Turkic as their formal literary language.[7] The Turkish language thus achieved widespread use in these principalities and reached its highest sophistication during the Ottoman era.[7]
Kunst
[edit]In spite of their limited sources and the political climate of their era, art during the Anatolian beyliks flourished, probably forming the basis for Ottoman art. Although the artistic style of the Anatolian beyliks can be considered as representatives of a transition period between Seljuks and Ottomans, new trends were also acquired. Especially wandering traditional crafts artists and architects helped spread these new trends and localized styles to several beyliks across Anatolia, which resulted in innovative and original works particularly in architecture. Wood and stone carving, clay tiles and other similar decorative arts of the Seljuks were still used, however with the influence of the pursuit for new spaces and its reflections in other arts as well.
Architecture
[edit]Some representative examples of the Anatolian beyliks' architecture are İlyas Bey Mosque at Balat (Milet) (1404), İsabey Mosque at Selçuk (1375), Ulucami Mosque at Birgi (1312) built by the Aydın beylik. The above mosques, although being successors of Seljuq architecture, differ greatly in the increase of decorations in the interior and exterior spaces and the different placement of the courtyards and minarets. Karaman beylik also left noteworthy architectural works, such as Ulucami Mosque in Ermenek (1302), Hatuniye Madrassa in Karaman (1382), Akmedrese Madrassa in Niğde (1409), all of which respect a new style that considers and incorporates the exterior surroundings also. One of the first examples of the Anatolian beylik architecture hinting at the forming of the Ottoman architecture that aims at uniting the interior space beneath one big dome and forming a monumental architectural structure is Ulucami Mosque in Manisa (1374) built by the Saruhan beylik. Also worth noting is the increase in constructions of madrassas that points at the beyliks' attaching greater importance to sciences.
See also
[edit]History of Turkey |
---|
Timeline |
Turkey portal |
References
[edit]- ^ (limited preview) Mohamed Hedi Cherif - Daniel Panzac (1995). Histoire économique et sociale de l'Empire ottoman et de la Turquie (1326-1960) (in French). Peeters Publishers. ISBN 90-6831-799-7.
- ^ "The Cresques Project - Panel IV". www.cresquesproject.net.
- ^ Forêt, Philippe; Kaplony, Andreas (30 November 2008). The Journey of Maps and Images on the Silk Road. BRILL. p. 194. ISBN 978-90-474-2497-0.
- ^ This process is described in the pioneering work, Speros Vryonis, The decline of medieval Hellenism in Asia Minor: and the process of Islamization from the eleventh through the fifteenth century (Berkeley: University of California, 1971), ISBN 978-1597404761
- ^ Kate Fleet (1999). European and Islamic Trade in the Early Ottoman State: The Merchants of Genoa and Turkey. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-64221-3.
- ^ The Ahiler Beylik is sometimes considered one of the Anatolian beyliks but was a mercantile republic rather than a monarchical dynasty. See Ahiler for more information.
- ^ a b c Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire, Gábor Ágoston, Bruce Alan Masters, page 40
Sources
[edit]- Mehmet Fuat Köprülü (translated by Gary Leiser) (1992). The Origins of the Ottoman Empire. State University of New York Press. ISBN 0-7914-0819-1. (limited preview)
- Westermann Großer Atlas zur Weltgeschichte (in German)
External links
[edit]- "Osmanlı Medeniyeti (Ottoman Civilization)" (in Turkish). Archived from the original on 2005-08-01. Retrieved 2005-07-18.