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{{see also|Index of forestry articles}}
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:''For a more comprehensive list, see the [[List of forestry topics]].''
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'''Forestry''' is the art, science, and practice of studying and managing [[forest]]s and [[tree]] [[plantation]]s, and related [[natural resources]]. A practitioner of forestry is known as a [[forester]]. Forests have come to be seen as one of the most important components of the [[biosphere]], and forestry has emerged as a vital field of science, applied art, and technology. Modern forestry generally concerns itself with: assisting forests to provide [[timber]] as raw material for [[wood]] products; [[wildlife]] habitat; natural [[water]] quality regulation; [[recreation]]; landscape and community protection; employment; aesthetically appealing [[landscape]]s; [[biodiversity]] management; [[watershed management]]; and a '[[Carbon dioxide sink|sink]]' for [[Earth's atmosphere|atmospheric]][[carbon dioxide]].
'''[[Forestry]]''' is the art, [[Ecology|ecological science]], and practice of studying and managing [[forest]]s and [[tree]]s, and related [[natural resources]]. A professional practitioner of forestry is known as a [[forester]]. Forests have come to be seen as one of the most important components of the [[biosphere]], and forestry has emerged as a vital field of [[applied science]], art, and [[technology]]. Modern forestry generally concerns itself with: assisting forests to provide [[timber]] as raw material for [[forest product|wood products]]; [[wildlife]] habitat; natural [[water quality]] regulation; [[outdoor recreation]]; landscape and community protection; employment; aesthetically appealing [[landscape]]s; [[biodiversity]] management; [[watershed management]]; and a [[Carbon dioxide sink|sink]] for [[Carbon dioxide in the Earth's atmosphere|atmospheric carbon dioxide]].
{{main|Forestry}}
The following outline is provided as an overview of and guide to forestry:
* [[Deforestation during the Roman period]] - increased population growth and urbanization gave way to technological advancements that led to widespread deforestation
== Branches of forestry ==
==Environmental issues==
* [[Dendrology]] - involves the study and identification of economically useful tree species
* [[Forest ecology]] - studies the patterns and processes of a forest ecosystem
* [[Silviculture]] - is the art and science of controlling the establishment, growth, composition, health, and quality of forests to meet specific objectives
* [[Forest management]] - comprises of the overall administrative, economic, legal, and social aspects of forest regulation
: * [[Ecoforestry]] - emphasizes practices which strive to protect and restore ecosystems rather than maximize economic productivity
: * [[Sustainable forest management]] - emphasizes practices that maintain forest biodiversity, productivity, regeneration capacity, and vitality, while continuing to fulfill relevant ecological, economic and social functions
* [[Forest mensuration]] - incorporates quantitative measurements of the forest stand to determine stand timber volume and productivity/health, and provides a basis off which management decisions can be made
* [[Forest hydrology]] - embodies the effects of changes in forest land use on the movement, distribution, and quality of water in the ecosystem
* [[Agroforestry]] - integration of forests into agricultural systems in order to optimize the production and positive effects within the system and minimize negative side effects of farming
* [[Forest pathology]] - research of both biotic and abiotic maladies affecting the health of the forest or tree, primarily fungal pathogens and their insect vectors
* [[Forest economics]] - studies the impact of economics on forest management decisions
* [[Urban forestry]] - entails the care and management of urban tree populations for the purpose of improving the urban environment
* [[Energy forestry]] - includes specifically managing for the production of energy from biomass or biofuel derived from a fast-growing species of tree or woody shrub
== Occupations in forestry ==
===Products===
* [[Forester]] - professional chiefly responsible for the management of forests, requires a Bachelor of Science degree in most countries [[File:Foresters discussing tactics at Buck Mtn-Oregon-1967.jpg|thumb|right|Two [[United States Forest Service|USFS]] foresters discussing firefighting tactics.]]
*'''Timber harvest'''
* [[Forest technician]] - individual primarily responsible for the marking of timber sales and on-ground land management, oftentimes requires a two-year Associate of Science degree
* [[Analog forestry]] - a management focus that seeks to establish a tree-dominated ecosystem that is similar in architectural structure and ecological function to the naturally occurring climax and sub-climax vegetation community
* [[Hardwood timber production]] - process of managing stands of deciduous trees to maximize woody output
* [[Short rotation forestry]] - managing a forest that utilizes fast-growing species as a bio-based energy crop for use in power stations, alone or in combination with other fuels such as coal
:* [[Short rotation coppice]] (SRC) - focus on species that are able to naturally regenerate through [[Living stump|stump sprouts]]
'''Site preparation'''[[File:Okefenokee burn1.jpg|thumb|right|A [[controlled burn]] at the [[Okefenokee National Wildlife Refuge]] in southern [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]].]]
* [[Controlled burn]] - use of fire in order to eliminate weeds, brush, or slash, or to release on-site seeds of fire-dependent species
* [[Stump harvesting]] - removal of tree stumps either for biomass or to free up space in the soil
* [[Drum chopper|Drum chopping]] - knocking down small trees and brush to clear the ground for planting
'''Planting'''
* [[Broadcast seeding]] - scattering of seed either by hand or mechanically over a relatively large area
* [[Aerial seeding]] - dispersing of seed from an aircraft, used especially in mountainous areas
* [[Treeplanting]] - transplanting of juvenile seedlings into the ground at a predetermined spacing
'''Intermediate treatments'''
[[File:Régénération naturelle semis.jpg|right|thumb|Natural regeneration of ''[[Acer platanoides]]'' in northern [[France]], surrounded by woody and herbaceous competition.]]
* [[Weeding]] - removal or reduction of herbaceous or woody species around seedlings
* [[Cleaning (forestry)|Cleaning]] - removal of competing saplings of similar age in order to favor saplings of desirable growth characteristics
* [[Liberation cutting]] - removal of older and established overtopping trees from desirable saplings
* [[Thinning]] - removal of trees to favor the growth of select trees in order to maximize timber production
* [[Ecological thinning]] - removal of trees to favor the growth of select trees in order to favor the development of wildlife habitat
* [[Pruning]] - removal of the lateral branches on the trees in order to improve wood quality
* [[Pollarding]] - annual removal of lateral branches or main stem in order to encourage growth of branches to provide for firewood, or fruit production
'''Harvest rotations'''[[File:Rattlesnake-Mt-logged-4000.jpg|thumb|right|[[Clearcutting|Clearcuts]] in the foreground and background at [[Rattlesnake National Recreation Area|Rattlesnake Mountain]], [[Montana]].]]
*Even-aged management
:* [[Clearcutting]] - harvesting of all stems in a given area regardless of species and size
:* [[Coppicing]] - cutting vigorous juvenile trees near the ground, regeneration comes from new shoots coming up from the stump
:* [[Seed-tree cutting|Seed-tree]] - cutting of all trees save widely spaced residual trees, which will provide natural seedstock for the following generation and are later cut
*Uneven-aged management
:* [[Selection cutting|Selection]] - harvesting of selected trees in a stand, removing either merchantable timber or to favor the growth of desirable individuals (a thinning)
:* [[Shelterwood cutting|Shelterwood]] - removal of merchantable trees in succession, establishing a multiaged stand
:* [[Variable retention]] - removal of trees of varying density across a landscape, in order to retain structural diversity
*Other
:* [[Salvage logging]] - harvesting of trees killed by natural disturbances in order to maximize economic returns that would otherwise be lost
:* [[Sanitation harvest]] - removal of individual trees affected by a pathogen in order to diminish the possibility the entire stand being affected
:* [[Biomass harvest]] - harvesting of small wood for energy purposes, either following a commercial harvest or for its own sake, such as in [[energy forestry]]
:* [[Underwater logging]] - harvesting of trees from underwater forests flooded during construction of artificial dams or reservoirs
===Foreststypes===
==Environmental issues==
* [[Deforestation]] - the removal of trees in a forested area without sufficient [[Reforestation|regeneration]], resulting in [[desertification]] in arid areas and loss of [[habitat]] and [[biodiversity]]
* [[Afforestation]] - the process of establishing a forest on previously unforested land, for reasons of timber harvesting, conservation of biodiversity, or [[phytoremediation|soil decontamination]], among many [[File:Koh Kong logging.JPG|thumb|right|Illegal logging in [[Cambodia]].]]
* [[Forest fragmentation]] - occurring when forests are cut down in a manner that leaves relatively small, isolated patches of forest, resulting in high amounts of [[edge effect|edges]] and subsequent loss in [[habitat destruction|wildlife habitat]] and biodiversity
* [[Forest dieback]] - where trees on the periphery of a stand are killed by [[acid rain]] or [[parasitism|parasites]]
* [[Illegal logging]] - the unlawful harvest, transportation, purchase or sale of timber, contributing to deforestation, corruption, and destabilization of international markets
* [[High grading]] - type of selective logging that removes the highest timber quality trees, resulting in poor genetic stock for subsequent generations
* [[Forest transition]] - shift from a period of net forest area loss (deforestation) to a period of net forest area gain (afforestation) for a given region or country
==Resource assessment==
[[Rainforest]]
: ''Main article: [[Forest inventory]] or [[Timber cruise]]''
* '''Timber metrics'''
:* [[Diameter at breast height]] (DBH) - measurement of a tree's girth standardized at 1.3 meters (about 4.5 feet) above the ground
:* [[Basal area]] - defines the area of a given section of land that is occupied by the cross-section of tree trunks and stems at their base
:* [[Tree taper]] - the degree to which a tree's stem or bole decreases in diameter as a function of height above ground
:* [[Girard form class]] - an expression of tree taper calculated as the ratio of diameter inside the bark at 16 feet above ground to the to that outside bark at DBH, primary expression of tree form used in the United States
:* [[Quadratic mean diameter]] - diameter of the tree that coordinates to the stand's basal area
:* [[Leaf Area Index]] - the ratio of total upper leaf surface of the forest canopy divided by the surface area of the land on which the vegetation grows
:* '''Tools'''
::* [[Biltmore stick]] - utilizes ocular trigonometry to quickly measure diameter and height [[File:Height measuring with a stick.png|right|thumb|Figure demonstrating the ocular [[trigonometry|trigonometric principles]] behind the Biltmore stick.]]
::* [[Diameter tape]] - cloth or metal tape that is wrapped around the bole, scaled to diameter
::* [[Caliper]] - two prongs connected to a measuring tape are placed around the most average part of the bole to determine diameter
::* [[Relascope]] - multiple-use tool that is able to find tree height, basal area, and tree diameter anywhere along the bole
::* [[Clinometer (forestry)|Clinometer]] - common tool used to measure changes in elevation and tree height
::* [[Cruising rod]] - similar to a caliper, calculates the number of pieces of lumber yielded by a given piece of timber by measuring its diameter
::* [[Hemispherical photography]] - estimates solar radiation and characterize plant canopy structure/density using photographs taken looking upward through an extreme wide-angle lens
* '''Surveying techniques'''
:* [[Traverse (surveying)|Traversing]] - method of surveying used to establish sampling plots along a line or path of travel[[File:BorderlineTree2.jpg|file|thumb|A wedge prism showing a [[borderline tree]].]]
:* [[Chain (length)|Chain]] - equivalent to 66 feet, widely used distance in surveying practices in the United States and other countries influenced by imperial Great Britain
:* [[Line plot survey]] - plots taken at a regular predetermined distance along the traverse path
:* '''Tools'''
::* [[Pacing (forestry)|Pacing]] - quick method used to survey in the field, requiring calibration of one's "paces" (pair of footsteps) to a known distance (oftentimes a chain)
::* [[Hand compass]] - a compact magnetic compass with a sighting device used to determine the location of plots for a given bearing
::* [[Wedge prism]] - optical instrument typically made of glass ground at slight angles to refract light passing through it from the smaller width side of the prism to the thicker width side of the prism, calibrated to a desired plot size (basal area factor)
::* [[Angle gauge]] - similar in principle to a wedge prism, although it must be held a fixed distance from the eye
::* [[Global Positioning System|GPS]] - global satellite navigation systems used to determine the position of oneself and plots
::* [[Geographic information system|GIS]] - an information system capable of integrating, storing, analyzing, and displaying forest geographic information collected in the field
* '''Volume determination'''
:* [[Site index]] - a species specific measure of site productivity and management options, reported as the height of dominant and co-dominant trees ([[Site tree (forestry)|site tree]]s)in a stand at a base age such as 25, 50 and 100 years [[File:IncrementBorer.jpg|thumb|right|An increment borer with common [[drinking straw]]s, a cost-effective manner often used to hold derived cores.]]
:* [[Stocking (forestry)|Stocking]] - a quantitative measure of the area occupied by trees relative to an optimum or desired level of density
::* [[Stand Density Index]] - a measure of the stocking of a stand of trees based on the number of trees per unit area and DBH of the tree of average basal area
:* [[Volume table]] - a chart based on volume equations that uses correlations between certain aspects of a tree to estimate the standing volume
:* [[Stand density management diagram]] - model that uses current stand density to project future stand composition
* '''Stand growth assessment'''
:* [[Increment borer]] - specialized tool used to extract a section of wood tissue from a living tree with relatively minor injury to the tree, used often for tree growth analysis
:* [[Mean annual increment]] (MAI) - refers to the average growth per year a tree or stand of trees has exhibited at a specific age
:* [[Periodic annual increment]] (PAI) - describes the average annual change in tree diameter between the beginning and ending of a growth period, used more often than MAI for percental growth
:* [[Ecological yield]] -the amount of wood volume in any given year whose harvesting would be considered sustainable
:* [[Growth and yield modelling]] - entails the creation of models of prospective tree growth and harvest yield for management purposes
* '''Economics'''
:* [[Stumpage]] - the price charged by a land owner to loggers for the right to harvest standing timber on that land
:* [[Optimal rotation age]] - the age at which the harvesting of stumpage will generate the maximum revenue or economic yield
==Harvesting==
[[Pulpwood]] - [[Softwood]] - [[Hardwood]]
: ''Main article: [[Logging]]''
===Methods===
* [[Felling (forestry)|Felling]] - process of cutting down a tree [[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-1988-0307-007, Gotha, Seilzug zum Holzrücken.jpg|thumb|right|A cable logging setup in [[Germany]] (1988).]]
* [[Log bucking|Bucking]] - splitting of a felled and delimbed trees into logs
* [[Log scaler|Scaling]] - measurement of felled trees to determine the volume of merchantable wood
* [[Skidding (forestry)|Skidding]] - transportation of logs from the site of felling to the landing along the ground
* [[Forwarding (forestry)|Forwarding]] - transportation of logs from the site of felling to the landing above the ground, usually to minimize soil disturbance but limits the size or amount of logs that can be moved at once
* [[Hauling (forestry)|Hauling]] - long-distance transportation of logs from the landing to their final destination, usually with a semi-truck but occasionally with a train [[File:Harvester cutter.JPG|right|thumb|The boom of a cut-to-length harvester with attached chainsaw cutting ''[[Scots Pine|Pinus sylvestris]]'' in [[Finland]].]]
* [[Woodchipping]] - grinding of logs into chips for engineered wood, mulch, paper, or fuel
* [[Cut-to-length logging]] (CTL) - an expensive but efficient system where trees are felled, delimbed, and bucked to scale directly at the felling site
* [[Cable logging]] - skidding using a wire cable attached to the felled trees, most common in areas with steep topographic relief, variations include
:* [[High lead logging]] - a cable is anchored to a tree at the top of the hill:
:* [[Skyline logging]] - a carriage is used alongside the main cable to provide leverage
* [[Shovel logging]] - transport of multiple logs close to the logging road using a stationary loader, often used to minimize soil disturbance
* [[Heli-logging]] - transport of logs from the forest to the landing via helicopter, most commonly used in inaccessible areas or to minimize impact on the soil
* [[Log driving]] - transportation of individual logs on a waterway to a mill or port downstream [[File:Ponsse Buffalo.jpg|thumb|right|A forwarder loading felled ''[[Norway Spruce|Picea abies]]'' near [[Hedmark]], [[Norway]].]]
* [[Timber rafting]] - transportation downstream of multiple logs bundled together into a raft, considered less dangerous than log driving
===Tools===
* '''Timber felling'''
* Hand
:* [[Axe]] - primitive tool used felling and splitting
:* [[Chainsaw]] - portable mechanized all-purpose saw, the most common tool used in hand-felling [[File:Logging Port Chalmers.jpg|right|thumb|A loader lifting logs onto a semi for hauling in [[Port Chalmers]], within the city of [[Dunedin]], [[New Zealand]].]]
:* [[Crosscut saw]] - saws that have teeth that are designed to cut wood at a right angle to the direction of the wood grain, used for felling and bucking
:* [[Bucksaw]] - a type of crosscut saw used by one or two people to buck felled trees into sawlogs
* Mechanized
:* [[Feller buncher]] - vehicle with an attachment that can rapidly cut and gather several smaller trees before felling them [[File:Gorskii 04417u.jpg|thumb|right|Timber rafts being floated into the city of [[Shlisselburg]], in northwestern [[Russia]] (1909).]]
:* [[Harvester (forestry)|Harvester]] - first half of the CTL system, vehicle that cuts, delimbs, and bucks the logs "to length"
* '''Log transportation'''
* Ground
:* [[Peavey (tool)|Peavey]] - a traditional tool consisting of a wooden lever handle with a movable metal hook with a sharp tip, used to spear the log for handling and moving
:* [[Cant Hook]] - tool with the same premise as the peavey but with blunt teeth-bearing tip
:* [[Yarder]] - in cable logging, a piece of equipment utilizing a pulley system of cables to pull or fly logs from the stump to the landing
:* [[Forwarder]] - second half of the CTL system, the vehicle that carries logs clear off the ground from the felling site to the roadside landing
:* [[Skidder]] - vehicle that drags logs along the ground from the felling site to the roadside landing
::* [[Skid cone]] - a steel or plastic cone placed on the end of a log while being skidded, in order to ease its transportation or protect residual trees
* Water
:* [[Splash dam]] - a dam built to temporarily raise the water level of a river to float timber downstream
:* [[Log flume|Flume]] - chutes specifically constructed to transport lumber and logs down mountainous terrain to a sawmill by using flowing water.
::* [[Timber slide]] - chutes constructed parallel to a river in order to avoid damage to timber rafts caused by rapids or waterfalls
:* [[Log boom|Boom]] - barriers placed in a river, designed to collect and or contain floating logs felled from nearby forests
: ''Main article [[Forest product]], or [[Wood processing]]
[[File:The lumberjack was here.jpg|thumb|right|A harvest landing with [[slash (logging)|slash]]/[[biomass]] on the left, followed by [[pulpwood]] and [[sawlog]]s in [[Espoo]], [[Finland]].]]
===Primary products===
''Main article [[Wood]]''
* [[Lumber]] - or '''timber''', the raw material for the construction of buildings or furniture making
* [[Paper]] - made from [[wood pulp]] derived from the timber stock [[pulpwood]]
''Main article [[Engineered wood]]''
* [[Paperboard]] - a thick packaging material derived from paper, [[cardboard]] is the generic term [[File:OSB production.jpg|thumb|right|Production of [[oriented strand board]].]]
* [[Wood veneer|Veneer]] - thin layers of high-quality wood, often decorative but also the primary product in [[plywood]]
* [[Multilaminar veneer]] - like veneer, but utilizes plantation wood in accordance with the principles of sustainable forest management
* [[Oriented strand board]] - mainly used in [[structural insulated panel]]s, has largely replaced plywood
* [[Fiberboard]] - a cheaper and denser form of plywood, used when cost is considered most important. Oftentimes used as the underlying structure in car [[dashboard]]s
* [[Drywall]] - a [[gypsum]] plaster placed inside two sheets of paper, used commonly as the finishing step in construction of interior walls and ceilings
* [[Wood-plastic composite]] - made from recycled materials, is crack- and split-resistant and used commonly outdoors[[File:European White Birch Firewood.JPG|thumb|right|A stack of ''[[Betula pubescens]]'' firewood in [[Central Ostrobothnia]], [[Finland]].]]
===Secondary products===
{{main|Non-timber forest products}}
*'''Fuel'''
: ''Main article: [[Wood fuel]] and [[Biomass]]''
:* [[Firewood]] - the most unprocessed form of wood fuel, supplies the majority of the [[Developing country|developing world's]] energy needs
:* [[Wood pellet|Pellets]] - a byproduct from [[sawmill]]ing, is formed from compacted [[sawdust]], easy to transport and has a high combustion efficiency [[File:Quercus suber aka cork oak modified.jpg|thumb|right|The distinctive bark of ''[[Quercus suber]]'', from which natural [[Cork (material)|cork]] is derived.]]
:* [[Cellulosic ethanol]] and [[Biomethanol]] - [[second generation biofuels]] that are a potential replacement for [[gasoline]]
:* [[Charcoal]] - derived from tar, is used extensively in cooking, industry, and water purification, among others
:* [[Black liquor]] - a byproduct from pulp production, can be gasified and used as a [[syngas]]
*'''Byproducts'''
:* [[Cork (material)|Cork]] - used to stop [[wine bottles]] and as the core in [[baseball bat]]s
:* [[Tar]] - mainly used as a sealant for [[shingle]]s and [[Hull (watercraft)|watercraft hulls]]
:* [[Turpentine]] - derived from tar, historically used extensively to thin oil-based paints and a protective [[furniture wax]]
:* [[Natural rubber|Rubber]] - wide range of commercial and industrial uses, [[tires]] and [[Tire#Inner_tube|tubes]] are the largest consumer uses
:* [[Creosote]] - historically been used as a [[disinfectant]], [[laxative]], and to [[Cough medicine|treat coughs]]
:* [[Tall oil]] - a cheap alternative for use in [[soap]]s, [[lubricant]]s, and [[drilling fluid]]
*'''Ecosystem services'''
:''Main: [[Ecosystem services]]''
:* [[Carbon sequestration]] - a technique for long-term storage of carbon to [[Mitigation of global warming|combat global warming]]
:* [[Water purification]] - [[riparian forest]]s act as [[biofilter]]s to capture and biologically degrade pollutants
:* [[Outdoor recreation]] - provides the natural infrastructure needed for [[ecotourism]]
:* [[Land rehabilitation]] - the restoration of degraded land to its former state, largely accomplished through [[phytoremediation]]
== Leaders in forestry ==
== Leaders in forestry ==
* [[Georg Ludwig Hartig]] (1764-1837) - a prominent forest manager, author, and founder of many forestry universities in Germany, including one at the [[University of Berlin]]
* [[Bernhard Fernow]] (1851-1923) - considered the "Father of American Forestry", laid the groundwork for the [[United States Forest Service]]
* [[Gifford Pinchot]] (1865-1946) - first chief of the United States Forest Service and proponent of the [[Wise use|Wise Use Movement]]
* [[Carl A. Schenck]] (1868-1955) - incorporated German scientific management techniques into American forest management, in addition to founding the first forestry school in the United States, the [[Biltmore Forest School]]
* [[Károly Bund]] (1869-1931) - an early academic and practical forester whose work in the Hungarian National Forestry Association increased treeplanting and intensified efforts to protect natural forests, indigenous tree species, and forestry workers in [[Austria–Hungary]]
* [[Aldo Leopold]] (1887-1948) - cofounder of [[The Wilderness Society (United States)|The Wilderness Society]] along with Robert Marshall (''below''), prominent naturalist writer and environmental ethicist
* [[Bob Marshall (wilderness activist)|Robert Marshall]] (1901-1939) - cofounder of The Wilderness Society, which helped pass the [[Wilderness Act]], which created the first legal definition of wilderness and conserved some 9.1 million acres of national forest land in the United States
* [[Walter Bitterlich]] (1908-2008) - world-renowned Austrian scientist, best known for the invention of [[variable plot sampling]]
* [[Sakari Pinomäki]] (?) - pioneer of mechanized forest harvesting vehicles, decreasing the time required for harvesting and risk to loggers
* [[Stephen C. Sillett]] (1968- ) - revolutionized the approach and methodology of studying plant and animal life in old growth canopies of large trees
==Forestry lists==
* [[List of forestry universities and colleges]] - institutions worldwide leading to a degree in forestry
== Branches of forestry ==
* [[List of woods]] - commonly used in the timber and lumber trade
* [[List of shade-tolerant species]] - tree grouped by [[shade tolerance]], a determinant in [[Ecological succession|successional status]]
== Allied sciences ==
== Allied sciences ==
* [[Ecology]] - whose principles are the main scientific basis of forestry [[File:PinusSylvestrisWoodsamle.jpg|thumb|right|Increment borer cores of ''[[Pinus sylvestris]]'', whose varying rates of annual tree growth are in response to external environmental conditions.]]
* [[Conservation biology]] - conscientious management of forests can preserve or enhance biodiversity of dependent species
* [[Botany]] - study of plant life and development that explains the biological basis of trees, such as structure, growth, reproduction, metabolism, response to disease, and chemical properties
== Forestry lists ==
* [[Soil science]] - physical, chemical, and biological properties of soil greatly determines the success of tree species and individuals
: ''Main article: [[List of forestry topics]]''
* [[Ecophysiology]] - the study of an organism's physiology to environmental conditions that explains the success of a particular tree species' growth, reproduction, survival, and abundance
* [[Wood processing]]
* [[Dendrochronology]] - method of scientific dating based on the analyses of tree-ring growth patterns, analysis of long-lived individual trees can provide insight into climatic conditions of the past
* [[Pulp and paper industry]]
* [[Pulp and paper industry in Canada]]
* [[Pulp and paper industry in Europe]]
* [[Pulp and paper industry in Japan]]
* [[Pulp and paper industry in the United States]]
== See also ==
== External links ==
== External links ==
{{portalpar|Forestry}}
{{portalpar|Forestry}}
{{sisterlinks|Forestry}}
{{sisterlinks|Forestry}}
*[http://www.fao.org/docrep/011/i0350e/i0350e00.HTM State of the World's Forests (SOFO)] - a report issued by the [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] of the [[United Nations]] on forest and forestry trends worldwide, last published in 2009
*[http://www.forestryimages.org Forestry Images]
*[http://bookstore.cfs.nrcan.gc.ca/ An online bookstore of free Canadian Forestry publications]
*[http://bookstore.cfs.nrcan.gc.ca/ An online bookstore of free Canadian Forestry publications]
*[http://ec.europa.eu/comm/agriculture/fore/index_en.htm EU forestry strategy].
*[http://ec.europa.eu/comm/agriculture/fore/index_en.htm EU forestry strategy].
*[http://www.euractiv.com/en/sustainability/eu-forest-action-plan/article-156911 EU forestry strategy - links to stakeholder positions].(EurActiv)
*[http://www.euractiv.com/en/sustainability/eu-forest-action-plan/article-156911 EU forestry strategy - links to stakeholder positions].(EurActiv)
*[http://www.forestry.ubc.ca UBC Forestry]
*[http://www.iufro.org/ International Union of Forest Research Organizations]
Deforestation during the Roman period - increased population growth and urbanization gave way to technological advancements that led to widespread deforestation
Branches of forestry
Dendrology - involves the study and identification of economically useful tree species
Forest ecology - studies the patterns and processes of a forest ecosystem
Silviculture - is the art and science of controlling the establishment, growth, composition, health, and quality of forests to meet specific objectives
Forest management - comprises of the overall administrative, economic, legal, and social aspects of forest regulation
* Ecoforestry - emphasizes practices which strive to protect and restore ecosystems rather than maximize economic productivity
* Sustainable forest management - emphasizes practices that maintain forest biodiversity, productivity, regeneration capacity, and vitality, while continuing to fulfill relevant ecological, economic and social functions
Forest mensuration - incorporates quantitative measurements of the forest stand to determine stand timber volume and productivity/health, and provides a basis off which management decisions can be made
Forest hydrology - embodies the effects of changes in forest land use on the movement, distribution, and quality of water in the ecosystem
Agroforestry - integration of forests into agricultural systems in order to optimize the production and positive effects within the system and minimize negative side effects of farming
Forest pathology - research of both biotic and abiotic maladies affecting the health of the forest or tree, primarily fungal pathogens and their insect vectors
Forest economics - studies the impact of economics on forest management decisions
Urban forestry - entails the care and management of urban tree populations for the purpose of improving the urban environment
Energy forestry - includes specifically managing for the production of energy from biomass or biofuel derived from a fast-growing species of tree or woody shrub
Occupations in forestry
Forester - professional chiefly responsible for the management of forests, requires a Bachelor of Science degree in most countries Two USFS foresters discussing firefighting tactics.
Forest technician - individual primarily responsible for the marking of timber sales and on-ground land management, oftentimes requires a two-year Associate of Science degree
Lumberjack - the typical feller of trees and harvester of the lumber, duties can also include:
Log scaling - measurement of felled trees to determine the volume of wood going to the manufacturer
Log bucking - delimbing and partitioning of trees into logs
Log driving - transportation of logs on a river or lake downstream to the mill
Arborist - professional responsible for the maintainence of individual trees in an urban forest
Resin extractor - laborer who extracts resin from pine trees
Rubber tapper - laborer who extracts natural rubber from tropical rubber trees
Fire lookout - person assigned to spot for fires/smoke atop a fire lookout tower
Hotshot crew/Handcrew - a group of wildland firefighters specialized in fire supression tactics
Smokejumper - firefighters who parachute into remote areas to fight wildland fires
Analog forestry - a management focus that seeks to establish a tree-dominated ecosystem that is similar in architectural structure and ecological function to the naturally occurring climax and sub-climax vegetation community
Short rotation forestry - managing a forest that utilizes fast-growing species as a bio-based energy crop for use in power stations, alone or in combination with other fuels such as coal
Clearcutting - harvesting of all stems in a given area regardless of species and size
Coppicing - cutting vigorous juvenile trees near the ground, regeneration comes from new shoots coming up from the stump
Seed-tree - cutting of all trees save widely spaced residual trees, which will provide natural seedstock for the following generation and are later cut
Uneven-aged management
Selection - harvesting of selected trees in a stand, removing either merchantable timber or to favor the growth of desirable individuals (a thinning)
Shelterwood - removal of merchantable trees in succession, establishing a multiaged stand
Variable retention - removal of trees of varying density across a landscape, in order to retain structural diversity
Other
Salvage logging - harvesting of trees killed by natural disturbances in order to maximize economic returns that would otherwise be lost
Sanitation harvest - removal of individual trees affected by a pathogen in order to diminish the possibility the entire stand being affected
Biomass harvest - harvesting of small wood for energy purposes, either following a commercial harvest or for its own sake, such as in energy forestry
Underwater logging - harvesting of trees from underwater forests flooded during construction of artificial dams or reservoirs
Afforestation - the process of establishing a forest on previously unforested land, for reasons of timber harvesting, conservation of biodiversity, or soil decontamination, among many Illegal logging in Cambodia.
Forest fragmentation - occurring when forests are cut down in a manner that leaves relatively small, isolated patches of forest, resulting in high amounts of edges and subsequent loss in wildlife habitat and biodiversity
Illegal logging - the unlawful harvest, transportation, purchase or sale of timber, contributing to deforestation, corruption, and destabilization of international markets
High grading - type of selective logging that removes the highest timber quality trees, resulting in poor genetic stock for subsequent generations
Forest transition - shift from a period of net forest area loss (deforestation) to a period of net forest area gain (afforestation) for a given region or country
Diameter at breast height (DBH) - measurement of a tree's girth standardized at 1.3 meters (about 4.5 feet) above the ground
Basal area - defines the area of a given section of land that is occupied by the cross-section of tree trunks and stems at their base
Tree taper - the degree to which a tree's stem or bole decreases in diameter as a function of height above ground
Girard form class - an expression of tree taper calculated as the ratio of diameter inside the bark at 16 feet above ground to the to that outside bark at DBH, primary expression of tree form used in the United States
Leaf Area Index - the ratio of total upper leaf surface of the forest canopy divided by the surface area of the land on which the vegetation grows
Tools
Biltmore stick - utilizes ocular trigonometry to quickly measure diameter and height Figure demonstrating the ocular trigonometric principles behind the Biltmore stick.
Diameter tape - cloth or metal tape that is wrapped around the bole, scaled to diameter
Caliper - two prongs connected to a measuring tape are placed around the most average part of the bole to determine diameter
Relascope - multiple-use tool that is able to find tree height, basal area, and tree diameter anywhere along the bole
Clinometer - common tool used to measure changes in elevation and tree height
Cruising rod - similar to a caliper, calculates the number of pieces of lumber yielded by a given piece of timber by measuring its diameter
Hemispherical photography - estimates solar radiation and characterize plant canopy structure/density using photographs taken looking upward through an extreme wide-angle lens
Chain - equivalent to 66 feet, widely used distance in surveying practices in the United States and other countries influenced by imperial Great Britain
Line plot survey - plots taken at a regular predetermined distance along the traverse path
Tools
Pacing - quick method used to survey in the field, requiring calibration of one's "paces" (pair of footsteps) to a known distance (oftentimes a chain)
Hand compass - a compact magnetic compass with a sighting device used to determine the location of plots for a given bearing
Wedge prism - optical instrument typically made of glass ground at slight angles to refract light passing through it from the smaller width side of the prism to the thicker width side of the prism, calibrated to a desired plot size (basal area factor)
Angle gauge - similar in principle to a wedge prism, although it must be held a fixed distance from the eye
GPS - global satellite navigation systems used to determine the position of oneself and plots
GIS - an information system capable of integrating, storing, analyzing, and displaying forest geographic information collected in the field
Volume determination
Site index - a species specific measure of site productivity and management options, reported as the height of dominant and co-dominant trees (site trees)in a stand at a base age such as 25, 50 and 100 years An increment borer with common drinking straws, a cost-effective manner often used to hold derived cores.
Stocking - a quantitative measure of the area occupied by trees relative to an optimum or desired level of density
Stand Density Index - a measure of the stocking of a stand of trees based on the number of trees per unit area and DBH of the tree of average basal area
Volume table - a chart based on volume equations that uses correlations between certain aspects of a tree to estimate the standing volume
Increment borer - specialized tool used to extract a section of wood tissue from a living tree with relatively minor injury to the tree, used often for tree growth analysis
Mean annual increment (MAI) - refers to the average growth per year a tree or stand of trees has exhibited at a specific age
Periodic annual increment (PAI) - describes the average annual change in tree diameter between the beginning and ending of a growth period, used more often than MAI for percental growth
Ecological yield -the amount of wood volume in any given year whose harvesting would be considered sustainable
Growth and yield modelling - entails the creation of models of prospective tree growth and harvest yield for management purposes
Wirtschaft
Stumpage - the price charged by a land owner to loggers for the right to harvest standing timber on that land
Optimal rotation age - the age at which the harvesting of stumpage will generate the maximum revenue or economic yield
Felling - process of cutting down a tree A cable logging setup in Germany (1988).
Bucking - splitting of a felled and delimbed trees into logs
Scaling - measurement of felled trees to determine the volume of merchantable wood
Skidding - transportation of logs from the site of felling to the landing along the ground
Forwarding - transportation of logs from the site of felling to the landing above the ground, usually to minimize soil disturbance but limits the size or amount of logs that can be moved at once
Hauling - long-distance transportation of logs from the landing to their final destination, usually with a semi-truck but occasionally with a train The boom of a cut-to-length harvester with attached chainsaw cutting Pinus sylvestris in Finland.
Woodchipping - grinding of logs into chips for engineered wood, mulch, paper, or fuel
Cut-to-length logging (CTL) - an expensive but efficient system where trees are felled, delimbed, and bucked to scale directly at the felling site
Cable logging - skidding using a wire cable attached to the felled trees, most common in areas with steep topographic relief, variations include
High lead logging - a cable is anchored to a tree at the top of the hill:
Skyline logging - a carriage is used alongside the main cable to provide leverage
Shovel logging - transport of multiple logs close to the logging road using a stationary loader, often used to minimize soil disturbance
Heli-logging - transport of logs from the forest to the landing via helicopter, most commonly used in inaccessible areas or to minimize impact on the soil
Log driving - transportation of individual logs on a waterway to a mill or port downstream A forwarder loading felled Picea abies near Hedmark, Norway.
Timber rafting - transportation downstream of multiple logs bundled together into a raft, considered less dangerous than log driving
Chainsaw - portable mechanized all-purpose saw, the most common tool used in hand-felling A loader lifting logs onto a semi for hauling in Port Chalmers, within the city of Dunedin, New Zealand.
Crosscut saw - saws that have teeth that are designed to cut wood at a right angle to the direction of the wood grain, used for felling and bucking
Bucksaw - a type of crosscut saw used by one or two people to buck felled trees into sawlogs
Mechanized
Feller buncher - vehicle with an attachment that can rapidly cut and gather several smaller trees before felling them Timber rafts being floated into the city of Shlisselburg, in northwestern Russia (1909).
Harvester - first half of the CTL system, vehicle that cuts, delimbs, and bucks the logs "to length"
Log transportation
Ground
Peavey - a traditional tool consisting of a wooden lever handle with a movable metal hook with a sharp tip, used to spear the log for handling and moving
Cant Hook - tool with the same premise as the peavey but with blunt teeth-bearing tip
Yarder - in cable logging, a piece of equipment utilizing a pulley system of cables to pull or fly logs from the stump to the landing
Forwarder - second half of the CTL system, the vehicle that carries logs clear off the ground from the felling site to the roadside landing
Skidder - vehicle that drags logs along the ground from the felling site to the roadside landing
Skid cone - a steel or plastic cone placed on the end of a log while being skidded, in order to ease its transportation or protect residual trees
Water
Splash dam - a dam built to temporarily raise the water level of a river to float timber downstream
Flume - chutes specifically constructed to transport lumber and logs down mountainous terrain to a sawmill by using flowing water.
Timber slide - chutes constructed parallel to a river in order to avoid damage to timber rafts caused by rapids or waterfalls
Boom - barriers placed in a river, designed to collect and or contain floating logs felled from nearby forests
Fiberboard - a cheaper and denser form of plywood, used when cost is considered most important. Oftentimes used as the underlying structure in car dashboards
Drywall - a gypsum plaster placed inside two sheets of paper, used commonly as the finishing step in construction of interior walls and ceilings
Firewood - the most unprocessed form of wood fuel, supplies the majority of the developing world's energy needs
Pellets - a byproduct from sawmilling, is formed from compacted sawdust, easy to transport and has a high combustion efficiency The distinctive bark of Quercus suber, from which natural cork is derived.
Georg Ludwig Hartig (1764-1837) - a prominent forest manager, author, and founder of many forestry universities in Germany, including one at the University of Berlin
Carl A. Schenck (1868-1955) - incorporated German scientific management techniques into American forest management, in addition to founding the first forestry school in the United States, the Biltmore Forest School
Károly Bund (1869-1931) - an early academic and practical forester whose work in the Hungarian National Forestry Association increased treeplanting and intensified efforts to protect natural forests, indigenous tree species, and forestry workers in Austria–Hungary
Aldo Leopold (1887-1948) - cofounder of The Wilderness Society along with Robert Marshall (below), prominent naturalist writer and environmental ethicist
Robert Marshall (1901-1939) - cofounder of The Wilderness Society, which helped pass the Wilderness Act, which created the first legal definition of wilderness and conserved some 9.1 million acres of national forest land in the United States
Ecology - whose principles are the main scientific basis of forestry Increment borer cores of Pinus sylvestris, whose varying rates of annual tree growth are in response to external environmental conditions.
Conservation biology - conscientious management of forests can preserve or enhance biodiversity of dependent species
Botany - study of plant life and development that explains the biological basis of trees, such as structure, growth, reproduction, metabolism, response to disease, and chemical properties
Soil science - physical, chemical, and biological properties of soil greatly determines the success of tree species and individuals
Ecophysiology - the study of an organism's physiology to environmental conditions that explains the success of a particular tree species' growth, reproduction, survival, and abundance
Dendrochronology - method of scientific dating based on the analyses of tree-ring growth patterns, analysis of long-lived individual trees can provide insight into climatic conditions of the past