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Many Vlachs in mediaeval times were shepherds who drove their sheep through the mountains of south-eastern Europe. The Vlach shepherds reached as far as southern Poland and [[Moravia]] in the north by following the Carpathian range, the [[Dinaric Alps]] in the west, the [[Pindus]] mountains in the south, and the [[Caucasus Mountains]] in the east.<ref>Silviu Dragomir: "Vlahii din nordul peninsulei Balcanice în evul mediu"; 1959, p. 172;</ref>
Many Vlachs in mediaeval times were shepherds who drove their sheep through the mountains of south-eastern Europe. The Vlach shepherds reached as far as southern Poland and [[Moravia]] in the north by following the Carpathian range, the [[Dinaric Alps]] in the west, the [[Pindus]] mountains in the south, and the [[Caucasus Mountains]] in the east.<ref>Silviu Dragomir: "Vlahii din nordul peninsulei Balcanice în evul mediu"; 1959, p. 172;</ref>


In many of these areas, the descendants of the Vlachs have lost their language, but their legacy still exists in cultural influences, customs, folklore, the way of life of the mountain people and in the place names of Romanian or Aromanian origin that are spread throughout the region.
In many of these areas, the descendants of the Vlachs have lost their language, but their legacy still exists in cultural influences, customs, folklore, the way of life of the mountain people and in the place names of Romanian or Aromanian origin that are spread throughout the region. However, there are no place names of Romanian origin in Transylvania.<ref>Ildikó Lipcsey, Sabin Gherman, Adrian Severin, Romania and Transylvania in the 20th Century, Corvinus Pub., 2008, p. 18, ISBN 9781882785155</ref>


Another part of the Vlachs, especially those in the northern parts, in Romania and Moldova, were traditional farmers growing cereal crops. Linguists believe that the large vocabulary of Latin words related to agriculture shows that they have always been a farming Vlach population. Cultural links between the Northern Vlachs (Romanians) and Southern Vlachs (Aromanians) were broken by the 10th century, and since then there were different cultural influences:{{citation needed|date=February 2013}}
Another part of the Vlachs, especially those in the northern parts, in Romania and Moldova, were traditional farmers growing cereal crops. Linguists believe that the large vocabulary of Latin words related to agriculture shows that they have always been a farming Vlach population. Cultural links between the Northern Vlachs (Romanians) and Southern Vlachs (Aromanians) were broken by the 10th century, and since then there were different cultural influences:{{citation needed|date=February 2013}}

Revision as of 19:41, 11 January 2014

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Map of Balkans with regions significantly inhabited by Vlachs/Romanians highlighted

Vlach (/ˈvlɑːk/ or /ˈvlæk/) is a blanket term covering several modern Latin peoples descending from the Latinised population in Central, Eastern and Southeast Europe[citation needed]. English variations of the name include Wallachians, Walla, Wlachs, Wallachs, Vlahs, Olahs or Ulahs. Groups that have historically been called Vlachs include modern-day Romanians, Aromanians, Morlachs, Megleno-Romanians and Istro-Romanians. Since the creation of the Romanian state, the term in English has mostly been used for those living outside Romania.

The Vlachs did not become easily identifiable before the High Middle Ages by George Kedrenos in the 11th century, and their prehistory during the Migration period is considered by some historians a matter of scholarly speculation[1] but according to some linguists and scholars, the existence of the present Eastern Romance languages proves the survival of the Thraco-Romans in the Lower Danube basin during the Age of Migrations,[2] while populations from the western Balkans historically referred to as "Vlachs" (e.g. speakers of the extinct Dalmatian language) could have also had Romanized Illyrian origins.[3]

The term Vlach always was an exonym.[citation needed] All the Vlach groups used words derived from romanus to refer to themselves,[citation needed] such as Români, Rumâni, Rumâri, Aromâni, and Arumâni. The Istro-Romanians also have adopted the names Vlaşi, but still use Rumâni and Rumâri to refer to themselves. The Vlach languages, also called the Eastern Romance languages, have a common origin from the Proto-Romanian language. Over time, the Vlachs split into various Vlach groups and mixed with neighbouring populations of South Slavs, Greeks, Albanians, and others.

Almost all modern nations in central and south-eastern Europe, e.g. Hungary, Ukraine, Serbia, Croatia, Macedonia, Albania, Greece and Bulgaria have native Vlach or Romanian minorities. In other countries, the native Vlach population has been more or less assimilated into the Slavic population. Only in Romania and Moldova have Romanian ethnic majorities today.

Etymology

Further information: Walhaz

The word Vlach is ultimately of Germanic origin, from the word Walha, "foreigner", "stranger", a name used by ancient Germanic peoples to refer to Romance-speaking and (Romanized) Celtic neighbours. In turn, Walha may have been derived from the name of a Celtic tribe which was known to the Romans as Volcae in the writings of Julius Caesar and to the Greeks as Ouólkai in texts by Strabo and Ptolemy.[4] As such, the term Vlach shares its history with several European ethnic names, including the Welsh and Walloons.[5]

From the Germanic peoples, the term passed to the Slavs and from these in turn to other peoples, such as the Hungarians ("oláh", referring to Vlachs, more specifically Romanians, "olasz", referring to Italians) and Byzantines ("Βλάχοι", "Vláhi"), and was used for all Latin people of the Balkans.[6] The Polish word for "Italian", Włoch (plural Włosi), has the same origin, as does the Slovenian, vaguely derogatory word "lach", also for Italians. The Italian-speaking region lying south of South Tyrol, now part of Italy with the name "Trentino", was known as Welsch tirol in the Austro-Hungarian Empire.[citation needed]

Word usage

Γάλα Βλάχας (Gála Vláhas) – 'Shepherdess' Milk' – is a well-known brand in Greece
Sprache Form Meaning
Albanian Vllah (Vllah/Vllehët) Vlach
Albanian Coban (Choban/Choban) Shepherd / Use to live mainly from tending and rearing sheep
Arabic الأولاق/ (al-Awlâq/al-Awlâk) Direct Arabisation of Vlach sing. Al-Awlaqi
Greek Βλάχοι (Vlákhi/Vláhi) Shepherd (occasionally pejorative)/Romanian/Vlach[citation needed]
Bulgarian влах Romanian/Vlach
Bulgarian влах man from Wallachia
Czech Valach man from Wallachia
Czech Valach man from Valašsko (in Moravia)
Czech valach shepherd
Czech valach gelding (horse)
Czech valach lazy man
Czech Vlach Italian
Hungarian vlach/blach Vlach/Blach
Hungarian oláh Romanian/Vlach
Hungarian olasz Italian
Macedonian влав cattle breeder, shepherd
Polish Włoch Italian
Polish Włochy Italien
Polish Wołoch Romanian / Vlach
Old Russian волохъ man speaking a Romance language
Russian валах Vlach
Serbian влав, Влах, Vlah Vlach
Serbian Влах, Vlah man from Wallachia
Serbian (Užice dialect) Вла(х), Старовла(х) medieval nomadic people from Stari Vlah and Mala Vlaška
Croatian Vlah Istro-Romanian
Croatian (Dubrovnik dialect) Vlah man from Herzegovina (pejorative)[citation needed]
Croatian (western dialects) Vlah Italian (pejorative)[citation needed]
Croatian влах, vlah medieval nomadic cattle breeder
Croatian (dialects of Istria) vlah new settler (pejorative)[citation needed]
Croatian (Dalmatian dialects) vlah (vlaj) plebeian (pejorative)[citation needed]
Croatian (Dalmatian insular dialects) vlah man from the mainland (pejorative)[citation needed]
Croatian (western and northern dialects) vlah (vlaj) Orthodox Christian, usually Serb (pejorative)[7]
Bosnian vlah, влах non-Muslim living in Bosnia, usually Serb (pejorative)[citation needed]
Bosnian vlah Catholic (pejorative)[citation needed]
Slovak Valach man from Wallachia
Slovak Valach man from Valašsko (in Moravia)
Slovak valach shepherd
Slovak valach gelding (horse)
Slovak Vlach Italian
Slovene Lah Italian (pejorative)[citation needed]
Turkish Ulah Vlach
Western Slovenian dialects Lah Friulian
Ukrainian волох Romanian / Vlach, in Roman period local Ostrogoths denoted Celts by this name

Spanish Valacos Vlach

Usage as autonym

The term was originally an exonym, as the Vlachs used various words derived from romanus to refer to themselves (români, rumâni, rumâri, aromâni, arumâni, armâni, etc.), but there are some exceptions:

  • the Aromanians of Greece, almost always use "Βλάχοι" (Vlachoi) rather than "Αρμάνοι" (Armanoi) in Greek-language contexts; in at least some communities (such as Livadhi Olympou), "vlachi" has completely replaced any "romanus"-based ethnonym (likewise for designation of the language), even when speaking in Vlach.[citation needed]
  • the Megleno-Romanians use exclusively the word Vlach (Vlashi) for auto-designation. The loss of the name derived from Romanus most likely concluded in the early 19th century.[citation needed]

History

See also: History of Romania, Origin of the Romanians, and History of Aromanians
Writ issued on 14 October 1465 by the Wallachian voivode Radu cel Frumos, from his residence in Bucharest.
The Jireček line between Latin- and Greek-language Roman inscriptions

The first record of a Balkan Romanic presence in the Byzantine period can be found in the writings of Procopius, in the 5th century, which mention forts with names such as Skeptekasas (Seven Houses), Burgulatu (Broad City), Loupofantana (Wolf's Well) and Gemellomountes (Twin Mountains). A Byzantine chronicle of 586 about an incursion against the Avars in the eastern Balkans may contain one of the earliest references to Vlachs. The account states that when the baggage carried by a mule slipped, the muleteer shouted, "Torna, torna, fratre!" ("Return, return, brother!"). However the account might just be a recording of one of the last appearances of Vulgar Latin.[citation needed] Florin Curta argued in his book that the Antes and Sclavenes could understand Latin.[8]

A Byzantine emperor, Mauricius wrote in a work about military art, "Strategikon", at the beginning of the 7th century, about the Romans (Vlachs) in Northern Danube; the local Romans offered themself to be guides for Byzantine army[9][10]

The Emperor Justinian I, during whose reign Procopius was writing, was a native Latin speaker and lamented the loss of Latin speech to Greek in his realm. He tried to reestablish the position of the Latin language with the legal compendia he ordered compiled; soon he was frustrated because they proved linguistically inaccessible to judges and lawyers alike, and grudgingly had his Novellae reissued in Greek.[citation needed]

The Song of the Nibelungs, is an epic German poem which includes oral traditions and reports based on historic events and individuals of the 5th and 6th centuries. The poem tells about a Vlach dux and his 700 men who came to Attila court[11]

Blachernae, the suburb of Constantinople, was named after a certain Duke from Scythia named "Blachernos". His name may be linked with the name "Blachs" (Vlachs).[citation needed]

The Armenian writer Moses Chorens, wrote in his book Geography, in the 7th century, about the Balak country. Initially, Chorens was wrongly considered by some Armenians as a 5th-century writer.

Gardîzî, a Persian Muslim geographer and historian of the early 11th century described a territory and people between Magyars, South Slavs and Kievean Slavs (near mountains and Danube) ; the people, called V.n.nd.r is Christian and depending on Roman Empire (Rum). The identification is still disputed[12]

Constantinus Porphyrogenitus (912-959), wrote in "De administrando imperio" about the presence of Roman descendants (Latin speakers) in Dacian territories during his life.[13] It was the last Byzantine historian who used the name Romans for Dacian inhabitants. Next Byzantine historians will use the German origin name Vlachs for Latin speakers and especially for Romanians.[14]

The name Blökumenn ( in connection with Vlachs) is mentioned in a Nordic Saga, in the context of some events taking place in 1018 or 1019[15][16]

Benjamin of Tudela (Kingdom of Navarre, 1130 – 1173) was a medieval traveler who visited Europe, Asia, and Africa in the 12th century and used between the first writers, the name Vlachs.[14]

Mutahhar al-Maqdisi was an outstanding representative of the 10th-century Arab historiography. In his Arab chronicle one can find the following statement:“they say that in the Turks’ neighbourhood there are the Khazars,Russians, Slavs, Waladj, Alans, Greeks and many other peoples.”[17]

The Pechenegs were engaged in the disputes for the Kievan throne, beginning with 1015, when prince Vladimir died.[18]

According to an old Slavonic chronicle, the Pechenegs fought against Magyars in 1068 at Cserhalom (Chiraleş), in Transilvania.[19][20][21]

Kekaumenos was a Byzantine author of the Strategikon, a manual on military and household affairs composed about 1078; he described the Southern Vlachs and their history including a Vlach revolt in Northern Greece in 1066[22]

Anna Komnenos wrote in the Alexiadis about an expedition (1087) of the Scythians, Sarmatians and Dacians, at the North of the Danube. Dacians was the term used by Anna instead of Vlachs. Some historians misiterpreted the term considering Dacians as Magyars.[23]

Nestor the chronicler (1056 – 1140), the author of the Primary Chronicle wrote about the battles of vlachs and slavs against invader Magyars in Transylvania[24]

In the late 9th century, the Hungarians invaded the Carpathian and Panonian basin, where, according to the Gesta Hungarorum written around 1200 by the anonymous chancellor of King Bela III of Hungary, the province of Pannonia was inhabited by Slavs, Bulgars, Vlachs, and pastores Romanorum (shepherds of the Romans) (in original: sclauij, Bulgarij et Blachij, ac pastores romanorum). Between the 12th and 14th centuries they came under the Kingdom of Hungary, the Byzantine Empire and the Golden Horde.[25]

Joannes Kinnamos was a Greek historian and imperial secretary ("grammatikos"), of Emperor Manuel I (1143–1180). He described a military Bysantine expedition in Northern Danube (led by Leon Vatatzes) and the participation of local Vlachs in battles against Magyars in 1166[26][27]

In 1185, two noble brothers from Tarnovo named Peter and Asen (some historians claim they were Vlachs according to documents, while other historians put forward different origins) led a Vlach and Bulgarian rebellion against Byzantine Greek rule and declared Peter II (also known as Theodore Peter) as king of the reborn state. The following year, the Byzantines were forced to recognize Bulgaria's independence and the Second Bulgarian Empire was established.[citation needed]

According to Spinei the Bolokhoveni or Bolohoveni were Vlachs from Northern Moldova, mentioned under the year 1150 by the Hypatian Chronicle in connection with battles against Slavs,[28][dubious – discuss]

In 1213, a joint army composed by Romanians (Vlachs), Saxons and Pechenegs led by Ioachim from Sibiu, attacked the Bulgars and Cumans from Vidin. From this date, all battles of Hungarian kingdom in Carpathian area were supported by Romanians from Transilvania[29]

Simon de Keza, wrote at the end of 13th century (during Vladislav the Cuman) about Roman origin of "blacki" and placed their presence in Panonia starting from Hun's empire[30][31]

Archaeological discoveries in Transylvania show that Transylvania was gradually occupied by Magyars and the last standing region defended by Vlachs and Pechenegs (until 1200) was between Olt river and Carpathes[32][33] Shortly after the fall of Olt line, a Catholic church started to be constructed at Cârța and catholic emigrants (Saxons) were brought to balance the local Orthodox population[34] Diploma Andreatum issued by Andrew II of Hungary in 1224 shows that silva blacorum et bissenorum was granted to emigrants[35]

Vlachs (Wołosi in Polish) have spread along Carpathian ridge to former Poland, Slovacia and even as far as to Moravia. Vlachs were granted with autonomy under the Ius Vlachonicum (Walachian Law, Prawo Wołoskie)and professed Orthodox faith[36]

In 1285, Vladislav IV the Cuman battled with Tatars and Cumans and arrived with his troops (made of orthodox Vlachs from Transylvania) until Moldova river. Shortly after this, a town named Baia was constructed (attested in 1300) by emigrant Saxons near Moldova river. This starting date for Moldova state was correctly interpreted by a lot of historians [37][38]

In 1290 Vladislav the Cuman who protected the Cumans, Pechenegs and Orthodox believers was assassinated and a new Magyar king with other preferencies forced some leaders (including Negru Vodă) from the space between Olt and Carpathes to move over Carpathes and to contribute to the formation of Valachia[39]

Menschen

File:Valaques-Vlachs.jpg
Branches of Vlachs/Romanians and their territories

The Eastern Romance languages, sometimes known as the Vlach languages, are a group of Romance languages that developed in south-eastern Europe from the local eastern variant of Vulgar Latin. There is no official data from Balkan countries such as Greece, Bulgaria, Albania and Serbia.[citation needed]

  • Daco-Romanians (Romanians proper) about 23,623,890,[40] speaking the Romanian language (Daco-Romanian), known by that name due to their location in the territory of ancient Dacia, who live in:
    • Romania – 16,869,816 (2011 Census)
    • Moldova – 2,815,000 (2004 Census)
    • Ukraine – 409,600; in southern Bessarabia northern Bukovina and between Dniester and Bug rivers (2001 Census)
    • Serbia – 35,330 (2011 census)[41]
    • Hungary – 7,995 (2001 Census)
    • Bulgaria – 3,584 persons counted as Vlachs (may include Aromanians) and 891 as Romanians in 2011.[42]
  • Aromanians up to 500,000 (about 250,000 speakers of Aromanian)[43] live in:
    • Greece – 50,000,[44] mainly in the Pindus Mountains (Greece, like France, does not recognise any ethnic divisions, so there are no statistics kept and the Aromanians of Greece self-identify as Greeks and are accepted as such by the other Greeks. See Demographics of Greece)
    • Albania – 100,000-to-200,000 [45][46]
    • Romania – 26,500 [47]
    • Macedonia – 20,000 [48]

Territories with Vlach population

The evolution of the Eastern Romance languages through the ages.
The territories of the Bolohoveni.
The territories of the Bolohoveni according to V.A. Boldur.

Besides the separation of some groups of Aromanians and Megleno-Romanians during the Age of Migration, many other Vlachs could be found all over the Balkans, as far north as Poland and as far west as Moravia (part of the modern Czech Republic), and the present-day Croatia where the Morlachs gradually disappeared, while the Catholic and Orthodox Vlachs took Croat and Serb national identity.[50] They reached these regions in search of better pastures, and were called "Wallachians" ("Vlasi; Valaši") by the Slavic peoples.

Statal Entities mentioned in Middle Ages chronicles :

  • Wallachia – between the Southern Carpathians and the Danube ("Ţara Românească" in Romanian Language ; "Bassarab-Wallachia": "Bassarab's Wallachia" and "Ungro-Wallachia" or "Wallachia Transalpina" in administrative sources ; "Istro-Vlachia": "Danubian Wallachia" in Byzantine sources ; "Velacia secunda" in Spanish maps) ;
  • Moldavia – between the Carpathians and the Dniester river ("Bogdano-Wallachia" - Bogdan's Wallachia, "Moldo-Wallachia", "Maurovlachia", "Black Wallachia", "Moldovlachia" or "Rousso-Vlachia" in Byzantine sources, "Bogdan Iflak" or even "Wallachia" in Polish sources, "L`otra Wallachia" – the "other Wallachia]" – in Genovese sources and "Velacia tertia" in Spanish maps) ;
  • Transylvania (or "Ardeal", "Transylvanian vlachs"[51] – between the Carpathians and the Hungarian plain, also "Wallachia interior" in administrative sources and "Velacia prima" in Spanish maps) ;
  • Bulgarian-Wallachian Empire between the Carpathians and the Balkan mountains ("Regnum Blachorum et Bulgarorum" in the documents and letters of Pope Innocent III).
  • Terra Prodnicorum or Terra Brodnici, mentioned by Pope Honorius III in 1222.They participated in 1223 at the Kalka battle, led by Ploskanea and supporting the Tatars. It was a Wallachian land near Galicia in the west, Volania in the north, Moldova in the south and Bolohoveni lands in the east. It was conquered by the Galician state.[52]
  • Bolokhoveni is an old Wallachian population spread between Kiev and Dniester river, in the Ukraine. Toponymy: Olohovets, Olshani, Voloschi, Vlodava. They were mentioned in the 11th to 13th centuries in the Slavonic chronicles. It was conquered by the Galician state [53]

Regions, places:

Genetics

In 2006, Bosch et al. attempted to analyze whether Vlachs are the descendants of Latinised Dacians, Illyrians, Thracians, Greeks, or a combination of these. No hypothesis could be proven because of the high degree of underlying genetic similarity of all the tested Balkan groups. The linguistic and cultural differences among various Balkan groups were thus deemed too weak to prevent significant gene flow among the above groups.[58]

Culture

Many Vlachs in mediaeval times were shepherds who drove their sheep through the mountains of south-eastern Europe. The Vlach shepherds reached as far as southern Poland and Moravia in the north by following the Carpathian range, the Dinaric Alps in the west, the Pindus mountains in the south, and the Caucasus Mountains in the east.[59]

In many of these areas, the descendants of the Vlachs have lost their language, but their legacy still exists in cultural influences, customs, folklore, the way of life of the mountain people and in the place names of Romanian or Aromanian origin that are spread throughout the region. However, there are no place names of Romanian origin in Transylvania.[60]

Another part of the Vlachs, especially those in the northern parts, in Romania and Moldova, were traditional farmers growing cereal crops. Linguists believe that the large vocabulary of Latin words related to agriculture shows that they have always been a farming Vlach population. Cultural links between the Northern Vlachs (Romanians) and Southern Vlachs (Aromanians) were broken by the 10th century, and since then there were different cultural influences:[citation needed]

  • Romanian culture was slightly influenced by neighbouring people such as Slavs and Hungarians. The 19th century saw an important opening toward Western Europe and cultural ties with France.[citation needed]
  • Aromanian culture developed initially as a pastoral culture, later to be greatly influenced by the Byzantine Greek culture.[citation needed]

Religion

The religion of the Vlachs is predominantly Eastern Orthodox Christianity, but in some regions they are Catholics and Protestants (mainly in Transylvania) and around 500 Megleno-Romanians from Greece who converted to Islam and have been living in Turkey since the 1923 exchange of populations. The Istro-Romanians are mainly Roman Catholic.[citation needed]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Schramm 1997, pp. 336-337.
  2. ^ According to Cornelia Bodea, Ştefan Pascu, Liviu Constantinescu : "România : Atlas Istorico-geografic", Academia Română 1996, ISBN 973-27-0500-0, chap. II, "Historical landmarks", p. 50 (english text), the survival of the Thraco-Romans in the low-Danube basin during the Migration period is an obvious fact : Thraco-Romans aren't vanished in the soil & Vlachs aren't appeared after 1000 years by spontaneous generation.
  3. ^ Badlands-Borderland : A History of Southern Albania/Northern Epirus [ILLUSTRATED] (Hardcover) by T.J. Winnifruth, ISBN 0-7156-3201-9, 2003, page 44 : "Romanized Illyrians, the ancestors of the modern Vlachs".
  4. ^ Ringe, Don. "Inheritance versus lexical borrowing: a case with decisive sound-change evidence." Language Log, January 2009.
  5. ^ "The name 'Vlach' or 'Wallach' applied to them by their neighbours is identical with the English Wealh or Welsh and means "stranger", but the Vlachs call themselves Aromani, or "Romans" (H.C. Darby, "The face of Europe on the eve of the great discoveries', in The New Cambridge Modern Hiostory, vol. 1, 1957:34).
  6. ^ Kelley L. Ross (2003). "Decadence, Rome and Romania, the Emperors Who Weren't, and Other Reflections on Roman History". The Proceedings of the Friesian School. Retrieved 13 January 2008. Note: The Vlach Connection {{cite journal}}: External link in |journal= (help)
  7. ^ Banac 1988, p. 257

    "Despite the apparent hostility toward the royal house, overt anti-Serb sentiment was rarely displayed and then mainly in Hrvatsko Zagorje where slogans against the "Vlachs" (derogatory term for Serbs) were raised."
  8. ^ Florin Curta, The Making of the Slavs
  9. ^ C.Daicoviciu, Romanii lui Maurikion, Apulum, 1971, p.735
  10. ^ A Madgearu, Istoria militara a Daciei post-romane 376-614; Editura Cetatea de scaun 2013, p 219
  11. ^ A. Armbruster, Auf den Spuren der eigenen Identität, Bukarest, 1991, p.7593
  12. ^ Aurel Decei, Asupra unui pasagiu din geograful persan Gardîzî (a. 1050), în „Fraților Alexandru și Ion I. Lăpedatu la împlinirea vârstei de 60 de ani”, București, 1936, p. 877 - 902
  13. ^ Constantinus Porphyrogenitus,De administrando imperio, §§ 29 sqq., ed. Bonn, p. 125,
  14. ^ a b A. ARMBRUSTER, ROMANITATEA ROMÂNILOR ISTORIA UNEI IDEI, Editura Enciclopedica,1993
  15. ^ Egils saga einhenda ok Ásmundar berserkjabana, in Drei lygisogur, ed. Å. Lagerholm (Halle/Saale, 1927), p. 29.
  16. ^ V. Spinei, The Romanians and the Turkik nomads North of The Danube Delta from the Tenth to Mid Thirteen Century, Brill, 2009, p.106
  17. ^ A. Decei, V. Ciocîltan, “La mention des Roumains (Walah) chez Al-Maqdisi,”in Romano-arabica I, Bucharest, 1974, pp. 49–54
  18. ^ V. Spinei, The Romanians and the Turkic NomadsNorth of the Danube Deltafrom the Tenth to the Mid-Thirteenth Century, Brill, 2009, p 104
  19. ^ SZILÁGYI: A Magyar Nemzet törtenete. History of hungarian nation [1]
  20. ^ Русскій хронографъ, 2,Хронографъ Западно-Русской редакціи,in PSRL, XXII,2, Petrograd, 1914, p.211
  21. ^ V. Spinei, The Romanians and the Turkik nomads North of The Danube Delta from the Tenth to Mid-Thirteen Century, Brill, 2009, p.118
  22. ^ G. Murnu, Când si unde se ivesc românii întâia dată în istorie, în „Convorbiri Literare”, XXX, p. 97- 112;
  23. ^ Anna Komnenos, Alexiadis, VII,Ed. Sayous p. 227
  24. ^ Nestor, Primary Chronicle. Translated and edited by Samuel Hazzard Cross and Olgerd P. Sherbowitz-Wetzor. Cambridge, MA: The Mediaeval Academy of America, 1953.
  25. ^ Mircea Muşat, Ion Ardeleanu-From ancient Dacia to modern Romania, p.114
  26. ^ A. Decei, op. cit., p. 25.
  27. ^ V. Spinei, The Romanians and the Turkik nomads North of The Danube Delta from the Tenth to Mid-Thirteen Century, Brill, 2009, p.132
  28. ^ V. Spinei, Moldavia in the 11th–14th Centuries. Editura Academiei RSR, 1986
  29. ^ Ş. Papacostea, Românii în secolul al XIII-lea între cruciată şi imperiul mongol, Bucureşti, 1993, 36; A. Lukács, Ţara Făgăraşului, 156; T. Sălăgean, Transilvania în a doua jumătate a secolului al XIII-lea. Afirmarea regimului congregaţional, Cluj-Napoca, 2003, 26-27
  30. ^ Simon de Kéza, Gesta Hunnorum et Hungarorum, IV,
  31. ^ G. Popa-Lisseanu,Izvoarele istoriei Românilor, IV, Bucuresti, 1935, p. .32
  32. ^ K. HOREDT, Contribuţii la istoria Transilvaniei în secolele IV-XIII, Bucureşti, 1958, p.109-131. IDEM, Siebenburgen im Fruhmittelalter, Bonn, 1986, p.111 sqq.
  33. ^ I.M.Tiplic, CONSIDERAŢII CU PRIVIRE LA LINIILE ÎNTĂRITE DE TIPUL PRISĂCILOR DIN TRANSILVANIA (sec. IX-XIII)*ACTA TERRAE SEPTEMCASTRENSIS I, pp 147-164
  34. ^ A. IONIŢĂ, Date noi privind colonizarea germană în Ţara Bârsei şi graniţa de est a regatului maghiar în cea de a doua jumătate a secolului al XII-lea, în RI, 5, 1994, 3-4.
  35. ^ J. DEER, Der Weg zur Goldenen Bulle Andreas II. Von 1222, în Schweizer Beitrage zur Allgemeinen Geschichte, 10, 1952, p.104-138.
  36. ^ Stefan Pascu: A History of Transylvania, Wayne State Univ Pr, 1983, p.57
  37. ^ Pavel Parasca, Cine a fost "Laslău craiul unguresc" din tradiţia medievală despre întemeierea Ţării Moldovei [=Who was "Laslău, Hungarian king" of the medieval tradition on the foundation of Moldavia]. In: Revista de istorie şi politică, An IV, Nr. 1.; ULIM;2011 ISSN: 1857-4076
  38. ^ O. Pecican, Dragoș-vodă - originea ciclului legendar despre întemeierea Moldovei. În „Anuarul Institutului de Istorie și Arheologie Cluj”. T. XXXIII. Cluj-Napoca, 1994, p.221-232
  39. ^ D. CĂPRĂROIU,ON THE BEGINNINGS OF THE TOWN OF CÂMPULUNG, ″Historia Urbana″, t. XVI, nr. 1-2/2008, pp. 37-64
  40. ^ "Ethnologue report for language code: ron". Ethnologue.com. Retrieved 8 February 2013.
  41. ^ http://media.popis2011.stat.rs/2011/prvi_rezultati.pdf Serbian Preliminary 2011 Census Results
  42. ^ http://www.nsi.bg/census2011/pageen2.php?p2=179
  43. ^ "Council of Europe Parliamentary Recommendation 1333 (1997)". Assembly.coe.int. 24 June 1997. Retrieved 8 February 2013.
  44. ^ "Ethnologue report for language code: rup". Ethnologue.org. Retrieved 8 February 2013.
  45. ^ According to INTEREG - quoted by Eurominority: Aromanians in Albania, Albania's Aromanians; Reemerging into History
  46. ^ Arno Tanner. The forgotten minorities of Eastern Europe: the history and today of selected ethnic groups in five countries. East-West Books, 2004 ISBN 978-952-91-6808-8, p. 218: "In Albania, Vlachs are estimated to number as many as 200,000"
  47. ^ "Aromânii vor statut minoritar", in Cotidianul, 9 December 2006
  48. ^ The Forgotten Minorities of Eastern Europe: The History and Today of ... - Βιβλία Google. Books.google.gr. Retrieved 8 February 2013.
  49. ^ "Ethnologue Estimate in Greece and all countries". Ethnologue.org. Retrieved 8 February 2013.
  50. ^ Hammel, E. A. and Kenneth W. Wachter. "The Slavonian Census of 1698. Part I: Structure and Meaning, European Journal of Population". University of California.
  51. ^ Peoples of Europe. Marshall Cavendish Corporation, 2002 ISBN 0-7614-7378-5, ISBN 978-0-7614-7378-7. {{cite book}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help); line feed character in |publisher= at position 41 (help)
  52. ^ A. Boldur, Istoria Basarabiei, Editura Victor Frunza, Bucuresti 1992, pp 98-106
  53. ^ A. Boldur, Istoria Basarabiei, Editura Victor Frunza, Bucuresti 1992
  54. ^ a b c d Since Theophanes Confessor and Kedrenos, in : A.D. Xenopol, Istoria Românilor din Dacia Traiană, Nicolae Iorga, Teodor Capidan, C. Giurescu : Istoria Românilor, Petre Ș. Năsturel Studii și Materiale de Istorie Medie, vol. XVI, 1998
  55. ^ Map of Yugoslavia, file East, sq. C-E/f, Istituto Geografico de Agostini, Novara, in : Le Million, encyclopédie de tous les pays du monde, vol.IV, ed. Kister, Geneve, Switzerland, 1970, pp. 290-291, and some other old atlases - these names disappear after 1980.
  56. ^ Map of Yugoslavia, file East, sq. B/f, Istituto Geografico de Agostini, Novara, in : Le Million, encyclopédie de tous les pays du monde, vol.IV, ed. Kister, Geneve, Switzerland, 1970, pp. 290-291, and many other maps & old atlases - these names disappear after 1980.
  57. ^ Z. Konecny, F. Mainus, Stopami Minulosti: Kapitol z Dejin Moravy a Slezka/Traces of the Past: Chapters from the History of Moravia and Silezia, Brno:Blok,1979
  58. ^ E Bosch et al. Paternal and maternal lineages in the Balkans show a homogeneous landscape over linguistic barriers, except for the isolated Aromuns. Annals of Human Genetics, Volume 70, Issue 4 (p 459-487)
  59. ^ Silviu Dragomir: "Vlahii din nordul peninsulei Balcanice în evul mediu"; 1959, p. 172;
  60. ^ Ildikó Lipcsey, Sabin Gherman, Adrian Severin, Romania and Transylvania in the 20th Century, Corvinus Pub., 2008, p. 18, ISBN 9781882785155

References

  • Theodor Capidan, Aromânii, dialectul aromân. Studiul lingvistic ("Aromanians, Aromanian dialect, Linguistic Study"), Bucharest, 1932
  • Victor A. Friedman, "The Vlah Minority in Macedonia: Language, Identity, Dialectology, and Standardization" in Selected Papers in Slavic, Balkan, and Balkan Studies, ed. Juhani Nuoluoto, et al. Slavica Helsingiensa:21, Helsinki: University of Helsinki. 2001. 26-50. full text Though focussed on the Vlachs of Macedonia, has in-depth discussion of many topics, including the origins of the Vlachs, their status as a minority in various countries, their political use in various contexts, and so on.
  • Asterios I. Koukoudis, The Vlachs: Metropolis and Diaspora, 2003, ISBN 960-7760-86-7
  • George Murnu, Istoria românilor din Pind, Vlahia Mare 980–1259 ("History of the Romanians of the Pindus, Greater Vlachia, 980–1259"), Bucharest, 1913
  • Nikola Trifon, Les Aroumains, un peuple qui s'en va (Paris, 2005) ; Cincari, narod koji nestaje (Beograd, 2010)[2]
  • Steriu T. Hagigogu, "Romanus şi valachus sau Ce este romanus, roman, român, aromân, valah şi vlah", Bucharest, 1939

Further reading

  • Theodor Capidan, Aromânii, dialectul aromân. Studiul lingvistic ("Aromanians, Aromanian dialect, Linguistic Study"), Bucharest, 1932
  • Victor A. Friedman, "The Vlah Minority in Macedonia: Language, Identity, Dialectology, and Standardization" in Selected Papers in Slavic, Balkan, and Balkan Studies, ed. Juhani Nuoluoto, et al. Slavica Helsingiensa:21, Helsinki: University of Helsinki. 2001. 26-50. full text Though focussed on the Vlachs of Macedonia, has in-depth discussion of many topics, including the origins of the Vlachs, their status as a minority in various countries, their political use in various contexts, and so on.
  • Asterios I. Koukoudis, The Vlachs: Metropolis and Diaspora, 2003, ISBN 960-7760-86-7
  • George Murnu, Istoria românilor din Pind, Vlahia Mare 980–1259 ("History of the Romanians of the Pindus, Greater Vlachia, 980–1259"), Bucharest, 1913
  • Nikola Trifon, Les Aroumains, un peuple qui s'en va (Paris, 2005) ; Cincari, narod koji nestaje (Beograd, 2010)[3]
  • Steriu T. Hagigogu, "Romanus şi valachus sau Ce este romanus, roman, român, aromân, valah şi vlah", Bucharest, 1939
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