Ni-Vanuatu: Difference between revisions

Ni-Vanuatu
Ni-Van
	A young Ni-Vanuatu boy.
Total population
	c. 300,000
Regions with significant populations
	Vanuatu c. 270,000
Languages
	English, French, Bislama,; over 100 Oceanic languages
Religion
	Christian (Presbyterian, Anglican, Roman Catholic), Animism
Related ethnic groups
	other Melanesian peoples

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Ni-Vanuatu (informally abbreviated Ni-Van) is a large group of closely related Melanesian ethnic groups native to the island country of Vanuatu. As such, Ni-Vanuatu are a mixed ethnolinguistic group with a shared ethnogenesis that speak a multitude of languages.^[1]^[2]^[3]^[4]

Ni-Vanuatu or Ni-Van is usually restricted to the indigenous population of Vanuatu. It contrasts with the demonym Vanuatuan, which in principle refers to any citizen of Vanuatu, regardless of their origin or ethnicity. (The form Vanuatuan is in fact rarely used in English, and is regarded as incorrect by some authors and style guides.^[5]^[6]^[7])

Due to the history of British and French colonialism, indigenous people of Vanuatu generally speak English and French, as well as Bislama.^[8]

The cultural aspects of ni-Vanuatu society have been instilled on the indigenous community and are expressed through clothing, rituals, ceremonies, music, performing and fine arts, and cuisine.^[9] The spiritual ties ni-Vanuatu have with their land and ancestors are conveyed through these traditions and some of these remaining artefacts have been preserved and displayed in the galleries of Vanuatu.

Etymology

Ni-Vanuatu is a recent coinage. It combines the name of the country (Vanuatu, etymologically "land that stands [by itself]", i.e. ‘independent country’) with a particle ni, which encodes the genitive in indigenous languages such as North Efate similar to "of" in English. Etymologically, the particle descends from Proto-Oceanic, Proto-Malayo-Polynesian and Proto-Austronesian *ni. The word ni-Vanuatu thus simply means "of Vanuatu".^[10]

The Bislama dictionary defines ni-Vanuatu as a "Vanuatu citizen of Melanesian descent but not limited to".^[11]

The term is mostly used in English and French, and is rarely used in Bislama, the country's lingua franca.^[12] The term is never used in the indigenous languages of the archipelago.

The form ni-Van is a colloquial abbreviation of ni-Vanuatu. This form was pejorative in its original usage in the 1980s by Anglophone European expatriates, similar to its French equivalent les nis, but according to New Zealand linguist Terry Crowley, by the 2000s the term ni-Van saw increasing usage among ni-Vanuatu.^[11]

History

The indigenous population of Vanuatu

The first inhabitants of Vanuatu were Austronesian people, carriers of the Lapita culture, who settled the archipelago about 1200-1300BC.^[13] They were later followed by Melanesians around 500BC.^[14]^[15]

European settlement

Portuguese navigator Pedro Fernandes de Queirós visited Vanuatu in 1606. However, settlement did not occur until Captain James Cook charted the islands, deeming it the New Hebrides. At the end of the 19th century, ni-Vanuatu were regularly kidnapped and forced to work in plantations in Fiji and Australia, a practice now known as "blackbirding".^[15]^[16]

In 1906, France and Britain established the the New Hebrides Condominium. During the joint rule of the two countries, the ni-Vanuatu lived under bith French and British authority. On 30 July 1980, the New Hebrides gained independence as the Republic of Vanuatu.^[17]

Land and nationalism

During the Condominium period, European regulations sometimes resulted in land disputes, particularly around plantations.^[18]

Upon independence, the new constitution determined that land ownership would belong to native ni-Vanuatus: the land rights were given to the traditional owners and community to make decisions.^[18]

Society

Economic impact of economy on the people

Workers on the copra plantations were generally Melanesian. Melanesian workers were occupied with their own plantations^[17] leading to European owners sourcing labour from foreign countries such as French Indochina for general agricultural labour and construction. After World War II, American soldiers introduced Western items such as camp supplies, construction aviation, electricity, and running water. Introducing overseas workers combined with the introduction of modern facilities led to Vanuatu's economic momentum, which helped form the backbone of the island's copra production. Copra production was the main economic focus as other areas such as forestry, fishing, and native crafts were underdeveloped at the time.^[17] Food crops, including yams, taro, and cassava, are used for local consumption; copra production such as coconuts and cocoa make up the majority of Vanuatu's exports.^[19]

Profiles of labour workers, miners, and construction workers were mainly of Melanesian descent as labour demands rose with the economic boom. In 1953, Vietnamese workers started returning to their home country, most of them having done so by 1963. This caused a shortage in plantation workers which in turn led to recruitment from other islands such as Tahiti.^[17]

Temperamental weather strongly impacted plantations, as hurricanes destroyed the main copra of coconut plantations.^[20] Competition from overseas in combination with natural disasters led to a solution of sourcing different agricultural mediums such as cattle. Local demands for meat as well as exports welcomed another economic boom in Vanuatu.^[17]^[19]

Bildung

Prior to Vanuatu's independence in 1980, the French government offered additional support to the French population. Free education and buildings were developed whilst the British government required education fees from parents.^[17]^[18] The competition between the two ruling governments caused a division in the education system, as ni-Vanuatu based their decisions on financial and political reasons. The French system was popular to Melanesians, but the British system was still an option to many. Ni-Vanuatu parents would say "Yumi no save yet se wanem saed bae i win", translating to "We don't know yet which side is going to win out".^[18] The rational of many feared the unknown of which ruling government would take over the nation. Tertiary education was often presented with a bias from the French government, based on the fears of higher education presenting ideas of anti-colonialism to the general population. English-medium to French-medium university scholars reflected this concept with a ratio of 120:1 in 1983, three years after the independence of Vanuatu.^[18]

The Vanuatu Cultural Centre established^[when?] a scheme whereby some of its researchers were indigenous; they were called "filwoka" (from Eng. fieldworker).^[21]

Ni-Vanuatu women

Recognition of ni-Vanuatu women in the political, business and social bubble has been growing recently; however, there are barriers that impede this growth. Social standards of Pacific women heavily emphasize the women's role as nurturers, which consists of domestic tasks such as washing clothes, cooking, gardening, and cleaning the house.^[22] Women who went overseas for their tertiary studies and returned have expressed the contrasting differences of Western and Vanuatu lifestyles. Independence was viewed differently in particular, as privacy in Western cultures was looser.^[23]

Although there are no laws against women participating in politics, there were no women serving in parliament during the 2016 election. Hilda Lini of the Vanuatu's parliament promotes women participating in politics; however, she predicts that it would take time to convince to public to do so.^[24]^[25] In October 2020, a "Vote for Women" campaign was coordinated to encourage and support women in the political scene. The municipal council reserves seats for women to represent the community and are encouraged to participate with government training programs readily available.^[26]

Population

Demographics

75% of the ni-Vanuatu population live in rural areas, whereas the remaining 25% population live in urban areas. Port Vila and Luganville are the primary urban cities^[27] with Port Villa having a population of 35,901.^[28] The total land area is 12,189 km² with a population growth rate of 1.67%. Christianity makes up the majority of the religious community as 93.5% of the population identify as Christian as of 2020.^[29]

Languages

Vanuatu is the country with the world's highest language density per capita, with 138 languages for a population of 0.3 million. These 138 indigenous languages are still used today by two-thirds of the country's population, mainly in rural areas. These are Oceanic languages, descended historically from the country's first Austronesian settlers.

Despite the first European contact in Vanuatu in 1606, English was not introduced to ni-Vanuatu until the 1840s when English-speaking missionaries arrived.^[30] This was around the same time when European sourcing of sandalwood in the Pacific turned to Vanuatu. During the period of the New Hebrides, French and English competed for the status of main language; the population instead turned to Bislama as used as a tool of unity.^[17]^[18]^[8] Bislama was often essential as the privileged population were educated in English and middle to lower class population were often educated in French. Few people mastered both French and English, hence the use of Bislama as a lingua franca.

Upon the nation's independence in 1980, three languages have become official in Vanuatu: English, French and Bislama. French and English are used mainly for written communication whereas Bislama is widely used for verbal communication.^[18]

Bislama serves as the country's lingua franca: it serves as a bridge between citizens educated in French vs. English;^[31] and it also allows speakers of different indigenous languages to communicate among themselves.

Official welcoming speeches, opening of parliament, and most official events use Bislama. Ni-Vanuatu of different ethnic backgrounds, such as Chinese and Vietnamese often use Bislama as greetings and opening introductions as a form of communication.^[18]

Culture

Kastom

Indigenous ni-Vanuatu communities describe their traditional values and beliefs using the modern (Bislama) term kastom.

Kastom was expressed through religion, clothing, native arts, indigenous culture and languages.^[9] The development of kastom was a symbol of traditional native values compared to foreign Eurocentric concepts and ideals. It represents the unity and national identity of the ni-Vanuatu. In 1979, a year before independence, the Vanua'aku Pati of Parliament vowed to promote the "preservation and promotion of New Hebrides culture and languages",^[9] thereby sponsoring a first National Arts Festival in Port Villa to express support of kastom in the community.^[9]^[21] Parliament faced ongoing pressure from the community to preserve the traditions of ni-Vanuatu, particularly in the post-colonial era, leading to the teaching of indigenous culture being implemented in schools as well as the development of art centres.^[32]

Masks called tamate are worn by men during ceremonies and rituals. These masks are used to hide the faces of dancers as ancestral spirits enter the dancer. After the ritual is complete, it is thought that the ancestor's spirit is rebirthed as a tamate spirit. Although the masks are no longer used, the aesthetics and representations of the ancestral world continue to embody the kastoms of ni-vanuatus.

Clothing

Women in particular have a unique perspective in their relationship to traditional customs and colonial ideas. Island dresses represent a national connection to Vanuatu; however, many ni-Vanuatu women consciously choose to adopt modern clothing as attitudes towards convenience, aesthetics, and gender equality are considered.^[33] Although modern clothing is preferred on most occasions, the respect for kastom in island dresses are incorporated into special events such as festivals, ceremonies, and church gatherings.

Pandanus grass skirts are worn by women while penis wrappers and bark belts are worn by men.^[34] Barkcloths are also a staple of ni-Vanuatu clothing and sleeping mats.^[35] Different styles and variations of draping the barkcloths indicated the different status of the individual. Men would wear the barkcloth around their waist or drape it between their thighs and women would wear it around their waist and drape it behind their back—leading to European stories of "tailed women".^[35] These barkcloths were made from young tree bark, as it didn't break so easily, and would generally take three to four days to make. The sheets of bark would be soaked with water and women would beat layers of barks together whilst singing a special song.^[35] The layers of bark would alternately be soaked, beaten, and dried until it was deemed ready. Generally ni-Vanuatu women would create barkcloth for the community.^[36]

Penis sleeves worn by men are called yelau and they would hang down at various lengths depending on the man's status.^[35] In certain cases, some chiefs would have penis sleeves that hung down to their ankles.

Music and Dance

Musical instruments and traditional dances play a large role in the rituals of indigenous ni-Vanuatu. Dances coordinated with counter-clockwise directions of circling dances represent the notions of male "hardness" during ceremonies, and clockwise directions were only accepted at a certain age for males.^[35] Musical instruments were created with organic materials such as wood, bones, leafs, rocks, vegetables, and fruits. Bamboo flutes were carved with a V-shaped notch on one end and one to three holes on the other. These instruments would be blown on one end and played with their arms extended to their waist. Hollowed cylinders were also hung from tree branches and the audible sounds created by the wind would be interpreted as ancestral voices.^[35] Dried seeds were tied to wrists and ankles by dried coconut fibres to act as rattles and coconut shells would be banged against the ground for certain games.

Literature

Oral literature was common amongst ni-Vanuatu as written literature wasn't introduced until European missionaries created formal schools.^[37] Folk tales, myths, legends, songs, and poetry were passed across generations by word of mouth before written literature was introduced.

Fine arts

Pottery displayed in Vanuatu Cultural Centre, Port Villa

Kastom can be seen in different forms of visual and material arts by indigenous ni-Vanuatu. Material forms of art are passed down for generations as they represent customary practices such as fishing, rituals, clothing, and food preparation.^[35] The Vanuatu Cultural Centre and National Museum display artefacts collected and donated by anthropologists from 150 years ago. These artefacts are representations of cultural practices of the indigenous community of Vanuatu; however, disruption from colonialism has halted and destroyed records of these cultural and social remnants.^[38]

Pottery can be dated back as early as 1000BC on the islands of Efate with the pots found to be decorated with different styles in different regions of Vanuatu.^[35]^[39] Two main techniques were used to make these pots.^[35] The first technique involved a long coil of clay being attached to a bamboo cylinder and continuously coiled until a circular sheet of clay was added to make the base of the pot. The bamboo base was removed resulting in the conical shape of these pots. The second technique used a ball of clay that was hollowed out and molded onto the knee, which created the bowl shape. These pots were then dried out and fired. The hearth was prepared by hot stones and dried coconut fronds and bamboo were used to fuel the fire.^[35]

Contemporary arts have been criticised due to the non-indigenous forms of using western media such as watercolour and acrylic paint to portray the kastoms of the ni-Vanuatu. However, contemporary Ni-Vanuatu artists have argued that representations of their cultural ties to Vanuatu are being represented in their artistic forms.^[38] Foundation Suzanne Bastien is a contemporary art gallery in Port Vila that Suzanne Bastien opened in hopes of "continued nurturing of contemporary art for future generations".^[40] The spiritual, social, and physical connection expressed by contemporary artists have indicated different communities, regions, and islands of Vanuatu with the ongoing Western influence on Melanesian culture.

Cuisine

Indigenous communities have diets that involve foraging and fishing as their main method of sustenance. It wasn't until European involvement of livestock and copra production that cattle meat and cocoa were introduced. Root vegetables such as taro and yams are a staple of traditional ni-Vanatu communities as they are considered "strong foods" that make the people strong and energetic.^[41]

Hunting and fishing were designated as a role for men due to a cultural belief that a woman being on a boat would make her infertile. Thus men would hunt for fish while women would feed pigs and forage for root vegetables.^[41]^[42] Roles for men and women would be divided equally in food preparation as they have different roles in the household hut, or men's hut. However, division of the food would be dependent on the ranking of the female and males status in the community. Food prepared in the separate fire closest to the entrance of the household hut are reserved for women, children and ungraded boys while the fire closest to the back of the hut is reserved for men and graded boys.^[41] The food prepared in the men's hut would be further divided into four separate fires for the four different rankings of the men in the community.^[41]^[43]

Kava drinking

Kava is a beverage in the Oceanic regions of Polynesia, Melanesia and Micronesia. Kava plays a central role in spiritual, cultural, and social practices of indigenous ni-Vanatu.^[44] There are remedial notions of kava that it could be used for medicinal purposes.^[44]

Kava bowls are used in preparation and serving of the beverage with different types of materials being used. Kava bowls are considered sacred and have been traditionally used exclusively for kava drinking.^[44]

References

^ "RAMSI Mourns Death of Senior Ni-Vanuatu Police Officer". Solomon Times. 28 April 2009. Retrieved 30 August 2011.
^ "Ni-Vanuatu arrested NZ"^{[permanent dead link]}, Radio Vanuatu, 10 March 2009
^ "Des Ni-Vanuatu en final des Masters"^{[permanent dead link]}, Agence universitaire francophone, 31 July 2008
^ "Ni-Vanuatu workers employed under RSE scheme set to increase". Radio New Zealand International. 18 February 2008. Retrieved 30 October 2011.
^ Rowlings, Gregory (2016). "Asymmetrical ambiguities: the 'White Australia policy', travel, migration and citizenship in Vanuatu, 1945–1953". In Leckie, Jacqueline; McCarthy, Angela; Wanhalla, Angela (eds.). Migrant Cross-Cultural Encounters in Asia and the Pacific. London: Taylor and Francis. ISBN 9781317096672.
^ Fenelon, Judy (2002). AusAID style guide (PDF). Australian Agency for International Development. p. 79. OCLC 225052411. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 April 2012. Retrieved 14 November 2018.
^ "V". Guardian and Observer style guide. Guardian Media Group. 5 November 2015. Retrieved 14 November 2018.
^ ^a ^b Crowley, Terry (1990). Beach-la-Mar to Bislama : the emergence of a national language in Vanuatu. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-824893-8. OCLC 21116855.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Lindstrom, Lamont (10 February 2009). "Leftemap Kastom: The Political History of Tradition on Tanna, Vanuatu". Mankind. 13 (4): 316–329. doi:10.1111/j.1835-9310.1982.tb00997.x. ISSN 0025-2328.
^ Code, Bill. "What makes Vanuatu one of the happiest places in the world?". www.bbc.com. Retrieved 31 May 2021.
^ ^a ^b Crowley, Terry (2003). "Ni-Van". A New Bislama Dictionary. Fiji: University of the South Pacific. ISBN 9789820203624.
^ Bislama more commonly uses phrases such as man Vanuatu ("V. person" or "V. people") or blong Vanuatu ("of V.").
^ "Vanuatu – a brief history from 12 – Vanuatu". RNZ. Retrieved 17 May 2021.
^ Posth, Cosimo; Nägele, Kathrin; Colleran, Heidi; Valentin, Frédérique; Bedford, Stuart; Kami, Kaitip W.; Shing, Richard; Buckley, Hallie; Kinaston, Rebecca; Walworth, Mary; Clark, Geoffrey R.; Reepmeyer, Christian; Flexner, James; Maric, Tamara; Moser, Johannes; Gresky, Julia; Kiko, Lawrence; Robson, Kathryn J.; Auckland, Kathryn; Oppenheimer, Stephen J.; Hill, Adrian V. S.; Mentzer, Alexander J.; Zech, Jana; Petchey, Fiona; Roberts, Patrick; Jeong, Choongwon; Gray, Russell D.; Krause, Johannes; Powell, Adam (2018). "Language continuity despite population replacement in Remote Oceania". Nature Ecology & Evolution. 2 (4): 731–740. doi:10.1038/s41559-018-0498-2. ISSN 2397-334X. PMC 5868730. PMID 29487365.
^ ^a ^b "Vanuatu profile – Timeline". BBC News. 12 July 2017. Retrieved 17 May 2021.
^ "Blackbirding: Australia's history of kidnapping Pacific Islanders". www.abc.net.au. 16 September 2017. Retrieved 17 May 2021.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g Aldrich, Robert (1993), "From the New Hebrides to Vanuatu", France and the South Pacific since 1940, London: Palgrave Macmillan UK, pp. 196–239, doi:10.1007/978-1-349-10828-2_6, ISBN 978-1-349-10830-5, retrieved 17 May 2021
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h Vanuatu Country Report for The State of the World's Forest Genetic Resources Food and Agricultural Organisation, Forestry Department; 2012.
^ ^a ^b David., Macfarlane (1986). Pastures in Vanuatu. Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research. ISBN 978-1-4619-3285-7. OCLC 686143123.
^ Martin R Fowler (1 June 1987). "Aspects of Copra Production and Marketing in Vanuatu". CORD. 3 (2): 34. doi:10.37833/cord.v3i02.203. ISSN 2721-8856.
^ ^a ^b Tryon, Darrell (1999). "Ni-Vanuatu Research and Researchers". Oceania. 70 (1): 9–15. doi:10.1002/j.1834-4461.1999.tb02985.x. ISSN 0029-8077.
^ Ellis, Amanda; Manuel, Claire; Cutura, Jozefina; Bowman, Chakriya (17 April 2009). Women in Vanuatu. doi:10.1596/978-0-8213-7909-7. ISBN 978-0-8213-7909-7.
^ Strachan, Jane; Samuel, Janet; Takaro, Minnie (2007). "Ni Vanuatu women graduates: what happens when they go home?". Development in Practice. 17 (1): 147–153. doi:10.1080/09614520601092055. ISSN 0961-4524. S2CID 155031215.
^ Vila, Yasmine Bjornum in Port (14 March 2020). "'2020 is going to be my year': the push to elect women in Vanuatu, a nation with no female MPs". the Guardian. Retrieved 31 May 2021.
^ "Vanuatu: Push to include women in Parliament". ABC Radio Australia. 16 March 2020. Retrieved 31 May 2021.
^ "Vanuatu". United States Department of State. Retrieved 31 May 2021.
^ "Vanuatu – The World Factbook". www.cia.gov. Archived from the original on 9 January 2021. Retrieved 31 May 2021.
^ "Port Vila Population – worldMeters". world-meters.com. Retrieved 18 October 2023.
^ "Religions in Vanuatu | PEW-GRF". www.globalreligiousfutures.org. Archived from the original on 2 June 2021. Retrieved 31 May 2021.
^ ^a ^b "- An Archaeology of Early Christianity in Vanuatu – ANU". press-files.anu.edu.au. Retrieved 31 May 2021.
^ Siegel, Jeff (July 1997). "Pidgin and English in Melanesia: Is There a Continuum?". World Englishes. 16 (2): 185–204. doi:10.1111/1467-971x.00059. ISSN 0883-2919.
^ Robert., Tonkinson (1982). National identity and the problem of kastom in Vanuatu. [Wiley-Blackwell on behalf of the Australian Anthropological Society]. OCLC 858601231.
^ Cummings, Maggie (2013). "Looking Good: The Cultural Politics of the Island Dress for Young Women in Vanuatu". The Contemporary Pacific. 25 (1): 33–65. doi:10.1353/cp.2013.0007. hdl:10125/32890. ISSN 1527-9464.
^ Jolly, Margaret (11 June 2014). Women of the Place. doi:10.4324/9781315077147. ISBN 9781134352265.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j Barker, John; Bonnemaison, Joel; Huffman, Kirk (1998). "Arts of Vanuatu". Pacific Affairs. 71 (2): 289. doi:10.2307/2761017. ISSN 0030-851X. JSTOR 2761017. S2CID 155617522.
^ Bolton, L. M. (Lissant Mary) (1993). Dancing in mats : extending kastom to women in Vanuatu.
^ Millar, V.U. (2008). Exploring the Character Strengths of an Oral Tradition: Vanuatu Through Analysis of Its Archived Oral Legends.
^ ^a ^b Geismar, H. (2004). The materiality of contemporary art in Vanuatu. Journal of Material Culture, 9(1), 43–58.
^ Ambrose, W. (1992). Clays and sands in Melanesian pottery analysis. Poterie Lapita et peuplement, 169–176.
^ "About Us". Fondation Suzanne Bastien. 31 July 2015. Retrieved 31 May 2021.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Jolly, Margaret (1991). "Gifts, commodities and corporeality: Food and gender in South Pentecost, Vanuatu". Canberra Anthropology. 14 (1): 45–66. doi:10.1080/03149099109508475. ISSN 0314-9099.
^ Jolly, Margaret (1987). "The Forgotten Women: A History of Migrant Labour and Gender Relations in Vanuatu". Oceania. 58 (2): 119–139. doi:10.1002/j.1834-4461.1987.tb02265.x. ISSN 0029-8077.
^ Jolly, Margaret (1994). "Hierarchy and encompassment: Rank, gender and place in Vanuatu and Fiji". History and Anthropology. 7 (1–4): 133–167. doi:10.1080/02757206.1994.9960843. ISSN 0275-7206.
^ ^a ^b ^c Singh, Yadhu N. (1992). "Kava: an overview". Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 37 (1): 13–45. doi:10.1016/0378-8741(92)90003-a. ISSN 0378-8741. PMID 1453702.

[1] "RAMSI Mourns Death of Senior Ni-Vanuatu Police Officer". Solomon Times. 28 April 2009. Retrieved 30 August 2011.

[2] "Ni-Vanuatu arrested NZ"^{[permanent dead link]}, Radio Vanuatu, 10 March 2009

[3] "Des Ni-Vanuatu en final des Masters"^{[permanent dead link]}, Agence universitaire francophone, 31 July 2008

[RNZI_38108-4] "Ni-Vanuatu workers employed under RSE scheme set to increase". Radio New Zealand International. 18 February 2008. Retrieved 30 October 2011.

[5] Rowlings, Gregory (2016). "Asymmetrical ambiguities: the 'White Australia policy', travel, migration and citizenship in Vanuatu, 1945–1953". In Leckie, Jacqueline; McCarthy, Angela; Wanhalla, Angela (eds.). Migrant Cross-Cultural Encounters in Asia and the Pacific. London: Taylor and Francis. ISBN 9781317096672.

[6] Fenelon, Judy (2002). AusAID style guide (PDF). Australian Agency for International Development. p. 79. OCLC 225052411. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 April 2012. Retrieved 14 November 2018.

[7] "V". Guardian and Observer style guide. Guardian Media Group. 5 November 2015. Retrieved 14 November 2018.

[:12-8] Crowley, Terry (1990). Beach-la-Mar to Bislama : the emergence of a national language in Vanuatu. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-824893-8. OCLC 21116855.

[:6-9] Lindstrom, Lamont (10 February 2009). "Leftemap Kastom: The Political History of Tradition on Tanna, Vanuatu". Mankind. 13 (4): 316–329. doi:10.1111/j.1835-9310.1982.tb00997.x. ISSN 0025-2328.

[10] Code, Bill. "What makes Vanuatu one of the happiest places in the world?". www.bbc.com. Retrieved 31 May 2021.

[:0-11] Crowley, Terry (2003). "Ni-Van". A New Bislama Dictionary. Fiji: University of the South Pacific. ISBN 9789820203624.

[12] Bislama more commonly uses phrases such as man Vanuatu ("V. person" or "V. people") or blong Vanuatu ("of V.").

[13] "Vanuatu – a brief history from 12 – Vanuatu". RNZ. Retrieved 17 May 2021.

[14] Posth, Cosimo; Nägele, Kathrin; Colleran, Heidi; Valentin, Frédérique; Bedford, Stuart; Kami, Kaitip W.; Shing, Richard; Buckley, Hallie; Kinaston, Rebecca; Walworth, Mary; Clark, Geoffrey R.; Reepmeyer, Christian; Flexner, James; Maric, Tamara; Moser, Johannes; Gresky, Julia; Kiko, Lawrence; Robson, Kathryn J.; Auckland, Kathryn; Oppenheimer, Stephen J.; Hill, Adrian V. S.; Mentzer, Alexander J.; Zech, Jana; Petchey, Fiona; Roberts, Patrick; Jeong, Choongwon; Gray, Russell D.; Krause, Johannes; Powell, Adam (2018). "Language continuity despite population replacement in Remote Oceania". Nature Ecology & Evolution. 2 (4): 731–740. doi:10.1038/s41559-018-0498-2. ISSN 2397-334X. PMC 5868730. PMID 29487365.

[:1-15] "Vanuatu profile – Timeline". BBC News. 12 July 2017. Retrieved 17 May 2021.

[16] "Blackbirding: Australia's history of kidnapping Pacific Islanders". www.abc.net.au. 16 September 2017. Retrieved 17 May 2021.

[:2-17] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g Aldrich, Robert (1993), "From the New Hebrides to Vanuatu", France and the South Pacific since 1940, London: Palgrave Macmillan UK, pp. 196–239, doi:10.1007/978-1-349-10828-2_6, ISBN 978-1-349-10830-5, retrieved 17 May 2021

[:4-18] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h Vanuatu Country Report for The State of the World's Forest Genetic Resources Food and Agricultural Organisation, Forestry Department; 2012.

[:3-19] David., Macfarlane (1986). Pastures in Vanuatu. Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research. ISBN 978-1-4619-3285-7. OCLC 686143123.

[20] Martin R Fowler (1 June 1987). "Aspects of Copra Production and Marketing in Vanuatu". CORD. 3 (2): 34. doi:10.37833/cord.v3i02.203. ISSN 2721-8856.

[:5-21] Tryon, Darrell (1999). "Ni-Vanuatu Research and Researchers". Oceania. 70 (1): 9–15. doi:10.1002/j.1834-4461.1999.tb02985.x. ISSN 0029-8077.

[22] Ellis, Amanda; Manuel, Claire; Cutura, Jozefina; Bowman, Chakriya (17 April 2009). Women in Vanuatu. doi:10.1596/978-0-8213-7909-7. ISBN 978-0-8213-7909-7.

[23] Strachan, Jane; Samuel, Janet; Takaro, Minnie (2007). "Ni Vanuatu women graduates: what happens when they go home?". Development in Practice. 17 (1): 147–153. doi:10.1080/09614520601092055. ISSN 0961-4524. S2CID 155031215.

[24] Vila, Yasmine Bjornum in Port (14 March 2020). "'2020 is going to be my year': the push to elect women in Vanuatu, a nation with no female MPs". the Guardian. Retrieved 31 May 2021.

[25] "Vanuatu: Push to include women in Parliament". ABC Radio Australia. 16 March 2020. Retrieved 31 May 2021.

[26] "Vanuatu". United States Department of State. Retrieved 31 May 2021.

[:7-27] "Vanuatu – The World Factbook". www.cia.gov. Archived from the original on 9 January 2021. Retrieved 31 May 2021.

[28] "Port Vila Population – worldMeters". world-meters.com. Retrieved 18 October 2023.

[29] "Religions in Vanuatu | PEW-GRF". www.globalreligiousfutures.org. Archived from the original on 2 June 2021. Retrieved 31 May 2021.

[:14-30] "- An Archaeology of Early Christianity in Vanuatu – ANU". press-files.anu.edu.au. Retrieved 31 May 2021.

[31] Siegel, Jeff (July 1997). "Pidgin and English in Melanesia: Is There a Continuum?". World Englishes. 16 (2): 185–204. doi:10.1111/1467-971x.00059. ISSN 0883-2919.

[32] Robert., Tonkinson (1982). National identity and the problem of kastom in Vanuatu. [Wiley-Blackwell on behalf of the Australian Anthropological Society]. OCLC 858601231.

[:13-33] Cummings, Maggie (2013). "Looking Good: The Cultural Politics of the Island Dress for Young Women in Vanuatu". The Contemporary Pacific. 25 (1): 33–65. doi:10.1353/cp.2013.0007. hdl:10125/32890. ISSN 1527-9464.

[34] Jolly, Margaret (11 June 2014). Women of the Place. doi:10.4324/9781315077147. ISBN 9781134352265.

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[36] Bolton, L. M. (Lissant Mary) (1993). Dancing in mats : extending kastom to women in Vanuatu.

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[42] Jolly, Margaret (1987). "The Forgotten Women: A History of Migrant Labour and Gender Relations in Vanuatu". Oceania. 58 (2): 119–139. doi:10.1002/j.1834-4461.1987.tb02265.x. ISSN 0029-8077.

[43] Jolly, Margaret (1994). "Hierarchy and encompassment: Rank, gender and place in Vanuatu and Fiji". History and Anthropology. 7 (1–4): 133–167. doi:10.1080/02757206.1994.9960843. ISSN 0275-7206.

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@@ Line 19: / Line 19: @@
 ''Ni-Vanuatu'' or ''Ni-Van'' is usually restricted to the indigenous population of Vanuatu. It contrasts with the demonym ''Vanuatuan'', which in principle refers to any citizen of Vanuatu, regardless of their origin or ethnicity. (The form ''Vanuatuan'' is in fact rarely used in English, and is regarded as incorrect by some authors and [[style guide]]s.<ref>{{cite book |last=Rowlings |first=Gregory |title=Migrant Cross-Cultural Encounters in Asia and the Pacific |publisher=Taylor and Francis |year=2016 |isbn=9781317096672 |editor-last=Leckie |editor-first=Jacqueline |location=London |chapter=Asymmetrical ambiguities: the 'White Australia policy', travel, migration and citizenship in Vanuatu, 1945–1953 |editor2-last=McCarthy |editor2-first=Angela |editor2-link=Angela McCarthy |editor3-last=Wanhalla |editor3-first=Angela |editor-link3=Angela Wanhalla |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CjklDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA129}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=http://www.ausaid.gov.au/publications/pdf/style_guide.pdf|first=Judy|last=Fenelon|title=AusAID style guide|publisher=Australian Agency for International Development|year=2002|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120417034418/http://www.ausaid.gov.au/publications/pdf/style_guide.pdf|archive-date=17 April 2012|access-date=14 November 2018|oclc=225052411|page=79}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|chapter-url=https://www.theguardian.com/guardian-observer-style-guide-v|chapter=V|title=Guardian and Observer style guide|publisher=[[Guardian Media Group]]|date=5 November 2015|access-date=14 November 2018}}</ref>)
-Due to the history of [[British Empire|British]] and [[Second French Empire|French]] [[Condominium of the New Hebrides|colonialism]], indigenous people of Vanuatu generally speak English and French as well as [[Bislama]].<ref name=":12" />
+Due to the history of [[British Empire|British]] and [[Second French Empire|French]] [[Condominium of the New Hebrides|colonialism]], indigenous people of Vanuatu generally speak English and French, as well as [[Bislama]].<ref name=":12" />
-The cultural aspects of Ni-Vanuatu society have been instilled on the indigenous community and are expressed through clothing, rituals, ceremonies, music, performing and fine arts, and cuisine.<ref name=":6" /> The spiritual ties Ni-Vanuatu have with their land and ancestors are conveyed through these [[Kastom|traditions]] and some of these remaining artefacts have been preserved and displayed in [[Vanuatu Cultural Centre|galleries of Vanuatu.]]
+The cultural aspects of ni-Vanuatu society have been instilled on the indigenous community and are expressed through clothing, rituals, ceremonies, music, performing and fine arts, and cuisine.<ref name=":6" /> The spiritual ties ni-Vanuatu have with their land and ancestors are conveyed through these [[Kastom|traditions]] and some of these remaining artefacts have been preserved and displayed in the [[Vanuatu Cultural Centre|galleries of Vanuatu.]]
 == Etymology ==
-''Ni-Vanuatu'' is a recent coinage. It combines the name of the country (''Vanuatu'', [[Vanuatu#Etymology|etymologically]] "land that stands [by itself]", i.e. ‘independent country’) with a particle ''ni'', which encodes the [[Genitive case|genitive]] in indigenous languages such as [[North Efate language|North Efate]] similar to "of" in English. Etymologically, the particle descends from [[Proto-Oceanic language|Proto-Oceanic]], [[Proto-Malayo-Polynesian language|Proto-Malayo-Polynesian]] and [[Proto-Austronesian language|Proto-Austronesian]] ''*ni''. The word ''Ni-Vanuatu'' thus simply means "of Vanuatu".<ref>{{Cite web|last=Code|first=Bill|title=What makes Vanuatu one of the happiest places in the world?|url=https://www.bbc.com/travel/story/20200209-what-makes-vanuatu-one-of-the-happiest-places-in-the-world|access-date=31 May 2021|website=www.bbc.com|language=en}}</ref>
+''Ni-Vanuatu'' is a recent coinage. It combines the name of the country (''Vanuatu'', [[Vanuatu#Etymology|etymologically]] "land that stands [by itself]", i.e. ‘independent country’) with a particle ''ni'', which encodes the [[Genitive case|genitive]] in indigenous languages such as [[North Efate language|North Efate]] similar to "of" in English. Etymologically, the particle descends from [[Proto-Oceanic language|Proto-Oceanic]], [[Proto-Malayo-Polynesian language|Proto-Malayo-Polynesian]] and [[Proto-Austronesian language|Proto-Austronesian]] ''*ni''. The word ''ni-Vanuatu'' thus simply means "of Vanuatu".<ref>{{Cite web|last=Code|first=Bill|title=What makes Vanuatu one of the happiest places in the world?|url=https://www.bbc.com/travel/story/20200209-what-makes-vanuatu-one-of-the-happiest-places-in-the-world|access-date=31 May 2021|website=www.bbc.com|language=en}}</ref>
-The Bislama dictionary defines ''Ni-Vanuatu'' as a "Vanuatu citizen of Melanesian descent but not limited to".<ref name=":0">{{cite book|last=Crowley|first=Terry|title=A New Bislama Dictionary|publisher=University of the South Pacific|year=2003|isbn=9789820203624|location=Fiji|chapter=Ni-Van|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cZoVLi0NJ0QC&pg=PA191}}</ref>
+The Bislama dictionary defines ''ni-Vanuatu'' as a "Vanuatu citizen of Melanesian descent but not limited to".<ref name=":0">{{cite book|last=Crowley|first=Terry|title=A New Bislama Dictionary|publisher=University of the South Pacific|year=2003|isbn=9789820203624|location=Fiji|chapter=Ni-Van|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cZoVLi0NJ0QC&pg=PA191}}</ref>
 The term is mostly used in English and French, and is rarely used in [[Bislama]], the country's [[lingua franca]].<ref>Bislama more commonly uses phrases such as ''man Vanuatu'' ("V. person" or "V. people") or ''blong Vanuatu'' ("of V.").</ref> The term is never used in the [[languages of Vanuatu|indigenous languages of the archipelago]].
-The form ''Ni-Van'' is a colloquial abbreviation of ''Ni-Vanuatu''. This form was pejorative in its original usage in the 1980s by Anglophone European expatriates, similar to its French equivalent {{lang|fr|les nis}}, but according to New Zealand linguist [[Terry Crowley (linguist)|Terry Crowley]], by the 2000s the term ''Ni-Van'' saw increasing usage among Ni-Vanuatu.<ref name=":0" />
+The form ''ni-Van'' is a colloquial abbreviation of ''ni-Vanuatu''. This form was pejorative in its original usage in the 1980s by Anglophone European expatriates, similar to its French equivalent {{lang|fr|les nis}}, but according to New Zealand linguist [[Terry Crowley (linguist)|Terry Crowley]], by the 2000s the term ''ni-Van'' saw increasing usage among ni-Vanuatu.<ref name=":0" />
 == History ==
@@ Line 39: / Line 39: @@
 === European settlement ===
-European explorers discovered Vanuatu in 1606 by Captain Pedro Gernandez De Quiros, however settlement did not happen until Captain James Cook charted the islands and deemed it The New Hebrides. At the end of the 19th century, Ni-Vanuatu were regularly kidnapped and forced to work in plantations in [[Fiji]] and Australia, a practice now known as "[[blackbirding]]".<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite web|date=16 September 2017|title=Blackbirding: Australia's history of kidnapping Pacific Islanders|url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-09-17/blackbirding-australias-history-of-kidnapping-pacific-islanders/8860754|access-date=17 May 2021|website=www.abc.net.au|language=en-AU}}</ref>
+Portuguese navigator [[Pedro Fernandes de Queirós]] visited Vanuatu in 1606. However, settlement did not occur until Captain [[James Cook]] charted the islands, deeming it the New Hebrides. At the end of the 19th century, ni-Vanuatu were regularly kidnapped and forced to work in plantations in [[Fiji]] and Australia, a practice now known as "[[blackbirding]]".<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite web|date=16 September 2017|title=Blackbirding: Australia's history of kidnapping Pacific Islanders|url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-09-17/blackbirding-australias-history-of-kidnapping-pacific-islanders/8860754|access-date=17 May 2021|website=www.abc.net.au|language=en-AU}}</ref>
-In 1906, France and Britain established the [[Condominium (international law)|Condominium]] of the [[New Hebrides]]. During the joint rulership from the two countries, the Ni-Vanuatu lived under French and British authorities. On 30 July 1980, the New Hebrides gained independence under the new name of Vanuatu.<ref name=":2">{{Citation|last=Aldrich|first=Robert|title=From the New Hebrides to Vanuatu|date=1993|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-10828-2_6|work=France and the South Pacific since 1940|pages=196–239|place=London|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK|doi=10.1007/978-1-349-10828-2_6|isbn=978-1-349-10830-5|access-date=17 May 2021}}</ref>
+In 1906, France and Britain established the the [[New Hebrides|New Hebrides Condominium]]. During the joint rule of the two countries, the ni-Vanuatu lived under bith French and British authority. On 30 July 1980, the New Hebrides gained independence as the Republic of Vanuatu.<ref name=":2">{{Citation|last=Aldrich|first=Robert|title=From the New Hebrides to Vanuatu|date=1993|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-10828-2_6|work=France and the South Pacific since 1940|pages=196–239|place=London|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK|doi=10.1007/978-1-349-10828-2_6|isbn=978-1-349-10830-5|access-date=17 May 2021}}</ref>
 === Land and nationalism ===
 During the Condominium period, European regulations sometimes resulted in land disputes, particularly around plantations.<ref name=":4">''Vanuatu Country Report for The State of the World's Forest Genetic Resources Food and Agricultural Organisation'', Forestry Department; 2012.</ref>
-Upon independence, the new constitution determined that land ownership would belong to native ni-vanuatus: the land rights were given to the [[traditional owners]] and community to make decisions.<ref name=":4" />
+Upon independence, the new constitution determined that land ownership would belong to native ni-Vanuatus: the land rights were given to the [[traditional owners]] and community to make decisions.<ref name=":4" />
 == Society ==
 === Economic impact of economy on the people ===
-Workers on the copra plantations were generally Melanesian. Melanesian workers were occupied with their own plantations<ref name=":2" /> which led to European owners sourcing labour from foreign countries such as [[French Indochina]] for general agricultural labour and construction. After World War II, American soldiers introduced Eurocentric items such as camp supplies, construction aviation, electricity and running water. The two factors of introducing overseas workers in combination with the introduction of modern facilities led to Vanuatu's economic momentum which helped create the backbone of the island's copra production. Copra production such as was the main focus as other areas such as forestry, fishing and native crafts were underdeveloped at the time.<ref name=":2" /> Food crops, including yams, taro and cassava, are used for local consumption; copra production such as coconuts and cocoa make up the majority of Vanuatu's exports.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|last=David.|first=Macfarlane|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/686143123|title=Pastures in Vanuatu|date=1986|publisher=Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research|isbn=978-1-4619-3285-7|oclc=686143123}}</ref>
+Workers on the copra plantations were generally Melanesian. Melanesian workers were occupied with their own plantations<ref name=":2" /> leading to European owners sourcing labour from foreign countries such as [[French Indochina]] for general agricultural labour and construction. After World War II, American soldiers introduced Western items such as camp supplies, construction aviation, electricity, and running water. Introducing overseas workers combined with the introduction of modern facilities led to Vanuatu's economic momentum, which helped form the backbone of the island's copra production. Copra production was the main economic focus as other areas such as forestry, fishing, and native crafts were underdeveloped at the time.<ref name=":2" /> Food crops, including yams, taro, and cassava, are used for local consumption; copra production such as coconuts and cocoa make up the majority of Vanuatu's exports.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|last=David.|first=Macfarlane|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/686143123|title=Pastures in Vanuatu|date=1986|publisher=Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research|isbn=978-1-4619-3285-7|oclc=686143123}}</ref>
-Profiles of labour workers, miners and construction workers were mainly of Melanesian descent as labour job demands rose with the economic boom. In 1953, Vietnamese workers started returning to their home country, and most of them had done so by 1963. This caused a shortage in plantation workers which led to recruitment from other islands such as Tahiti.<ref name=":2" />
+Profiles of labour workers, miners, and construction workers were mainly of Melanesian descent as labour demands rose with the economic boom. In 1953, Vietnamese workers started returning to their home country, most of them having done so by 1963. This caused a shortage in plantation workers which in turn led to recruitment from other islands such as Tahiti.<ref name=":2" />
-Temperamental weather strongly impacted plantations, as hurricanes destroyed the main copra of coconut plantations.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Martin R Fowler|title=Aspects of Copra Production and Marketing in Vanuatu|date=1 June 1987|journal=CORD|volume=3|issue=2|pages=34|doi=10.37833/cord.v3i02.203|issn=2721-8856|doi-access=free}}</ref> Competition from overseas in combination with natural disasters led to a solution of sourcing different agricultural mediums such as cattle. Local demands of meat as well as international export welcomed another economic boom in Vanuatu.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" />
+Temperamental weather strongly impacted plantations, as hurricanes destroyed the main copra of coconut plantations.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Martin R Fowler|title=Aspects of Copra Production and Marketing in Vanuatu|date=1 June 1987|journal=CORD|volume=3|issue=2|pages=34|doi=10.37833/cord.v3i02.203|issn=2721-8856|doi-access=free}}</ref> Competition from overseas in combination with natural disasters led to a solution of sourcing different agricultural mediums such as cattle. Local demands for meat as well as exports welcomed another economic boom in Vanuatu.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" />
 === Education ===
-Prior to Vanuatu's independence in 1980, the French government offered additional effort into support the French population. Free education and buildings were developed whilst the British government required education fees from parents.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":4" /> The competition between the two ruling governments caused a division in the education system, as Ni-Vanuatu based their decisions on financial and political reasons. The French system was popular to Melanesians however the British system was still an option to many as Ni-Vanuatu parents say "''Yumi no save yet se wanem saed bae i win"'' translating to "We don't know yet which side is going to win out".<ref name=":4" /> The rational of many feared the unknown of which ruling government would take over the nation. Tertiary education was often presented with a bias from the French government, based on the fears of higher education presenting ideas of anti-colonialism to the general population. English-medium to French-medium university scholars reflected this concept with a ratio of 120:1 in 1983, three years after the independence of Vanuatu.<ref name=":4" />
+Prior to Vanuatu's independence in 1980, the French government offered additional support to the French population. Free education and buildings were developed whilst the British government required education fees from parents.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":4" /> The competition between the two ruling governments caused a division in the education system, as ni-Vanuatu based their decisions on financial and political reasons. The French system was popular to Melanesians, but the British system was still an option to many. Ni-Vanuatu parents would say "''Yumi no save yet se wanem saed bae i win",'' translating to "We don't know yet which side is going to win out".<ref name=":4" /> The rational of many feared the unknown of which ruling government would take over the nation. Tertiary education was often presented with a bias from the French government, based on the fears of higher education presenting ideas of anti-colonialism to the general population. English-medium to French-medium university scholars reflected this concept with a ratio of 120:1 in 1983, three years after the independence of Vanuatu.<ref name=":4" />
 The [[Vanuatu Cultural Centre]] established{{when|date=May 2021}} a scheme whereby some of its researchers were indigenous; they were called "filwoka" (from Eng. ''fieldworker'').<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Tryon|first=Darrell|date=1999|title=Ni-Vanuatu Research and Researchers|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/j.1834-4461.1999.tb02985.x|journal=Oceania|volume=70|issue=1|pages=9–15|doi=10.1002/j.1834-4461.1999.tb02985.x|issn=0029-8077}}</ref>
 === Ni-Vanuatu women ===
-Recognition of Ni-Vanuatu women in the political, business and social bubble has been growing recently however there are barriers that impede this growth. Social standards of Pacific women heavily emphasise on the women's role as nurturers, which consists of domestic tasks of washing clothes, cooking, gardening and cleaning the house.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Ellis|first1=Amanda|last2=Manuel|first2=Claire|last3=Cutura|first3=Jozefina|last4=Bowman|first4=Chakriya|date=17 April 2009|title=Women in Vanuatu|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1596/978-0-8213-7909-7|doi=10.1596/978-0-8213-7909-7|isbn=978-0-8213-7909-7}}</ref> Women who went overseas for their tertiary studies and returned have expressed the contrasting differences of Western and Vanuatu lifestyles. Particularly independence was viewed differently, as privacy in Western cultures was looser.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Strachan|first1=Jane|last2=Samuel|first2=Janet|last3=Takaro|first3=Minnie|date=2007|title=Ni Vanuatu women graduates: what happens when they go home?|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09614520601092055|journal=Development in Practice|volume=17|issue=1|pages=147–153|doi=10.1080/09614520601092055|s2cid=155031215|issn=0961-4524}}</ref>
+Recognition of ni-Vanuatu women in the political, business and social bubble has been growing recently; however, there are barriers that impede this growth. Social standards of Pacific women heavily emphasize the women's role as nurturers, which consists of domestic tasks such as washing clothes, cooking, gardening, and cleaning the house.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Ellis|first1=Amanda|last2=Manuel|first2=Claire|last3=Cutura|first3=Jozefina|last4=Bowman|first4=Chakriya|date=17 April 2009|title=Women in Vanuatu|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1596/978-0-8213-7909-7|doi=10.1596/978-0-8213-7909-7|isbn=978-0-8213-7909-7}}</ref> Women who went overseas for their tertiary studies and returned have expressed the contrasting differences of Western and Vanuatu lifestyles. Independence was viewed differently in particular, as privacy in Western cultures was looser.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Strachan|first1=Jane|last2=Samuel|first2=Janet|last3=Takaro|first3=Minnie|date=2007|title=Ni Vanuatu women graduates: what happens when they go home?|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09614520601092055|journal=Development in Practice|volume=17|issue=1|pages=147–153|doi=10.1080/09614520601092055|s2cid=155031215|issn=0961-4524}}</ref>
-Although there are no laws against women participating in politics, there were no women serving in parliament during the 2016 election. [[Hilda Lini]] of the Vanuatu's parliament puts promotes women participating in politics however she predicts that it would take time to convince to public to do so.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Vila|first=Yasmine Bjornum in Port|date=14 March 2020|title='2020 is going to be my year': the push to elect women in Vanuatu, a nation with no female MPs|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/mar/15/2020-will-be-my-year-the-push-to-elect-women-in-vanuatu-a-nation-with-no-female-mps|access-date=31 May 2021|website=the Guardian|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=16 March 2020|title=Vanuatu: Push to include women in Parliament|url=https://www.abc.net.au/radio-australia/programs/pacificbeat/Vanuatu-women-candidates/12058654|access-date=31 May 2021|website=ABC Radio Australia|language=en-AU}}</ref> In October 2020, "Vote for Women" campaign was coordinated to encourage and support women in the political scene. The municipal council reserves seats for women to represent the community and are encouraged to participate with government training programs readily available.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Vanuatu|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2019-country-reports-on-human-rights-practices/Vanuatu/|access-date=31 May 2021|website=United States Department of State|language=en-US}}</ref>
+Although there are no laws against women participating in politics, there were no women serving in parliament during the 2016 election. [[Hilda Lini]] of the Vanuatu's parliament promotes women participating in politics; however, she predicts that it would take time to convince to public to do so.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Vila|first=Yasmine Bjornum in Port|date=14 March 2020|title='2020 is going to be my year': the push to elect women in Vanuatu, a nation with no female MPs|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/mar/15/2020-will-be-my-year-the-push-to-elect-women-in-vanuatu-a-nation-with-no-female-mps|access-date=31 May 2021|website=the Guardian|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=16 March 2020|title=Vanuatu: Push to include women in Parliament|url=https://www.abc.net.au/radio-australia/programs/pacificbeat/Vanuatu-women-candidates/12058654|access-date=31 May 2021|website=ABC Radio Australia|language=en-AU}}</ref> In October 2020, a "Vote for Women" campaign was coordinated to encourage and support women in the political scene. The municipal council reserves seats for women to represent the community and are encouraged to participate with government training programs readily available.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Vanuatu|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2019-country-reports-on-human-rights-practices/Vanuatu/|access-date=31 May 2021|website=United States Department of State|language=en-US}}</ref>
 == Population ==
@@ Line 71: / Line 71: @@
 === Demographics ===
 {{main|Demographics of Vanuatu|}}
-% of the Ni-Vanuatu population live in rural areas, whereas the remaining 25% population live in urban areas. [[Port Vila]] and [[Luganville]] are the primary urban cities populated<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|title=Vanuatu – The World Factbook|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/Vanuatu/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210109132322/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/vanuatu|url-status=dead|archive-date=9 January 2021|access-date=31 May 2021|website=www.cia.gov}}</ref> with Port Villa having a population of 35,901.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Port Vila Population – worldMeters |url=https://world-meters.com/population/vanuatu/port-vila-2135171 |access-date=18 October 2023 |website=world-meters.com |language=en}}</ref> The total land area is 12,189&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> with a population growth rate of 1.67%. Christianity makes up the majority of the religious community as 93.5% of the population identify as Christians as of 2020.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Religions in Vanuatu {{!}} PEW-GRF|url=http://www.globalreligiousfutures.org/countries/Vanuatu/religious_demography#/?affiliations_religion_id=0&affiliations_year=2020|access-date=31 May 2021|website=www.globalreligiousfutures.org|archive-date=2 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602213800/http://www.globalreligiousfutures.org/countries/vanuatu/religious_demography#/?affiliations_religion_id=0&affiliations_year=2020|url-status=dead}}</ref>
+% of the ni-Vanuatu population live in rural areas, whereas the remaining 25% population live in urban areas. [[Port Vila]] and [[Luganville]] are the primary urban cities<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|title=Vanuatu – The World Factbook|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/Vanuatu/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210109132322/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/vanuatu|url-status=dead|archive-date=9 January 2021|access-date=31 May 2021|website=www.cia.gov}}</ref> with Port Villa having a population of 35,901.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Port Vila Population – worldMeters |url=https://world-meters.com/population/vanuatu/port-vila-2135171 |access-date=18 October 2023 |website=world-meters.com |language=en}}</ref> The total land area is 12,189 km<sup>2</sup> with a population growth rate of 1.67%. Christianity makes up the majority of the religious community as 93.5% of the population identify as Christian as of 2020.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Religions in Vanuatu {{!}} PEW-GRF|url=http://www.globalreligiousfutures.org/countries/Vanuatu/religious_demography#/?affiliations_religion_id=0&affiliations_year=2020|access-date=31 May 2021|website=www.globalreligiousfutures.org|archive-date=2 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602213800/http://www.globalreligiousfutures.org/countries/vanuatu/religious_demography#/?affiliations_religion_id=0&affiliations_year=2020|url-status=dead}}</ref>
 === Languages ===
 {{main|Languages of Vanuatu|Bislama}}
 [[File:Missionaries in the New Hebrides.JPG|thumb|327x327px|One of the first missionaries that arrived in New Hebrides – John Geddies<ref name=":14">{{Cite web|title=- An Archaeology of Early Christianity in Vanuatu – ANU|url=https://press-files.anu.edu.au/downloads/press/n2244/html/ch01.xhtml?referer=&page=9|access-date=31 May 2021|website=press-files.anu.edu.au|language=en}}</ref>]]
-Vanuatu is the country with the world's highest language density ''per capita'', with 138 languages for a population of 0.3 million. These 138 indigenous languages are still used today by two-thirds of the country's population, mainly in rural areas. These are [[Oceanic languages]], descended historically from the country's first Austronesian settlers.
+Vanuatu is the country with the world's highest language density ''per capita'', with 138 languages for a population of 0.3 million. These 138 indigenous languages are still used today by two-thirds of the country's population, mainly in rural areas. These are [[Oceanic languages]], descended historically from the country's first Austronesian settlers.
-Despite the first European contact in Vanuatu in 1606, English was not introduced to Ni-Vanuatu until the 1840s when [[Melanesian Mission|English-speaking missionaries]] arrived.<ref name=":14" /> This was around the same time when European sourcing of sandalwood in the Pacific turned to Vanuatu. During the time of the [[Condominium of the New Hebrides]], French and English competed for the status of main language; the population spontaneously turned to [[Bislama]] as used as a tool of unity.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":4" /><ref name=":12">{{Cite book|last=Crowley|first=Terry|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/21116855|title=Beach-la-Mar to Bislama : the emergence of a national language in Vanuatu|date=1990|publisher=Clarendon Press|isbn=0-19-824893-8|location=Oxford|oclc=21116855}}</ref> Bislama is often essential as the privileged population are educated in English and middle to lower class population were often educated in French. Few people mastered both French and English, hence the use of Bislama.
+Despite the first European contact in Vanuatu in 1606, English was not introduced to ni-Vanuatu until the 1840s when [[Melanesian Mission|English-speaking missionaries]] arrived.<ref name=":14" /> This was around the same time when European sourcing of sandalwood in the Pacific turned to Vanuatu. During the period of the New Hebrides, French and English competed for the status of main language; the population instead turned to [[Bislama]] as used as a tool of unity.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":4" /><ref name=":12">{{Cite book|last=Crowley|first=Terry|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/21116855|title=Beach-la-Mar to Bislama : the emergence of a national language in Vanuatu|date=1990|publisher=Clarendon Press|isbn=0-19-824893-8|location=Oxford|oclc=21116855}}</ref> Bislama was often essential as the privileged population were educated in English and middle to lower class population were often educated in French. Few people mastered both French and English, hence the use of Bislama as a ''[[lingua franca]]''.
-Upon independence in 1980, three languages have become official in Vanuatu: English, French and [[Bislama]]. French and English are used mainly for written communication whereas Bislama is widely used for verbal communication.<ref name=":4" />
+Upon the nation's independence in 1980, three languages have become official in Vanuatu: English, French and [[Bislama]]. French and English are used mainly for written communication whereas Bislama is widely used for verbal communication.<ref name=":4" />
-Bislama serves as the country's [[lingua franca]]: it serves as a bridge between citizens educated in French vs. English;<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Siegel|first=Jeff|date=July 1997|title=Pidgin and English in Melanesia: Is There a Continuum?|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1467-971x.00059|journal=World Englishes|volume=16|issue=2|pages=185–204|doi=10.1111/1467-971x.00059|issn=0883-2919}}</ref> and it also allows speakers of different indigenous languages to communicate among themselves.
+Bislama serves as the country's lingua franca: it serves as a bridge between citizens educated in French vs. English;<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Siegel|first=Jeff|date=July 1997|title=Pidgin and English in Melanesia: Is There a Continuum?|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1467-971x.00059|journal=World Englishes|volume=16|issue=2|pages=185–204|doi=10.1111/1467-971x.00059|issn=0883-2919}}</ref> and it also allows speakers of different indigenous languages to communicate among themselves.
-Official welcoming speeches, opening of parliament and most official events use Bislama. Ni-Vanuatu of different ethnic backgrounds, such as Chinese and Vietnamese often use Bislama as greetings and opening introductions as a form of communication.<ref name=":4" />
+Official welcoming speeches, opening of parliament, and most official events use Bislama. Ni-Vanuatu of different ethnic backgrounds, such as Chinese and Vietnamese often use Bislama as greetings and opening introductions as a form of communication.<ref name=":4" />
 == Culture ==
@@ Line 91: / Line 91: @@
 === Kastom ===
 {{main|Kastom}}
-[[File:Taka Village Kastom Welcome Vanuatu.jpg|thumb|303x303px|Traditional dance performed by Ni-Vanuatu men]]
+[[File:Taka Village Kastom Welcome Vanuatu.jpg|thumb|303x303px|Traditional dance performed by ni-Vanuatu men]]
-Indigenous Ni-Vanuatu communities describe their traditional values and beliefs using the modern (Bislama) term ''[[kastom]]''.
+Indigenous ni-Vanuatu communities describe their traditional values and beliefs using the modern (Bislama) term ''[[kastom]]''.
-''Kastom'' was expressed through religion, clothing, native arts, indigenous culture and languages.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Lindstrom|first=Lamont|date=10 February 2009|title=Leftemap Kastom: The Political History of Tradition on Tanna, Vanuatu|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1835-9310.1982.tb00997.x|journal=Mankind|volume=13|issue=4|pages=316–329|doi=10.1111/j.1835-9310.1982.tb00997.x|issn=0025-2328}}</ref> The development of ''kastom'' was a symbolism between the traditional native values compared to the foreign concepts of Eurocentric ideals. It represents the unity and national identity of Ni-Vanuatu. In 1979, a year before independence, the [[Vanua'aku Pati]] of Parliament vowed to promote the "preservation and promotion of New Hebrides culture and languages"<ref name=":6" /> and thereby sponsoring a first National Arts Festival in Port Villa to express the support of ''kastoms'' in the community.<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":5" /> Parliament faced ongoing pressure from the community to preserve the traditions of Ni-Vanuatu, particularly in the post-colonial era leading to attempts of teaching indigenous culture being implemented in schools and development of art centres.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Robert.|first=Tonkinson|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/858601231|title=National identity and the problem of kastom in Vanuatu|date=1982|publisher=[Wiley-Blackwell on behalf of the Australian Anthropological Society]|oclc=858601231}}</ref>
+''Kastom'' was expressed through religion, clothing, native arts, indigenous culture and languages.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Lindstrom|first=Lamont|date=10 February 2009|title=Leftemap Kastom: The Political History of Tradition on Tanna, Vanuatu|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1835-9310.1982.tb00997.x|journal=Mankind|volume=13|issue=4|pages=316–329|doi=10.1111/j.1835-9310.1982.tb00997.x|issn=0025-2328}}</ref> The development of ''kastom'' was a symbol of traditional native values compared to foreign Eurocentric concepts and ideals. It represents the unity and national identity of the ni-Vanuatu. In 1979, a year before independence, the [[Vanua'aku Pati]] of Parliament vowed to promote the "preservation and promotion of New Hebrides culture and languages",<ref name=":6" /> thereby sponsoring a first National Arts Festival in Port Villa to express support of ''kastom'' in the community.<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":5" /> Parliament faced ongoing pressure from the community to preserve the traditions of ni-Vanuatu, particularly in the post-colonial era, leading to the teaching of indigenous culture being implemented in schools as well as the development of art centres.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Robert.|first=Tonkinson|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/858601231|title=National identity and the problem of kastom in Vanuatu|date=1982|publisher=[Wiley-Blackwell on behalf of the Australian Anthropological Society]|oclc=858601231}}</ref>
-Masks called ''Tamate'' are worn by men during ceremonies and rituals. These masks are used to hide the faces of dancers and the notion of the ancestral spirits will enter the dancer. After the ritual is complete, it is thought that the ancestor's spirit is rebirthed as a ''tamate spirit.'' Although the masks are no longer used, the aesthetics and representations of the ancestral world continue to embody the ''kastoms'' of ni-vanuatus.
+Masks called ''tamate'' are worn by men during ceremonies and rituals. These masks are used to hide the faces of dancers as ancestral spirits enter the dancer. After the ritual is complete, it is thought that the ancestor's spirit is rebirthed as a ''tamate spirit.'' Although the masks are no longer used, the aesthetics and representations of the ancestral world continue to embody the ''kastoms'' of ni-vanuatus.
 === Clothing ===
 [[File:Red mat from Pentecost Island, Vanuatu, Honolulu Museum of Art accession 14147.1.jpg|thumb|264x264px|Intricate designs of a mat from Vanuatu.]]
-Women particularly had a unique perspective of differentiating traditional customs to colonial ideas. Island dresses represented a national connection to Vanuatu however many Ni-Vanuatu women consciously choose to shift their options to modern clothing as their attitudes towards convenience, aesthetics and gender equality are considered.<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal|last=Cummings|first=Maggie|date=2013|title=Looking Good: The Cultural Politics of the Island Dress for Young Women in Vanuatu|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/cp.2013.0007|journal=The Contemporary Pacific|volume=25|issue=1|pages=33–65|doi=10.1353/cp.2013.0007|hdl=10125/32890|issn=1527-9464|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Although modern clothing is preferred on most occasions, the respect for ''kastom'' in island dresses are incorporated into special events such as festivals, ceremonies and church gatherings.
+Women in particular have a unique perspective in their relationship to traditional customs and colonial ideas. Island dresses represent a national connection to Vanuatu; however, many ni-Vanuatu women consciously choose to adopt modern clothing as attitudes towards convenience, aesthetics, and gender equality are considered.<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal|last=Cummings|first=Maggie|date=2013|title=Looking Good: The Cultural Politics of the Island Dress for Young Women in Vanuatu|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/cp.2013.0007|journal=The Contemporary Pacific|volume=25|issue=1|pages=33–65|doi=10.1353/cp.2013.0007|hdl=10125/32890|issn=1527-9464|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Although modern clothing is preferred on most occasions, the respect for ''kastom'' in island dresses are incorporated into special events such as festivals, ceremonies, and church gatherings.
-Pandanus [[grass skirt]]s are worn by women and men wore penis wrappers and bark belts.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Jolly|first=Margaret|date=11 June 2014|title=Women of the Place|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781315077147|doi=10.4324/9781315077147|isbn=9781134352265}}</ref> [[Barkcloth]]s were also a staple of Ni-Vanuatu clothing and sleeping mats.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last1=Barker|first1=John|last2=Bonnemaison|first2=Joel|last3=Huffman|first3=Kirk|date=1998|title=Arts of Vanuatu.|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2761017|journal=Pacific Affairs|volume=71|issue=2|pages=289|doi=10.2307/2761017|jstor=2761017|s2cid=155617522 |issn=0030-851X}}</ref> Different styles and variations of draping the barkcloths indicated the different status of the individual. Men would wear the barkcloth around their waist or drape it between their thighs and women would wear it around their waist and drape it behind their back where European stories of "tailed women" would originate.<ref name=":8" /> Young tree bark was the choice of creating these barkcloths as they didn't break so easily and would generally take three to four days to make. The sheets of bark would be soaked with water and women would beat layers of barks together whilst singing a special song.<ref name=":8" /> The layers of bark would alternately be soaked, beaten and dried until it was deemed ready. Generally Ni-Vanuatu women would create barkcloth for the community.<ref>Bolton, L. M. (Lissant Mary) (1993). ''Dancing in mats : extending kastom to women in Vanuatu''.</ref>
+Pandanus [[grass skirt]]s are worn by women while penis wrappers and bark belts are worn by men.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Jolly|first=Margaret|date=11 June 2014|title=Women of the Place|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781315077147|doi=10.4324/9781315077147|isbn=9781134352265}}</ref> [[Barkcloth]]s are also a staple of ni-Vanuatu clothing and sleeping mats.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last1=Barker|first1=John|last2=Bonnemaison|first2=Joel|last3=Huffman|first3=Kirk|date=1998|title=Arts of Vanuatu.|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2761017|journal=Pacific Affairs|volume=71|issue=2|pages=289|doi=10.2307/2761017|jstor=2761017|s2cid=155617522 |issn=0030-851X}}</ref> Different styles and variations of draping the barkcloths indicated the different status of the individual. Men would wear the barkcloth around their waist or drape it between their thighs and women would wear it around their waist and drape it behind their back—leading to European stories of "tailed women".<ref name=":8" /> These barkcloths were made from young tree bark, as it didn't break so easily, and would generally take three to four days to make. The sheets of bark would be soaked with water and women would beat layers of barks together whilst singing a special song.<ref name=":8" /> The layers of bark would alternately be soaked, beaten, and dried until it was deemed ready. Generally ni-Vanuatu women would create barkcloth for the community.<ref>Bolton, L. M. (Lissant Mary) (1993). ''Dancing in mats : extending kastom to women in Vanuatu''.</ref>
-Penis sleeves worn by men are called ''yelau'' and they would hang down at various lengths depending on the man's status.<ref name=":8" /> In particular cases, some chiefs would have penis sleeves that hung down to their ankles.
+Penis sleeves worn by men are called ''yelau'' and they would hang down at various lengths depending on the man's status.<ref name=":8" /> In certain cases, some chiefs would have penis sleeves that hung down to their ankles.
 === Music and Dance ===
-{{main|Music of Vanuatu}} Musical instruments and traditional dances played a big role in the practicing rituals of indigenous Ni-Vanuatu. Dances were coordinated with specific anti-clockwise directions of circling dances to represent the notions of male "hardness" during ceremonies and clockwise directions were only accepted to a certain age for males.<ref name=":8" /> Musical instruments were created with organic material such as wood, bones, leafs, rocks, vegetables and fruits. Bamboo flutes were carved in a fashion that would represent a flute, a V-notch on one end and one to three holes on the other. These instruments would be blown on one end and played with their arms extended to their waist. Hollowed cylinders were also hung from tree branches and audible sounds created by the wind would be interpreted as ancestral voices.<ref name=":8" /> Dried seeds were tied to wrists and ankles by dried coconut fibres to act as rattles and coconut shells would be banged against the ground for some games.
+{{main|Music of Vanuatu}} Musical instruments and traditional dances play a large role in the rituals of indigenous ni-Vanuatu. Dances coordinated with counter-clockwise directions of circling dances represent the notions of male "hardness" during ceremonies, and clockwise directions were only accepted at a certain age for males.<ref name=":8" /> Musical instruments were created with organic materials such as wood, bones, leafs, rocks, vegetables, and fruits. Bamboo flutes were carved with a V-shaped notch on one end and one to three holes on the other. These instruments would be blown on one end and played with their arms extended to their waist. Hollowed cylinders were also hung from tree branches and the audible sounds created by the wind would be interpreted as ancestral voices.<ref name=":8" /> Dried seeds were tied to wrists and ankles by dried coconut fibres to act as rattles and coconut shells would be banged against the ground for certain games.
 === Literature ===
-Oral literature was common amongst Ni-Vanuatu as written literature wasn't introduced until European missionaries created formal schools.<ref>Millar, V.U. (2008). Exploring the Character Strengths of an Oral Tradition: Vanuatu Through Analysis of Its Archived Oral Legends.</ref> Folk tales, myths, legends, songs, and poetry were passes across generations by word of mouth until written literature was developed.
+Oral literature was common amongst ni-Vanuatu as written literature wasn't introduced until European missionaries created formal schools.<ref>Millar, V.U. (2008). Exploring the Character Strengths of an Oral Tradition: Vanuatu Through Analysis of Its Archived Oral Legends.</ref> Folk tales, myths, legends, songs, and poetry were passed across generations by word of mouth before written literature was introduced.
 === Fine arts ===
 [[File:PortVilaLapita.jpg|thumb|295x295px|Pottery displayed in Vanuatu Cultural Centre, Port Villa]]
-Kastom can be interpreted by different forms of visual and material arts by indigenous Ni-Vanuatu. Material forms of art are passed down generations as they represent customary practices such as fishing, rituals, clothing and food preparations.<ref name=":8" /> The [[Vanuatu Cultural Centre]] and [[National Museum of Vanuatu|National Museum]] displays artefacts collected by anthropologists and donations from 150 years ago. These artefacts are representations of cultural practices of the indigenous community of Vanuatu however disruption from colonialism have halted and destroyed records of these cultural and social remnants.<ref name=":11" />
+''Kastom'' can be seen in different forms of visual and material arts by indigenous ni-Vanuatu. Material forms of art are passed down for generations as they represent customary practices such as fishing, rituals, clothing, and food preparation.<ref name=":8" /> The [[Vanuatu Cultural Centre]] and [[National Museum of Vanuatu|National Museum]] display artefacts collected and donated by anthropologists from 150 years ago. These artefacts are representations of cultural practices of the indigenous community of Vanuatu; however, disruption from colonialism has halted and destroyed records of these cultural and social remnants.<ref name=":11" />
-Pottery could be dated back as early 1000BC on the islands of [[Efate]] and the pots were found to be decorated with different styles in different regions of Vanuatu.<ref name=":8" /><ref>Ambrose, W. (1992). Clays and sands in Melanesian pottery analysis. ''Poterie Lapita et peuplement'', 169–176.</ref> Two main techniques were used to make these pots.<ref name=":8" /> The first one being a long coil of [[clay]] being attached to a bamboo cylinder and continuously coiled until a circular sheet of clay was added to make the base of the pot. The bamboo base was removed and the result of this process created the conical shape of pots. The second technique was a ball of clay was hollowed out on moulded onto the knee which created the bowl shape. The pots were then dried out and fired. The hearth was prepared by hot stones and dried coconut fronds and bamboo were used to fuel the fire.<ref name=":8" />
+Pottery can be dated back as early as 1000BC on the islands of [[Efate]] with the pots found to be decorated with different styles in different regions of Vanuatu.<ref name=":8" /><ref>Ambrose, W. (1992). Clays and sands in Melanesian pottery analysis. ''Poterie Lapita et peuplement'', 169–176.</ref> Two main techniques were used to make these pots.<ref name=":8" /> The first technique involved a long coil of [[clay]] being attached to a bamboo cylinder and continuously coiled until a circular sheet of clay was added to make the base of the pot. The bamboo base was removed resulting in the conical shape of these pots. The second technique used a ball of clay that was hollowed out and molded onto the knee, which created the bowl shape. These pots were then dried out and fired. The hearth was prepared by hot stones and dried coconut fronds and bamboo were used to fuel the fire.<ref name=":8" />
-Contemporary arts have been criticised due to the non-indigenous forms of using western media such as [[Watercolor painting|watercolour]] and [[acrylic paint]] to portray the ''kastoms'' of Ni-Vanuatu. However, contemporary Ni-Vanuatu artists have argued the representations of their cultural ties to Vanuatu are being represented in their artistic forms.<ref name=":11">Geismar, H. (2004). The materiality of contemporary art in Vanuatu. ''Journal of Material Culture'', ''9''(1), 43–58.</ref> Foundation Suzanne Bastien is a contemporary art gallery in Port Vila that Suzanne Bastien opened in hopes of "continued nurturing of contemporary art for future generations".<ref>{{Cite web|date=31 July 2015|title=About Us|url=https://fondationsuzannebastien.com/about/|access-date=31 May 2021|website=Fondation Suzanne Bastien|language=en}}</ref> The spiritual, social and physical connection expressed by contemporary artists have indicated different communities, regions and islands of Vanuatu with the ongoing Western influence on Melanesian culture.
+Contemporary arts have been criticised due to the non-indigenous forms of using western media such as [[Watercolor painting|watercolour]] and [[acrylic paint]] to portray the ''kastoms'' of the ni-Vanuatu. However, contemporary Ni-Vanuatu artists have argued that representations of their cultural ties to Vanuatu are being represented in their artistic forms.<ref name=":11">Geismar, H. (2004). The materiality of contemporary art in Vanuatu. ''Journal of Material Culture'', ''9''(1), 43–58.</ref> Foundation Suzanne Bastien is a contemporary art gallery in Port Vila that Suzanne Bastien opened in hopes of "continued nurturing of contemporary art for future generations".<ref>{{Cite web|date=31 July 2015|title=About Us|url=https://fondationsuzannebastien.com/about/|access-date=31 May 2021|website=Fondation Suzanne Bastien|language=en}}</ref> The spiritual, social, and physical connection expressed by contemporary artists have indicated different communities, regions, and islands of Vanuatu with the ongoing Western influence on Melanesian culture.
 === Cuisine ===
-{{main|Vanuatuan cuisine}}Indigenous communities have diets that involved foraging and fishing as their main method of sustenance. It wasn't until European involvement of livestock a copra production that cattle meat and cocoa were introduced. [[Root vegetables]] such as [[taro]] and [[Yam (vegetable)|yams]] were a main staple of traditional ni-vanatu communities as they were considered as "strong foods" that make the people strong and energetic.<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Jolly|first=Margaret|date=1991|title=Gifts, commodities and corporeality: Food and gender in South Pentecost, Vanuatu|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03149099109508475|journal=Canberra Anthropology|volume=14|issue=1|pages=45–66|doi=10.1080/03149099109508475|issn=0314-9099}}</ref>
+{{main|Vanuatuan cuisine}}Indigenous communities have diets that involve foraging and fishing as their main method of sustenance. It wasn't until European involvement of livestock and copra production that cattle meat and cocoa were introduced. [[Root vegetables]] such as [[taro]] and [[Yam (vegetable)|yams]] are a staple of traditional ni-Vanatu communities as they are considered "strong foods" that make the people strong and energetic.<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Jolly|first=Margaret|date=1991|title=Gifts, commodities and corporeality: Food and gender in South Pentecost, Vanuatu|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03149099109508475|journal=Canberra Anthropology|volume=14|issue=1|pages=45–66|doi=10.1080/03149099109508475|issn=0314-9099}}</ref>
 [[File:Taro root and crossection of taro root.jpg|thumb|234x234px|Taro was one of the main staples of the indigenous Ni-Vanuatu diet.]]
-Hunting and fishing were designated as a role for men due to cultural beliefs of women on a boat would make her infertile. Thus men would hunt for fish and women would feed pigs and forage for root vegetables.<ref name=":9" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jolly|first=Margaret|title=The Forgotten Women: A History of Migrant Labour and Gender Relations in Vanuatu|date=1987|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/j.1834-4461.1987.tb02265.x|journal=Oceania|volume=58|issue=2|pages=119–139|doi=10.1002/j.1834-4461.1987.tb02265.x|issn=0029-8077}}</ref> Roles for men and women would be divided equally in food preparation as they have different roles in the household hut or men's hut. However division of the food would be dependent on the ranking of female and males status in the community. Food prepared in the separate fire closest to the entrance of the household hut are reserved for women, children and ungraded boys and the fire closest to the back of the hut is reserved for men and graded boys.<ref name=":9" /> The food prepared in the men's hut would further be divided into four separate fires and subsequently, for the four different rankings of the men in the community.<ref name=":9" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jolly|first=Margaret|date=1994|title=Hierarchy and encompassment: Rank, gender and place in Vanuatu and Fiji|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02757206.1994.9960843|journal=History and Anthropology|volume=7|issue=1–4|pages=133–167|doi=10.1080/02757206.1994.9960843|issn=0275-7206}}</ref>
+Hunting and fishing were designated as a role for men due to a cultural belief that a woman being on a boat would make her infertile. Thus men would hunt for fish while women would feed pigs and forage for root vegetables.<ref name=":9" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jolly|first=Margaret|title=The Forgotten Women: A History of Migrant Labour and Gender Relations in Vanuatu|date=1987|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/j.1834-4461.1987.tb02265.x|journal=Oceania|volume=58|issue=2|pages=119–139|doi=10.1002/j.1834-4461.1987.tb02265.x|issn=0029-8077}}</ref> Roles for men and women would be divided equally in food preparation as they have different roles in the household hut, or men's hut. However, division of the food would be dependent on the ranking of the female and males status in the community. Food prepared in the separate fire closest to the entrance of the household hut are reserved for women, children and ungraded boys while the fire closest to the back of the hut is reserved for men and graded boys.<ref name=":9" /> The food prepared in the men's hut would be further divided into four separate fires for the four different rankings of the men in the community.<ref name=":9" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jolly|first=Margaret|date=1994|title=Hierarchy and encompassment: Rank, gender and place in Vanuatu and Fiji|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02757206.1994.9960843|journal=History and Anthropology|volume=7|issue=1–4|pages=133–167|doi=10.1080/02757206.1994.9960843|issn=0275-7206}}</ref>
 ==== Kava drinking ====
 {{main|kava}}
-[[Kava]] is a beverage in the Oceanic regions of Polynesia, Melanesia and Micronesia. Kava plays a central role in spiritual, cultural and social practices of indigenous ni-vanatu.<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal|last=Singh|first=Yadhu N.|date=1992|title=Kava: an overview|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0378-8741(92)90003-a|journal=Journal of Ethnopharmacology|volume=37|issue=1|pages=13–45|doi=10.1016/0378-8741(92)90003-a|pmid=1453702|issn=0378-8741}}</ref> There are remedial notions of kava that it could be used for medicinal purposes.<ref name=":10" />
+[[Kava]] is a beverage in the Oceanic regions of Polynesia, Melanesia and Micronesia. Kava plays a central role in spiritual, cultural, and social practices of indigenous ni-Vanatu.<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal|last=Singh|first=Yadhu N.|date=1992|title=Kava: an overview|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0378-8741(92)90003-a|journal=Journal of Ethnopharmacology|volume=37|issue=1|pages=13–45|doi=10.1016/0378-8741(92)90003-a|pmid=1453702|issn=0378-8741}}</ref> There are remedial notions of kava that it could be used for medicinal purposes.<ref name=":10" />
 Kava bowls are used in preparation and serving of the beverage with different types of materials being used. Kava bowls are considered sacred and have been traditionally used exclusively for kava drinking.<ref name=":10" />

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