Casiri (Tacna): Difference between revisions

Casiri
Casiri
Paucarani, Paugarani
Highest point
Elevation	5,650 m (18,540 ft)
Coordinates	17°28′S 69°48′W / 17.467°S 69.800°W
Geography
	Casiri

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Casiri, also known as Paucarani, is an about 5,650 metres (18,537 ft) high complex volcano in the Barroso mountain range of the Andes, in the Tacna Region of Peru. It consists of four individual volcanic edifices with lava domes; the southeasternmost edifice has been active during the Holocene, producing thick lava flows that have overrun moraines of Pleistocene age. The youngest lava flow has been dated to 2,600 ± 400 years ago. Although no historical eruptions are known, the volcano is considered to be potentially active and is monitored.

The volcano features geothermal manifestations and is linked to a larger geothermal field that has been prospected for geothermal power generation. There are two sulfur mines on the volcano, and the Paucarani reservoir that contains the bulk of Tacna's water supply is associated with Casiri: The Rio Uchusuma that flows through the reservoir originates on the volcano and the reservoir is located on the foot of Casiri.

Name

The name "Casiri" might mean "bawler" in Aymara.^[2] Casiri is also known as Paucarani^[3] or Paugarani,^[1] although Casiri and Paucarani are sometimes treated as distinct volcanoes.^[4] A lake with the name "Casiri" lies about 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) north from the volcano;^[5] it is a glacial lake^[6] and a reservoir^[7] which drains into the Mauri River through the Quebrada Chungara and Rio Kallapuma.^[8]

Geography and geomorphology

Casiri is a 5,650 metres (18,540 ft) high^[1] stratovolcano with lava domes^[9] close to the border between Peru and Chile.^[10] There are four individual volcanic edifices at Casiri: three older ones that form a 5 kilometre-long chain, and a southeasterly younger edifice with a well preserved lava dome in its crater^[1] which is breached to the south.^[10] An older lava dome lies^[11] in the western part of the complex.^[12] The whole Casiri volcano grew on the southern flanks of older volcanoes^[10] and rises about 1,050 metres (3,440 ft) above the surrounding terrain.^[13] The edifice has a volume of about 7 cubic kilometres (1.7 cu mi), with a diameter of 5 kilometres (3.1 mi).^[13]

Lava flows, stubby^[10] and thick owing to viscosity,^[14] originate on the younger edifice^[11] and spread in several directions.^[14] The flows reach lengths of 2 kilometres (1.2 mi)^[1] and are well preserved, displaying flow lines,^[14] levees and lobes;^[15] on images taken from space they have dark colours.^[12] Some parts of the volcano underwent hydrothermal alteration,^[16] producing gray-white rocks^[17] and clay,^[18] and wind-blown ash covers part of the lava flows.^[15]

Casiri is part of the Cordillera del Barroso [es] mountain range;^[19] generally, the terrain around Casiri is dominated by various volcanic and fluvioglacial formations along with some moraines.^[5]^[16] The mountain chains Barroso and Huancune lie southwest and south from Casiri, respectively,^[16] and the neighbouring mountains Auquitapie and Iñuma are covered with snow.^[20] Geologically, Casiri is considered to be part of the so-called "Paucarani Volcanics".^[21]

Hydrology and Paucarani reservoir

The Rio Uchusuma, a tributary of the Rio Mauri, originates on Casiri.^[19] A natural lake called Paucarani exists on the southeastern foot of Casiri,^[16]^[20] and the Quebrada Achuco valley^[9] is also located south of Casiri,^[16] accompanied by wetlands.^[22]^[16] On the other side, the southeastward-flowing Quebrada Mamuta lies to the north and northeast of the volcano, and to the northwest lie streams which flow through the lake Casiri and the lake Liñuma into the Rio Mauri.^[5] Volcanic activity has influenced the drainages through the formation of lava dams, altering watersheds.^[21]

An earth dam^[20] on the Rio Uchusuma^[23] was built in 1982-1986^[24] and forms a reservoir also called Paucarani^[22] on the southeastern foot of the volcano just southwest from the natural lake Paucarani.^[16] This reservoir has a capacity of 10,500,000 cubic metres (370,000,000 cu ft) of water^[25] and is a key^[24] part of the water supply of Tacna;^[26] water is transferred from the Paucarani reservoir through the Canal Uchusuma to Tacna,^[27] covering 90% of Tacna's water consumption for both irrigation and human use.^[28]

The Paucarani reservoir is also involved in the regulation of the Rio Caplina.^[29] In 2012, a broken floodgate caused a damaging flood.^[30] Alterations in the reservoir that increased its storage volume^[24] may be responsible for water leaks in the dam;^[31] additional problems reported at Paucarani are contamination with heavy metals - especially arsenic.^[32]

Human geography

Casiri is located in the Tarata Province^[20] of the Tacna Region of Peru;^[19] it lies about 100 kilometres (62 mi) northeast from the city of Tacna and close to the border with Chile and Bolivia.^[13] The volcano is situated north of the town of Paucarani;^[9] other human structures in the area south of Casiri are Calachata and Tulipiña. There are also numerous roads in the area,^[16] including one which runs south of the volcano and reaches the Capaja camp to its west.^[5] The town of Paucarani can be reached from the highway that connects Tacna with Charaña in Bolivia and Villa Industrial in Chile, through a secondary road.^[33] The region is thinly populated.^[34] A rain gauge of the Servicio Nacional de Meteorología e Hidrología del Perú [es] was in use on the volcano at 4,600 metres (15,100 ft) elevation from 1946 to 2003.^[35]

The volcano is considered a potential tourist attraction^[36] owing to its scenery.^[37] It is also part of the Monumento Natural de Paucarani geopark^[20] and has been proposed to become a protected area.^[37] The Paucarani reservoir also could be exploited for tourism purposes as well.^[20]

Geology

The Nazca Plate subducts beneath the South America Plate at a rate of 7–9 centimetres per year (2.8–3.5 in/year)^[38] and causes volcanism along the western margin of South America. This volcanism is distributed over three volcanic belts, the Northern Volcanic Zone, the Central Volcanic Zone and the Southern Volcanic Zone. The Central Volcanic Zone includes the volcanoes of southern Peru,^[39] a country with over 300 volcanoes. Of these, El Misti, Huaynaputina, Sabancaya, Ticsani, Tutupaca, Ubinas and Yucamane have been active during historical time. There are also geothermal manifestations such as fumaroles, geysers and hot springs in the country.^[40] Despite the activity, volcanism in Peru is poorly known.^[39]

Composition

Based on rock types that the Casiri volcano has erupted, it can be determined that it is composed of andesite, basaltic andesite and trachyandesite with a porphyric texture; the rocks contain biotite, hornblende, plagioclase and sanidine crystals.^[9]^[21] Deposition of sulfur from gases has formed sulfur deposits.^[41]

Eruption history

The Quaternary-age^[42] Casiri is one of the youngest volcanic systems in southern Peru^[9] with postglacial activity,^[43] and Peru's southernmost Holocene volcano.^[44] Holocene lavas sourced from fissure vents^[45] overlie Pleistocene-age moraines and are uneroded;^[46] radiometric dating on the volcano has yielded ages of 50,000 years^[47] and surface exposure dating has found ages of 6,000 ± 900 and 2,600 ± 400 years for two dark lava flows southwest and south of Casiri's main summit, respectively.^[48]

There are no reported eruptions,^[1] but activity may^[49] or may not have occurred in historical time;^[12] there are hot springs and solfataras,^[20] and Casiri has been classified as a latent^[50] or potentially active volcano^[51] with a moderate threat level.^[52] In 2012, the Geophysical Institute in Peru announced that it would begin monitoring Casiri, along with two other volcanoes in southern Peru, with seismometers.^[53]

Human use

Mining

The Gloria sulfur mine lies on Casiri^[41] – specifically, on the foot of Paucarani^[54] and southeast from the lava flows.^[1] The sulfur is contained in heavily altered rocks covering an area of about 1 square kilometre (0.39 sq mi) and is genetically related to the activity of Casiri. It has been excavated through trenches and wells;^[55] some installations could still be exploitable.^[20] Another mine known as San Luis may also be associated with Paucarani;^[55] it is located on the northwestern flank.^[44]^[5] Precious metals might occur in the hydrothermally altered areas at Casiri.^[56]

Geothermal power

The area of Casiri features the Chungará-Kallapuma geothermal field, where about 50 separate vents occur along the path of the Quebrada Chungará and the Kallapuma River; they reach temperatures of 83.4 °C (182.1 °F). These phenomena appear to relate to the activity of neighbouring volcanoes, which supply the heat to the geothermal field,^[57] while rainfall supplies the water and faults the paths for the ascending water; the hot springs are currently used as spas by the local population.^[58]

The geothermal power potential of the Tacna Region has been researched, partly because the Tacna Region covers its electricity demand with either nonrenewable oil or with hydropower (which is subject to climate variations). Mining is both an important economic resource in Tacna and a major consumer of electricity.^[59] In the case of the Chungará-Kallapuma geothermal field, the capacity of a 75 megawatt power plant exists;^[60] however, despite ongoing research since 1974 and a high geothermal potential, no geothermal power production has taken place in Peru as of 2013^[update].^[40]

References

^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g Vela et al. 2016, p. 19.
^ Juan Carlos Mamani Morales, Cuentos de Parinacota, 2009, p. 48: Casiri: del aymara q'asiri, gritador/a
^ INGEMMET 2000, p. 47.
^ INGEMMET 2000, p. 62.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Mendívil Echevarría 1965, Map2.
^ Mendívil Echevarría 1965, p. 12.
^ "PLAN DESARROLLO URBANO DE LA CIUDAD DE TACNA 2014 –2023" (PDF). Municipalidad Provincial de Tacna (in Spanish). May 2014. p. 118. Retrieved 1 November 2019.
^ Cruz Pauccara, Flores Jacobo & Velarde Benavente 2020, p. 15.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Cervantes G. & Monge Miguel 2000, p. 7.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Bromley et al. 2019, p. 4.
^ ^a ^b de Silva & Francis 1990, p. 296.
^ ^a ^b ^c de Silva & Francis 1990, p. 297.
^ ^a ^b ^c de Silva & Francis 1990, p. 288.
^ ^a ^b ^c Mendívil Echevarría 1965, pp. 64–65.
^ ^a ^b Bromley et al. 2019, p. 11.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h Cervantes G. & Monge Miguel 2000, Map4.
^ Mendívil Echevarría 1965, p. 57.
^ Zavala Carrión & Steinmüller 1997, p. 66.
^ ^a ^b ^c Galloso Carrasco, Armando; Loaiza Choque, Edwin (2009). "Actividad minera artesanal en las zonas de Apurímac, Cusco, Tacna y Moquegua - [Boletín E 7]". Instituto Geológico, Minero y Metalúrgico - INGEMMET: 74.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h INGEMMET 2000, p. 277.
^ ^a ^b ^c Mendívil Echevarría 1965, p. 64.
^ ^a ^b Cervantes G. & Monge Miguel 2000, p. 8.
^ Yepes del Castillo, Ernesto; Novak Talavera, Fabián; Gamarra Elías, Carlos; Brousset Barrios, Jorge (2018). "Intereses del Perú en la Región Sur". Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú: 31.
^ ^a ^b ^c "Represa de Paucarani se encuentra en peligro". Diario Correo. 24 February 2019. Retrieved 29 May 2019.
^ "Represa de Paucarani tiene 46% de agua almacenada". Diario Correo. 16 April 2015. Retrieved 29 May 2019.
^ INGEMMET 2000, p. 271.
^ Sánchez Velásquez 1996, p. 63.
^ Nieto, Luz Elena Vega (24 December 2014). "Racionarán agua en Tacna por anuncio de sequía". La República. Retrieved 29 May 2019.
^ Acosta Pereira, Cotrina Chávez & Peña Laureano 2009, p. 11.
^ "Crecida de río arrasa puentes y bocatomas en la sierra de Tacna". Diario Correo (in Spanish). 17 January 2017. Retrieved 29 May 2019.
^ Sánchez Velásquez 1996, p. 62.
^ Rivas, Jorge Turpo (7 August 2012). "Tacna: Advierten aumento de arsénico en agua". La República. Retrieved 29 May 2019.
^ Mendívil Echevarría 1965, p. 5.
^ Cruz Pauccara, Flores Jacobo & Velarde Benavente 2020, p. 11.
^ Acosta Pereira, Cotrina Chávez & Peña Laureano 2009, p. 29.
^ INGEMMET 2000, p. 272.
^ ^a ^b INGEMMET 2000, p. 283.
^ Bromley et al. 2019, p. 2.
^ ^a ^b de Silva & Francis 1990, p. 287.
^ ^a ^b Cacya Dueñas, Vargas Rodríguez & Cruz Pauccara 2013, p. 8.
^ ^a ^b Cervantes G. & Monge Miguel 2000, p. 10.
^ Núñez Juárez, Morche & Fídel Smoll 1997, p. 12.
^ Mendívil Echevarría 1965, p. 28.
^ ^a ^b "Nevados Casiri". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution.
^ INGEMMET 2000, p. 4.
^ Mendívil Echevarría 1965, p. 2.
^ INGEMMET 2000, p. 270.
^ Bromley et al. 2019, p. 7.
^ Mendívil Echevarría 1965, p. 65.
^ INGEMMET 2000, p. 182.
^ Núñez Juárez, Morche & Fídel Smoll 1997, p. 34.
^ Vela et al. 2016, p. 29.
^ Rivas, Jorge Turpo (10 August 2012). "Con modernos equipos le tomarán el pulso en tiempo real a tres volcanes de Tacna". La República. Retrieved 29 May 2019.
^ Mendívil Echevarría 1965, p. 62.
^ ^a ^b Mendívil Echevarría 1965, p. 79.
^ Zavala Carrión & Steinmüller 1997, p. 7.
^ Cacya Dueñas, Vargas Rodríguez & Cruz Pauccara 2013, p. 55.
^ Cacya Dueñas, Vargas Rodríguez & Cruz Pauccara 2013, p. 69.
^ Cacya Dueñas, Vargas Rodríguez & Cruz Pauccara 2013, p. 3.
^ Cacya Dueñas, Vargas Rodríguez & Cruz Pauccara 2013, p. 112.

Sources

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Bromley, Gordon R. M.; Thouret, Jean-Claude; Schimmelpfennig, Irene; Mariño, Jersy; Valdivia, David; Rademaker, Kurt; del Pilar Vivanco Lopez, Socorro; Team, ASTER; Aumaître, Georges; Bourlès, Didier; Keddadouche, Karim (7 November 2019). "In situ cosmogenic 3He and 36Cl and radiocarbon dating of volcanic deposits refine the Pleistocene and Holocene eruption chronology of SW Peru". Bulletin of Volcanology. 81 (11): 64. Bibcode:2019BVol...81...64B. doi:10.1007/s00445-019-1325-6. ISSN 1432-0819. S2CID 207913276.
Cacya Dueñas, Lourdes; Vargas Rodríguez, Víctor; Cruz Pauccara, Vicentina (2013). "Caracterización y evaluación del potencial geotérmico de la Región Tacna [Boletín C 56]". Instituto Geológico, Minero y Metalúrgico - INGEMMET.
Cervantes G., John; Monge Miguel, Robert W. (2000). "Memoria explicativa de la geología del cuadrángulo de Pachía (36-v) y Palca (36-x) [Escala 1:50 000]". Instituto Geológico, Minero y Metalúrgico – INGEMMET.
Cruz Pauccara, Vicentina; Flores Jacobo, Rosmery; Velarde Benavente, Yuliana (August 2020). "Características y evaluación del potencial geotérmico de la zona geotermal Casiri-Kallapuma, región Tacna - [Boletín B 69]". Instituto Geológico, Minero y Metalúrgico – INGEMMET.
de Silva, SL; Francis, PW (1 March 1990). "Potentially active volcanoes of Peru-Observations using Landsat Thematic Mapper and Space Shuttle imagery". Bulletin of Volcanology. 52 (4): 286–301. Bibcode:1990BVol...52..286D. doi:10.1007/BF00304100. ISSN 1432-0819. S2CID 140559785.
INGEMMET (2000). "Estudio de riesgos geológicos del Perú: Franja N° 1 - [Boletín C 23]". Instituto Geológico, Minero y Metalúrgico - INGEMMET.
Mendívil Echevarría, Salvador (1965). "Geología de los cuadrángulos de Maure y Antajave (hojas 35-x, 35-y) - [Boletín A 10]". Instituto Geológico, Minero y Metalúrgico - INGEMMET.
Núñez Juárez, Segundo; Morche, Wolfgang; Fídel Smoll, Lionel (1997). "Riesgo volcánico en el sur del Perú. Proyecto: Album de mapas de riesgos volcánicos de las principales ciudades del Suroeste del Perú - [Boletín C 16]". Instituto Geológico, Minero y Metalúrgico - INGEMMET. ISSN 1560-9928.
Sánchez Velásquez, William (1996). "Simulación hidrológica sistema hidráulico Vilavilani: estudio hidrogeológico del acuífero de las pampas de La Yarada - Hospicio Hospicio". Autoridad Nacional del Agua.
Vela, Jesica; Cáceres, Jesús; Calderón, Javier; Chijcheapaza, Rolando; Apaza, Freddy; Vilca, Javier; Masias, Pablo; Álvarez, Yovana; Miranda, Rafael (May 2016). "Evaluación del riesgo volcánico en el sur del Perú, situación de la vigilancia actual y requerimientos de monitoreo en el futuro". Repositorio institucional - IGP. INGEMMET.
Zavala Carrión, Bilberto Luis; Steinmüller, Klaus (1997). "Hidrotermalismo en el sur del Perú. Proyecto: Vigilancia de la actividad volcánica e hidrotermalismo en el Sur del Perú - [Boletín D 18]". Instituto Geológico, Minero y Metalúrgico - INGEMMET. ISSN 1607-5617.

[FOOTNOTEVelaCáceresCalderónChijcheapaza201619-1] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g Vela et al. 2016, p. 19.

[Morales2009-2] Juan Carlos Mamani Morales, Cuentos de Parinacota, 2009, p. 48: Casiri: del aymara q'asiri, gritador/a

[FOOTNOTEINGEMMET200047-3] INGEMMET 2000, p. 47.

[FOOTNOTEINGEMMET200062-4] INGEMMET 2000, p. 62.

[FOOTNOTEMendívil_Echevarría1965Map2-5] Mendívil Echevarría 1965, Map2.

[FOOTNOTEMendívil_Echevarría196512-6] Mendívil Echevarría 1965, p. 12.

[MPdT2014-7] "PLAN DESARROLLO URBANO DE LA CIUDAD DE TACNA 2014 –2023" (PDF). Municipalidad Provincial de Tacna (in Spanish). May 2014. p. 118. Retrieved 1 November 2019.

[FOOTNOTECruz_PauccaraFlores_JacoboVelarde_Benavente202015-8] Cruz Pauccara, Flores Jacobo & Velarde Benavente 2020, p. 15.

[FOOTNOTECervantes_G.Monge_Miguel20007-9] Cervantes G. & Monge Miguel 2000, p. 7.

[FOOTNOTEBromleyThouretSchimmelpfennigMariño20194-10] Bromley et al. 2019, p. 4.

[FOOTNOTEde_SilvaFrancis1990296-11] Silva & Francis 1990, p. 296.

[FOOTNOTEde_SilvaFrancis1990297-12] Silva & Francis 1990, p. 297.

[FOOTNOTEde_SilvaFrancis1990288-13] Silva & Francis 1990, p. 288.

[FOOTNOTEMendívil_Echevarría196564–65-14] Mendívil Echevarría 1965, pp. 64–65.

[FOOTNOTEBromleyThouretSchimmelpfennigMariño201911-15] Bromley et al. 2019, p. 11.

[FOOTNOTECervantes_G.Monge_Miguel2000Map4-16] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h Cervantes G. & Monge Miguel 2000, Map4.

[FOOTNOTEMendívil_Echevarría196557-17] Mendívil Echevarría 1965, p. 57.

[FOOTNOTEZavala_CarriónSteinmüller199766-18] Zavala Carrión & Steinmüller 1997, p. 66.

[Galloso2009-19] Galloso Carrasco, Armando; Loaiza Choque, Edwin (2009). "Actividad minera artesanal en las zonas de Apurímac, Cusco, Tacna y Moquegua - [Boletín E 7]". Instituto Geológico, Minero y Metalúrgico - INGEMMET: 74.

[FOOTNOTEINGEMMET2000277-20] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h INGEMMET 2000, p. 277.

[FOOTNOTEMendívil_Echevarría196564-21] Mendívil Echevarría 1965, p. 64.

[FOOTNOTECervantes_G.Monge_Miguel20008-22] Cervantes G. & Monge Miguel 2000, p. 8.

[YepesdeCastillo2018-23] Yepes del Castillo, Ernesto; Novak Talavera, Fabián; Gamarra Elías, Carlos; Brousset Barrios, Jorge (2018). "Intereses del Perú en la Región Sur". Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú: 31.

[DiarioCorreo2019-24] "Represa de Paucarani se encuentra en peligro". Diario Correo. 24 February 2019. Retrieved 29 May 2019.

[DiarioCorreo2015-25] "Represa de Paucarani tiene 46% de agua almacenada". Diario Correo. 16 April 2015. Retrieved 29 May 2019.

[FOOTNOTEINGEMMET2000271-26] INGEMMET 2000, p. 271.

[FOOTNOTESánchez_Velásquez199663-27] Sánchez Velásquez 1996, p. 63.

[Nieto2014-28] Nieto, Luz Elena Vega (24 December 2014). "Racionarán agua en Tacna por anuncio de sequía". La República. Retrieved 29 May 2019.

[FOOTNOTEAcosta_PereiraCotrina_ChávezPeña_Laureano200911-29] Acosta Pereira, Cotrina Chávez & Peña Laureano 2009, p. 11.

[DiarioCorreo2017-30] "Crecida de río arrasa puentes y bocatomas en la sierra de Tacna". Diario Correo (in Spanish). 17 January 2017. Retrieved 29 May 2019.

[FOOTNOTESánchez_Velásquez199662-31] Sánchez Velásquez 1996, p. 62.

[Rivas2012-32] Rivas, Jorge Turpo (7 August 2012). "Tacna: Advierten aumento de arsénico en agua". La República. Retrieved 29 May 2019.

[FOOTNOTEMendívil_Echevarría19655-33] Mendívil Echevarría 1965, p. 5.

[FOOTNOTECruz_PauccaraFlores_JacoboVelarde_Benavente202011-34] Cruz Pauccara, Flores Jacobo & Velarde Benavente 2020, p. 11.

[FOOTNOTEAcosta_PereiraCotrina_ChávezPeña_Laureano200929-35] Acosta Pereira, Cotrina Chávez & Peña Laureano 2009, p. 29.

[FOOTNOTEINGEMMET2000272-36] INGEMMET 2000, p. 272.

[FOOTNOTEINGEMMET2000283-37] INGEMMET 2000, p. 283.

[FOOTNOTEBromleyThouretSchimmelpfennigMariño20192-38] Bromley et al. 2019, p. 2.

[FOOTNOTEde_SilvaFrancis1990287-39] Silva & Francis 1990, p. 287.

[FOOTNOTECacya_DueñasVargas_RodríguezCruz_Pauccara20138-40] Cacya Dueñas, Vargas Rodríguez & Cruz Pauccara 2013, p. 8.

[FOOTNOTECervantes_G.Monge_Miguel200010-41] Cervantes G. & Monge Miguel 2000, p. 10.

[FOOTNOTENúñez_JuárezMorcheFídel_Smoll199712-42] Núñez Juárez, Morche & Fídel Smoll 1997, p. 12.

[FOOTNOTEMendívil_Echevarría196528-43] Mendívil Echevarría 1965, p. 28.

[GVP-44] "Nevados Casiri". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution.

[FOOTNOTEINGEMMET20004-45] INGEMMET 2000, p. 4.

[FOOTNOTEMendívil_Echevarría19652-46] Mendívil Echevarría 1965, p. 2.

[FOOTNOTEINGEMMET2000270-47] INGEMMET 2000, p. 270.

[FOOTNOTEBromleyThouretSchimmelpfennigMariño20197-48] Bromley et al. 2019, p. 7.

[FOOTNOTEMendívil_Echevarría196565-49] Mendívil Echevarría 1965, p. 65.

[FOOTNOTEINGEMMET2000182-50] INGEMMET 2000, p. 182.

[FOOTNOTENúñez_JuárezMorcheFídel_Smoll199734-51] Núñez Juárez, Morche & Fídel Smoll 1997, p. 34.

[FOOTNOTEVelaCáceresCalderónChijcheapaza201629-52] Vela et al. 2016, p. 29.

[Rivas2012a-53] Rivas, Jorge Turpo (10 August 2012). "Con modernos equipos le tomarán el pulso en tiempo real a tres volcanes de Tacna". La República. Retrieved 29 May 2019.

[FOOTNOTEMendívil_Echevarría196562-54] Mendívil Echevarría 1965, p. 62.

[FOOTNOTEMendívil_Echevarría196579-55] Mendívil Echevarría 1965, p. 79.

[FOOTNOTEZavala_CarriónSteinmüller19977-56] Zavala Carrión & Steinmüller 1997, p. 7.

[FOOTNOTECacya_DueñasVargas_RodríguezCruz_Pauccara201355-57] Cacya Dueñas, Vargas Rodríguez & Cruz Pauccara 2013, p. 55.

[FOOTNOTECacya_DueñasVargas_RodríguezCruz_Pauccara201369-58] Cacya Dueñas, Vargas Rodríguez & Cruz Pauccara 2013, p. 69.

[FOOTNOTECacya_DueñasVargas_RodríguezCruz_Pauccara20133-59] Cacya Dueñas, Vargas Rodríguez & Cruz Pauccara 2013, p. 3.

[FOOTNOTECacya_DueñasVargas_RodríguezCruz_Pauccara2013112-60] Cacya Dueñas, Vargas Rodríguez & Cruz Pauccara 2013, p. 112.

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-'''Casiri''' is a mountainous complex in the Barroso mountain range in the [[Andes]] of [[Peru]], about {{convert|5650|m|ft|0}} high, and is located in the [[Tacna Region]]. Casiri, also known as Paucarani, is a volcano consisting of four individual volcanic edifices with [[lava dome]]s; the southeasternmost edifice has been active during the [[Holocene]], producing thick [[lava flow]]s that have overrun [[moraine]]s of [[Pleistocene]] age and the youngest of which has been dated to 2,600 ± 400 years ago. Although no historical eruptions are known, the volcano is considered to be potentially active.
+'''Casiri''', also known as Paucarani, is an about {{convert|5650|m|ft|0}} high complex volcano in the Barroso mountain range of the [[Andes]], in the [[Tacna Region]] of [[Peru]]. It consists of four individual volcanic edifices with [[lava dome]]s; the southeasternmost edifice has been active during the [[Holocene]], producing thick [[lava flow]]s that have overrun [[moraine]]s of [[Pleistocene]] age. The youngest lava flow has been dated to 2,600 ± 400 years ago. Although no historical eruptions are known, the volcano is considered to be potentially active and is monitored.
-The volcano features [[geothermal]] manifestations and is linked to a larger geothermal field that has been prospected for [[geothermal power]] generation, and [[sulfur]] mines are found on Casiri too. Finally, the Paucarani [[reservoir]] that covers the bulk of Tacna's water supply is associated with Casiri; the [[Rio Uchusuma]] that flows through the reservoir originates on the volcano and the reservoir is located on the foot of Casiri.
+The volcano features [[geothermal]] manifestations and is linked to a larger geothermal field that has been prospected for [[geothermal power]] generation. There are two [[sulfur]] mines on the volcano, and the Paucarani [[reservoir]] that contains the bulk of [[Tacna]]'s water supply is associated with Casiri: The [[Rio Uchusuma]] that flows through the reservoir originates on the volcano and the reservoir is located on the foot of Casiri.
 == Name ==
@@ Line 23: / Line 23: @@
 [[File:Txu-oclc-224300691-se19-6 (cropped on Casiri).jpg|thumb]]
-Casiri is a {{convert|5650|m}} high{{sfn|Vela|Cáceres|Calderón|Chijcheapaza|2016|p=19}} [[stratovolcano]] with [[lava dome]]s{{sfn|Cervantes G.|Monge Miguel|2000|p=7}} close to the border between Peru and [[Chile]];{{sfn|Bromley|Thouret|Schimmelpfennig|Mariño|2019|p=4}} the volcano rises about {{convert|1050|m}} above the surrounding terrain{{sfn|de Silva|Francis|1990|p=288}} and has a volume of about {{convert|7|km3}}, with a diameter of {{convert|5|km}}.{{sfn|de Silva|Francis|1990|p=288}} There are four individual volcanic edifices at Casiri: three older ones that form a 5 kilometre-long chain, and a southeasterly younger edifice with a well preserved lava dome in its [[Volcanic crater|crater]]{{sfn|Vela|Cáceres|Calderón|Chijcheapaza|2016|p=19}} which is breached to the south.{{sfn|Bromley|Thouret|Schimmelpfennig|Mariño|2019|p=4}} An older lava dome also exists{{sfn|de Silva|Francis|1990|p=296}} in the western part of the complex{{sfn|de Silva|Francis|1990|p=297}} and the whole Casiri volcano has formed on the southern flanks of older volcanoes.{{sfn|Bromley|Thouret|Schimmelpfennig|Mariño|2019|p=4}}
+Casiri is a {{convert|5650|m}} high{{sfn|Vela|Cáceres|Calderón|Chijcheapaza|2016|p=19}} [[stratovolcano]] with [[lava dome]]s{{sfn|Cervantes G.|Monge Miguel|2000|p=7}} close to the border between Peru and [[Chile]].{{sfn|Bromley|Thouret|Schimmelpfennig|Mariño|2019|p=4}} There are four individual volcanic edifices at Casiri: three older ones that form a 5 kilometre-long chain, and a southeasterly younger edifice with a well preserved lava dome in its [[Volcanic crater|crater]]{{sfn|Vela|Cáceres|Calderón|Chijcheapaza|2016|p=19}} which is breached to the south.{{sfn|Bromley|Thouret|Schimmelpfennig|Mariño|2019|p=4}} An older lava dome lies{{sfn|de Silva|Francis|1990|p=296}} in the western part of the complex.{{sfn|de Silva|Francis|1990|p=297}} The whole Casiri volcano grew on the southern flanks of older volcanoes{{sfn|Bromley|Thouret|Schimmelpfennig|Mariño|2019|p=4}} and rises about {{convert|1050|m}} above the surrounding terrain.{{sfn|de Silva|Francis|1990|p=288}} The edifice has a volume of about {{convert|7|km3}}, with a diameter of {{convert|5|km}}.{{sfn|de Silva|Francis|1990|p=288}}
-[[Lava flow]]s, stubby{{sfn|Bromley|Thouret|Schimmelpfennig|Mariño|2019|p=4}} and thick from viscosity,{{sfn|Mendívil Echevarría|1965|pp=64-65}} originate in the younger edifice{{sfn|de Silva|Francis|1990|p=296}} and spread in several directions.{{sfn|Mendívil Echevarría|1965|pp=64-65}} The flows reach lengths of {{convert|2|km}}{{sfn|Vela|Cáceres|Calderón|Chijcheapaza|2016|p=19}} and are well preserved, displaying flow lines,{{sfn|Mendívil Echevarría|1965|pp=64-65}} levees and lobes;{{sfn|Bromley|Thouret|Schimmelpfennig|Mariño|2019|p=11}} on images taken from space they have dark colours.{{sfn|de Silva|Francis|1990|p=297}} Some parts of the volcano have undergone [[hydrothermal]] alteration{{sfn|Cervantes G.|Monge Miguel|2000|loc=Map4}} producing gray-white rocks{{sfn|Mendívil Echevarría|1965|p=57}} and [[clay]],{{sfn|Zavala Carrión|Steinmüller|1997|p=66}} and wind-blown ash covers part of the lava flows.{{sfn|Bromley|Thouret|Schimmelpfennig|Mariño|2019|p=11}}
+[[Lava flow]]s, stubby{{sfn|Bromley|Thouret|Schimmelpfennig|Mariño|2019|p=4}} and thick owing to viscosity,{{sfn|Mendívil Echevarría|1965|pp=64-65}} originate on the younger edifice{{sfn|de Silva|Francis|1990|p=296}} and spread in several directions.{{sfn|Mendívil Echevarría|1965|pp=64-65}} The flows reach lengths of {{convert|2|km}}{{sfn|Vela|Cáceres|Calderón|Chijcheapaza|2016|p=19}} and are well preserved, displaying flow lines,{{sfn|Mendívil Echevarría|1965|pp=64-65}} levees and lobes;{{sfn|Bromley|Thouret|Schimmelpfennig|Mariño|2019|p=11}} on images taken from space they have dark colours.{{sfn|de Silva|Francis|1990|p=297}} Some parts of the volcano underwent [[hydrothermal]] alteration,{{sfn|Cervantes G.|Monge Miguel|2000|loc=Map4}} producing gray-white rocks{{sfn|Mendívil Echevarría|1965|p=57}} and [[clay]],{{sfn|Zavala Carrión|Steinmüller|1997|p=66}} and wind-blown ash covers part of the lava flows.{{sfn|Bromley|Thouret|Schimmelpfennig|Mariño|2019|p=11}}
-Casiri is part of the {{ill|Cordillera del Barroso|es}};<ref name="Galloso2009" /> generally, the terrain around Casiri is dominated by various volcanic and [[Fluvio-glacial|fluvioglacial]] formations along with some [[moraine]]s.{{sfn|Mendívil Echevarría|1965|loc=Map2}}{{sfn|Cervantes G.|Monge Miguel|2000|loc=Map4}} The mountain chains Barroso and Huancune lie southwest and south from Casiri, respectively,{{sfn|Cervantes G.|Monge Miguel|2000|loc=Map4}} and the neighbouring mountains Auquitapie and Iñuma are covered with [[snow]].{{sfn|INGEMMET|2000|p=277}} Geologically, Casiri is considered to be part of the so-called "Paucarani Volcanics".{{sfn|Mendívil Echevarría|1965|p=64}}
+Casiri is part of the {{ill|Cordillera del Barroso|es}} mountain range;<ref name="Galloso2009" /> generally, the terrain around Casiri is dominated by various volcanic and [[Fluvio-glacial|fluvioglacial]] formations along with some [[moraine]]s.{{sfn|Mendívil Echevarría|1965|loc=Map2}}{{sfn|Cervantes G.|Monge Miguel|2000|loc=Map4}} The mountain chains Barroso and Huancune lie southwest and south from Casiri, respectively,{{sfn|Cervantes G.|Monge Miguel|2000|loc=Map4}} and the neighbouring mountains Auquitapie and Iñuma are covered with [[snow]].{{sfn|INGEMMET|2000|p=277}} Geologically, Casiri is considered to be part of the so-called "Paucarani Volcanics".{{sfn|Mendívil Echevarría|1965|p=64}}
 === Hydrology and Paucarani reservoir ===
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 === Human geography ===
-Casiri is located in the [[Tarata Province]]{{sfn|INGEMMET|2000|p=277}} of the [[Tacna Region]] of Peru;<ref name="Galloso2009" /> it lies about {{convert|100|km}} northeast from the city of [[Tacna]] and close to the border with Chile and Bolivia.{{sfn|de Silva|Francis|1990|p=288}} The volcano is situated north of the town of Paucarani;{{sfn|Cervantes G.|Monge Miguel|2000|p=7}} other human structures in the area south of Casiri are Calachata and Tulipiña. There are also numerous roads in the area,{{sfn|Cervantes G.|Monge Miguel|2000|loc=Map4}} including one which runs south of the volcano and reaches the Capaja camp to its west.{{sfn|Mendívil Echevarría|1965|loc=Map2}} The town of Paucarani can be reached from the highway that connects [[Tacna]] with [[Charaña]] in [[Bolivia]] and [[Villa Industrial]] in [[Chile]], through a secondary road.{{sfn|Mendívil Echevarría|1965|p=5}} The region is thinly populated.{{sfn|Cruz Pauccara|Flores Jacobo|Velarde Benavente|2020|p=11}} A [[rain gauge]] of the {{ill|Servicio Nacional de Meteorología e Hidrología del Perú|es}} was active there at {{convert|4600|m}} elevation from 1946 to 2003.{{sfn|Acosta Pereira|Cotrina Chávez|Peña Laureano|2009|p=29}}
+Casiri is located in the [[Tarata Province]]{{sfn|INGEMMET|2000|p=277}} of the [[Tacna Region]] of Peru;<ref name="Galloso2009" /> it lies about {{convert|100|km}} northeast from the city of [[Tacna]] and close to the border with Chile and Bolivia.{{sfn|de Silva|Francis|1990|p=288}} The volcano is situated north of the town of Paucarani;{{sfn|Cervantes G.|Monge Miguel|2000|p=7}} other human structures in the area south of Casiri are Calachata and Tulipiña. There are also numerous roads in the area,{{sfn|Cervantes G.|Monge Miguel|2000|loc=Map4}} including one which runs south of the volcano and reaches the Capaja camp to its west.{{sfn|Mendívil Echevarría|1965|loc=Map2}} The town of Paucarani can be reached from the highway that connects [[Tacna]] with [[Charaña]] in [[Bolivia]] and [[Villa Industrial]] in [[Chile]], through a secondary road.{{sfn|Mendívil Echevarría|1965|p=5}} The region is thinly populated.{{sfn|Cruz Pauccara|Flores Jacobo|Velarde Benavente|2020|p=11}} A [[rain gauge]] of the {{ill|Servicio Nacional de Meteorología e Hidrología del Perú|es}} was in use on the volcano at {{convert|4600|m}} elevation from 1946 to 2003.{{sfn|Acosta Pereira|Cotrina Chávez|Peña Laureano|2009|p=29}}
 The volcano is considered a potential [[tourist]] attraction{{sfn|INGEMMET|2000|p=272}} owing to its scenery.{{sfn|INGEMMET|2000|p=283}} It is also part of the {{lang|es|Monumento Natural de Paucarani}} [[geopark]]{{sfn|INGEMMET|2000|p=277}} and has been proposed to become a protected area.{{sfn|INGEMMET|2000|p=283}} The Paucarani reservoir also could be exploited for [[tourism]] purposes as well.{{sfn|INGEMMET|2000|p=277}}
@@ Line 45: / Line 45: @@
 == Geology ==
-The [[subduction]] of the [[Nazca Plate]] beneath the [[South America Plate]] occurs at a rate of {{convert|7|-|9|cm/year|in/year}}{{sfn|Bromley|Thouret|Schimmelpfennig|Mariño|2019|p=2}} and causes volcanism along the western margin of South America. This volcanism is distributed over three volcanic belts, the [[Northern Volcanic Zone]], the [[Central Volcanic Zone]] and the [[Southern Volcanic Zone]]. Among these, the Central Volcanic Zone includes the volcanoes of southern Peru,{{sfn|de Silva|Francis|1990|p=287}} a country with over 300 volcanoes. Of these, [[El Misti]], [[Huaynaputina]], [[Sabancaya]], [[Ticsani]], [[Tutupaca]], [[Ubinas]] and [[Yucamane]] have been active during [[recorded history|historical time]]. Geothermal manifestations such as [[fumaroles]], [[geyser]]s and [[hot spring]]s also occur in the country.{{sfn|Cacya Dueñas|Vargas Rodríguez|Cruz Pauccara|2013|p=8}} Despite the activity, volcanism in Peru is poorly known.{{sfn|de Silva|Francis|1990|p=287}}
+The [[Nazca Plate]] [[subducts]] beneath the [[South America Plate]] at a rate of {{convert|7|-|9|cm/year|in/year}}{{sfn|Bromley|Thouret|Schimmelpfennig|Mariño|2019|p=2}} and causes volcanism along the western margin of South America. This volcanism is distributed over three volcanic belts, the [[Northern Volcanic Zone]], the [[Central Volcanic Zone]] and the [[Southern Volcanic Zone]]. The Central Volcanic Zone includes the volcanoes of southern Peru,{{sfn|de Silva|Francis|1990|p=287}} a country with over 300 volcanoes. Of these, [[El Misti]], [[Huaynaputina]], [[Sabancaya]], [[Ticsani]], [[Tutupaca]], [[Ubinas]] and [[Yucamane]] have been active during [[recorded history|historical time]]. There are also geothermal manifestations such as [[fumaroles]], [[geyser]]s and [[hot spring]]s in the country.{{sfn|Cacya Dueñas|Vargas Rodríguez|Cruz Pauccara|2013|p=8}} Despite the activity, volcanism in Peru is poorly known.{{sfn|de Silva|Francis|1990|p=287}}
 === Composition ===
@@ Line 52: / Line 52: @@
 === Eruption history ===
-The [[Quaternary]]-age{{sfn|Núñez Juárez|Morche|Fídel Smoll|1997|p=12}} Casiri is one of the youngest volcanic systems in southern Peru{{sfn|Cervantes G.|Monge Miguel|2000|p=7}} with postglacial activity,{{sfn|Mendívil Echevarría|1965|p=28}} and Peru's southernmost [[Holocene]] volcano.<ref name="GVP" /> [[Holocene]] lavas sourced from [[fissure vent]]s{{sfn|INGEMMET|2000|p=4}} overlie [[Pleistocene]]-age [[moraine]]s and are uneroded;{{sfn|Mendívil Echevarría|1965|p=2}} [[radiometric dating]] on the volcano has yielded ages of 50,000 years{{sfn|INGEMMET|2000|p=270}} and [[surface exposure dating]] carried out more recently has found ages of 6,000 ± 900 and 2,600 ± 400 years for two dark lava flows southwest and south of Casiri's main summit, respectively.{{sfn|Bromley|Thouret|Schimmelpfennig|Mariño|2019|p=7}}
+The [[Quaternary]]-age{{sfn|Núñez Juárez|Morche|Fídel Smoll|1997|p=12}} Casiri is one of the youngest volcanic systems in southern Peru{{sfn|Cervantes G.|Monge Miguel|2000|p=7}} with postglacial activity,{{sfn|Mendívil Echevarría|1965|p=28}} and Peru's southernmost [[Holocene]] volcano.<ref name="GVP" /> [[Holocene]] lavas sourced from [[fissure vent]]s{{sfn|INGEMMET|2000|p=4}} overlie [[Pleistocene]]-age [[moraine]]s and are uneroded;{{sfn|Mendívil Echevarría|1965|p=2}} [[radiometric dating]] on the volcano has yielded ages of 50,000 years{{sfn|INGEMMET|2000|p=270}} and [[surface exposure dating]] has found ages of 6,000 ± 900 and 2,600 ± 400 years for two dark lava flows southwest and south of Casiri's main summit, respectively.{{sfn|Bromley|Thouret|Schimmelpfennig|Mariño|2019|p=7}}
-There are no reported eruptions,{{sfn|Vela|Cáceres|Calderón|Chijcheapaza|2016|p=19}} but activity may{{sfn|Mendívil Echevarría|1965|p=65}} or may not have occurred in historical time;{{sfn|de Silva|Francis|1990|p=297}} Casiri does feature [[hot spring]]s and [[solfatara]]s,{{sfn|INGEMMET|2000|p=277}} and has been classified as a latent{{sfn|INGEMMET|2000|p=182}} or potentially active volcano{{sfn|Núñez Juárez|Morche|Fídel Smoll|1997|p=34}} with a moderate threat level.{{sfn|Vela|Cáceres|Calderón|Chijcheapaza|2016|p=29}} In 2012, the Geophysical Institute in Peru announced that it would begin monitoring Casiri, along with two other volcanoes in southern Peru, with [[seismometer]]s.<ref name="Rivas2012a" />
+There are no reported eruptions,{{sfn|Vela|Cáceres|Calderón|Chijcheapaza|2016|p=19}} but activity may{{sfn|Mendívil Echevarría|1965|p=65}} or may not have occurred in historical time;{{sfn|de Silva|Francis|1990|p=297}} there are [[hot spring]]s and [[solfatara]]s,{{sfn|INGEMMET|2000|p=277}} and Casiri has been classified as a latent{{sfn|INGEMMET|2000|p=182}} or potentially active volcano{{sfn|Núñez Juárez|Morche|Fídel Smoll|1997|p=34}} with a moderate threat level.{{sfn|Vela|Cáceres|Calderón|Chijcheapaza|2016|p=29}} In 2012, the Geophysical Institute in Peru announced that it would begin monitoring Casiri, along with two other volcanoes in southern Peru, with [[seismometer]]s.<ref name="Rivas2012a" />
 == Human use ==
@@ Line 64: / Line 64: @@
 === Geothermal power ===
-The area of Casiri also features the Chungará-Kallapuma geothermal field, where about 50 separate vents occur along the path of the Quebrada Chungará and the Kallapuma River; they reach temperatures of {{convert|83.4|C}}. These phenomena appear to relate to the activity of neighbouring volcanoes, which supply the heat to the geothermal field,{{sfn|Cacya Dueñas|Vargas Rodríguez|Cruz Pauccara|2013|p=55}} while [[rainfall]] supplies the water and [[fault (geology)|fault]]s the paths for the ascending water; the hot springs are currently used as [[spa]]s by the local population.{{sfn|Cacya Dueñas|Vargas Rodríguez|Cruz Pauccara|2013|p=69}}
+The area of Casiri features the Chungará-Kallapuma geothermal field, where about 50 separate vents occur along the path of the Quebrada Chungará and the Kallapuma River; they reach temperatures of {{convert|83.4|C}}. These phenomena appear to relate to the activity of neighbouring volcanoes, which supply the heat to the geothermal field,{{sfn|Cacya Dueñas|Vargas Rodríguez|Cruz Pauccara|2013|p=55}} while [[rainfall]] supplies the water and [[fault (geology)|fault]]s the paths for the ascending water; the hot springs are currently used as [[spa]]s by the local population.{{sfn|Cacya Dueñas|Vargas Rodríguez|Cruz Pauccara|2013|p=69}}
 The [[geothermal power]] potential of the [[Tacna Region]] has been researched, partly because the Tacna Region covers its electricity demand with either nonrenewable [[oil]] or with [[hydropower]] (which is subject to climate variations). [[Mining]] is both an important economic resource in Tacna and a major consumer of electricity.{{sfn|Cacya Dueñas|Vargas Rodríguez|Cruz Pauccara|2013|p=3}} In the case of the Chungará-Kallapuma geothermal field, the capacity of a 75 [[megawatt]] power plant exists;{{sfn|Cacya Dueñas|Vargas Rodríguez|Cruz Pauccara|2013|p=112}} however, despite ongoing research since 1974 and a high geothermal potential, no geothermal power production has taken place in Peru {{as of|2013|lc=y}}.{{sfn|Cacya Dueñas|Vargas Rodríguez|Cruz Pauccara|2013|p=8}}

v t e Andean volcanoes
Northern Volcanic Zone (6° N – 3° S)	Paipa-Iza Romeral Cerro Bravo Nevado del Ruiz Nevado del Tolima Nevado del Huila Puracé Doña Juana Galeras Azufral Chiles Cayambe Reventador Pichincha Antisana Aliso Soche Illiniza Cotopaxi Quilotoa Chimborazo Tungurahua Licto volcanic field Sangay
Central Volcanic Zone (14°–27° S)	Quimsachata Auquihuato Firura Sara Sara Solimana Coropuna Hualca Hualca Sabancaya Huambo volcanic field Ampato Andagua volcanic field Chachani Misti Ubinas Pichu Pichu Huaynaputina Ticsani Tutupaca Yucamane Purupuruni Casiri Tacora Taapaca Parinacota Lauca Guallatiri Tata Sabaya Isluga Irruputuncu Olca-Paruma Aucanquilcha‎ Azufre Zapaleri Sairecabur Licancabur Purico complex Pacana Aguas Calientes Lascar Chiliques Aracar Socompa Llullaillaco Lastarria Lazufre Cordón del Azufre Galán Peinado San Francisco Cueros de Purulla Incahuasi Ojos del Salado
Southern Volcanic Zone (33°–46° S)	Tupungato Tupungatito Maipo Calabozos Descabezado Grande Cerro Azul Nevado de Longaví Nevados de Chillán Antuco Copahue Callaqui Lonquimay Llaima Sollipulli Villarrica Quetrupillán Lanín Mocho-Choshuenco Carrán-Los Venados Puyehue-Cordón Caulle Casablanca Osorno Calbuco Hornopirén Huequi Michinmahuida Chaitén Corcovado Mentolat Cay Macá Mate Grande Hudson
Austral Volcanic Zone (49°–55° S)	Lautaro Viedma Aguilera Reclus Burney Fueguino
Note: volcanoes are ordered by latitude from north to south